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This play is a Tudor interlude, a small piece of social commentary that shows the three tiers of Tudor society, the merchant rich in trade and public office, the knight of aristocratic birth and bravery in battle, and a rural laborer in the form of the plowman. The form here persists on screen, and either as serious commentary or comedic interlude such as the famous Class sketch.
The Class sketch defined on Wikipedia
The version below is as it was published circa 1522–1523, and includes the contemporary addition a Philosopher's Epilogue by John Rastell.
The Marchaunt O what a gret welth and prosperyte
It is to any reme where marchauntes be,
Havyng fre lyberte and entercours also
All marchaundyse to convey to and fro,
Whych thyng I have usyd and the verey fet found
And thereby gotton many a thousand pownd.
Wherfore now because of my grete ryches,
Thoroughowt this land in every place doutles
I am magnyfyed and gretly regardyd,
And for a wyse and noble man estemyd.
[Enter the knight]
The Knyght Maister marchaunt, I here you ryght well.
But now in presumpsion me thynk ye excell
To call your self noble in presence here
Iwys men know what your auncestours were
And of what grete stok descendid ye be
Your fadyr was but a blake smyth, perde.
Marchaunt Why syr, what than? What be you, I pray you?
Knyght Mary, I am a gentylman, I wold ye knew,
And may dyspend yerely five hundred mark land;
And I am sure all that ye have in hand
Of yerely rent is not worth five markys
Marchaunt But I wold thou knewist it, for all thy krakkys,
I am able to bye now all the land
That thou hast, and pay for it owt of hand;
Whych I have got by myn own labour and wit,
And that whych thou hast, thyn awncestors left it.
Knyght Yet art thou but a chorle, and I have skorn
Thou shuldist compare with me, a gentylman born.
Marchaunt Why, what callyst thou a gentylman, tel me?
Knyght Mary, I call them gentylmen that be
Born to grete landys by inhe
As myn auncestours by contynuaunce
Have had this five hundred yere, of whom now I
Am desendid and commyn lynyally,
Beryng the same name and armys also
That they bare this five hundred yere agoo.
Myn auncestours also have ever be
Lordys, knyghtes, and in grete auctoryte,
Capteyns in the warr and governers
And also in tyme of pease gret rulers,
And thyn were never but artyfycers,
As smythys, masonys, carpenters or wevars.
Marchaunt All that is trewth I wyl not denye now,
Yet I am more gentylman born than thou,
For I call hym a gentylman that gentilly
Doth gyf unto other men lovyngly
Such thing as he hath of hys own proper.
But he that takith ought away from another,
And doth gyf hym no thyng agayn therfore,
Owght to be callyd a chorll evermore.
But myn auncestours have giffyn alwey
To thyn auncestours such thyng as they
By their labours did trewly get and
For myn auncestours bildid howsis wher'ein
Thyne auncestours have had their dwellyng place.
Also myn auncestours have made tolis
To all maner crafti men belongyng,
Wherby clothis and every other thyng
Whereof thyn auncestours nede have had
With the same tolys have ever be made.
So myn auncestours have gyffin their labours
Ever to comfort and help thyn auncestours.
Knyght I denye that ever thauncestours of thyne
Did ever gif to the auncestours of myne
At any tyme any thyng except that they
Gaf somewhat therfor, other ware or money.
Marchaunt Mary, God a mercy, John, for that now --
That is evyn a pyg of our own sow
How can lordys and estatis have ought in store
Except thartyfycers do get it before?
For all metalls be dyggyd furst by myners
And after wrought by the artyfycers
Woll, fell, and every other thyng
That is necessary to mannys coveryng
And all other thyngis that men use and were
Is alwey made by the artyfycer.
Knyght I graunt that the artyfycers do make it,
But because comenly they have lytell wyt,
Gentylmen that have landys and domynyon
Of all such ryches have most possessyon.
For reason wyll ever it shuld so be
Wyse men to have folys in captyvyte.
Marchaunt Mary, as for wyt and subtell invencyon,
Myne auncestours wyth thine may make comparison.
For though my fader were a smyth, what than?
Yet was he a mervelous quyk wyttyd man,
And coud work as well for hys part
As any in this land usyng that art,
And devyse new fassyons in thynges that he made,
That every man to bye hys ware was glad;
And carve and grave in yron and stele
Both image and letters mervelously wele,
And ther on ley gold, and gylt it also
Fyne and pure as any gold smyth coud do.
My grauntfader also was a mason
Of grete wyt as any in thys regyon
And coud byld a castell and tour ryght well,
In whych some of thy kynnysmen now do dwell,
Wherein aperyth ryght good masonry
Wyth immagys and armys wrought curyously.
My grete graundfadyr, lo, was a wever
Of wollyn yarn and of other gere,
And made mervelous pleasaunt workis to behold:
Lynyn, dyaper, sylk, and cloth of gold,
All such subtell thyngis as I have rehersyd, lo,
Myne auncestours by theyr wyttis coud work and do.
And as for thyne auncestours, I know no thyng
Thei coud do bi their wittis worth of praisyng
But use, occupi, and wast evermore
Such thyngis as myn auncestours made before
And thou and thine auncestours, having thoccupacion
Of such thingis wrought bi the operacion
Of other men, oughtist not be praysed therfore;
But the prayse ought to be gyven ever more
To the artyfycer, whych by hys wyt
It devysyd and so connyngly wrought it
Wherefore, yf thou sey that wyt and polesy
Be the thynges perteynyng to gentry,
Thyn auncestours may never compare wyth mine,
For theyr actys prove them wyser than thyne.
For thyn dyd never no thyng in theyr days
Concernyng quyk wyt that was worthy prays.
Knyght Yes, iwis, lewd Javell, I wold thou knewist it
Myn auncestours have had more wysedome and wyt
Than thyne have had and coud do also
Many thynges that thyne coud never do.
For in the contrey at sessyons and syse
They have be electe to be justyce,
And, for theyer wyt and grete dyscressyon,
They have juggyd and donne correccyon
Uppon thyne auncestous - artyfycers
That have made false warys and ben dysseyvers --
And holpe for to maynteyn every thynge
That ys to the comyn welth perteynyng.
They have ben also in tyme of warr
Both in thys land and other contreys farr
Dukys and leders of the hole army
And, by theire wyttis and warly polycy,
Study, forecast, and dilygent travayle
Have won many a grete fyld and batayle.
And thyne auncestours that were there
Were never able to bere shyld nor spere,
And were never but soldyars and pyoners,
Nor never had wysdome to be rulers.
But because myn auncestours have ever be
Dyscrete and wyse, they have had auctoryte
Marchaunt Nay, nay, thyne auncestours cam never al
To auctoryte for wysdome princypall,
For though some were wise, yet some of them agayn
Had small discression, lyttyll wyt or brayn.
But because of the long contynuaunce
Of theyr grete possessions by enherytaunce,
By the folysh maner of the worlde, we see
For that cause ever they have had auctorite-
Knyght And I say that good reason agreth to it
For though the fader have no grete wyt,
The sone that is wyse shuld never the more
Lose hys land or auctoryte therfore.
For he that by study, dylygens, and payn,
Grete landys or possessyons doth attayn,
Hys owne lyfe is to shorte and to lyte
For to take the frute of his meryte.
Reason wolde therfore that after hys lyfe
Hys heyrs before straungers have prerogatyfe.
And the contynuaunce of such possessyons
Makyth noble men and gentyll condycyons,
And they whos blode hath long contynued,
As gentylmen so they shuld be honoured
And so myn auncestours long tyme have be
Grete possyssyoners and in auctoryte.
Therefore consyderyng my grete lynage
My blode, my noble byrth and parentage,
Thou art not able to compare with me
Nother in gentylnes nor in nobylyte.
[Here the Plouman commith in with a short whyp in
hys hand and spehyth as folowith.]
Plowman Now here is bybbyll babbyll, clytter clatter.
I hard never of so folysh a matter
But by Goddys body, to speke the troth,
I am better than other of you bothe.
Knyght Avaunt, kankerde chorle. fro whens commyst thou?
Plowman Mary, folysh pevysh daw, even fro my plow
How sayst, woldyst any thyng therewithall?
Marchaunt Ye, mary, thou lewyd vyllayn and rud raskall.
It is for the full yll besemyng
To perturb any gentylmens talkyng
Plowman Gentylmen. ye gentyl men? Jak Heryng.
Put your shone in your bosome for weryng.
I accompt my self by Goddys body
Better than you bothe and more worthy.
Knyght Avaunt, knave, get the out of the gate,
Or I shall lay my sworde on thy pate
Plowman That shall I prove, I make God avow,
Never in better tyme - have at the now.
[Et verberat eos.] (trans. And beats them)
Marchaunt Now holde thy hand, felow, I the pray,
And harkyn what I shall to the say.
Plowman Sey, knave, say what canst sey?
Marchaunt Holde thy hand, I pray the, and com no narr--
I am a marchaunt and no man of warr
Knyght Thou art not honest, I tell the playnly,
To make any quarrel here so sodaynly
To perturb our communycacyon.
Plowman Here ye may se, syrs, by Goddys passyon,
Two proude folys make a crakkyng,
And when it commyth to poynt, dare do no thyng.
Marchaunt Our commyng hyder and our entent
Ys not to fyght but by way of argument
Every man to shew hys oppinyon,
To see who coude shew the best reason
To prove hym self noble and most gentylman
Plowman By God, all the reasons syth ye began,
That ye have made therof, be not worth a fly.
Knyght No, syr? I pray the than, tell me why?
Plowman Furst, as touchyng noblenes, I say
Ther is nother of you both dyd prove or lay
Ony of your actys, wherby that ye
Shulde in reason prove you noble to be,
Or therby deserve any maner praysyng.
But all the effect of your arguyng
To prove your noblenes was but only
Of the deddys and actys of your auncestry.
And of the actys that your auncestours did before.
Ye ar the nobler never the more.
Knyght As touchyng my self, I dare make comparison
Of as noble dedys as he hath any done,
For I am and have ben one of the chevalry
At the commaundement of my prynce ever redy,
And every tyme of warr have be captayn
And leder of a thousand men or twayne,
And with hors and harnes, spere and sheld,
Have jopardyd my body in every felde.
And rentis of my landys have spende lyberally,
And kepte a grete house contynually,
And holp to ponyssh thevys and brybers alwey,
To the grete tranquylyte of my contray
And you, maister Marchaunt, wyl never take labour,
Except it be for your proffet and lucoure.
Plowman Go to, go to, now master marchaunt,
There is a reason that gyvyth you a taunt,
I trow, more than you can answere well.
Marchaunt Nay, iwys, pyvysh and rude Jak Javell,
I can make an answere so substancyally
Wherto nother of you is able to reply.
Knyght If thou canst answere my reason, do.
Merchaunt That can I well doo
Plowman Then go to, fole, go to.
Marchaunt I say the comyn well of every land
In fete of marchauntdyse doth pryncypally stand,
For if our commoditees be utteryd for nought
In to strange landis, and no ryches brought
Hydyr therfore, we shuld come to beggary,
And all men dryffyn to lyf in mysery.
Then we noble marchauntis that in this reame be,
What a grete welth to thys land do we:
We utter our warys and by theyrs good chepe,
And bryng them hyder, that grete proffet
And pleasure dayly commyth to this regyon
Too all maner people that here do won
Forthermore, ye see well with youre eyes,
That of straynge landis the commodytees --
We have such nede of them that be there--
That in no wyse we may them forbere
As oyle, sylkis, frutis, and spyces also,
Golde, sylver, yryn and other metallis moo,
All drammys and druggys longyng to physyke,
Whych men must nedes have when they be seke,
Whych in thys reame can not well grow --
Our contrey is to colde and not hote inow--
Without whych thyngis we shulde lyfe in mysery,
And oft tymes for lak of them we shulde dye.
And I spende my studi and labour contynually
And cause such thyngis to come hyder dayly
For the comfort of thys land and commen welth,
And to all the people grete proffet and helth.
And for such noble dedys, reason wyll than
That I ought to be callyd a noble man,
And nother of you both that here now be
In noblenes may accompare with me.
Plowman Now well hit! by Goddes body, well hit
Of one that hath but lyttyll wyt!
Answere me one worde furst, I pray the:
What is the noblest thynge that can be?
Knyght What saist thou therto thi self, let see?
Plowman Is not that the noblyst thyng in dede
That of all other thyngis hath lest nede,
As God which reynith etern in blysse?
Is not he the noblest thyng that is?
Knyght Yes, mary, no man in reason can that deny.
Plowman Well than, there is no reason therof why
But because he is the thyng omnipotent,
And is in him self so suffycyent,
And nedyth the helpe of no nothyr thyng
To the helpe of hys gloryous beyng;
But every other thyng hath nede of his ayde.
Milrchaunt Mary, that is very trough and well sayde
Plowman And lykwyse that thynge that hath most nede
Is the thyng that is most wreched.
So, suffycyency is ever noblenes,
And necessyte is ever wrechydnes,
And he, that hath more nede of that thyng
For the preservacyon of hys lyvyng
Then his felow hath, his felow must nedys be
By thys same reason more noble than he
Knyght What than?
Plowman By the same reason, it provith, lo,
Ye be but caytyffys and wrechis, both two.
And by the same reason prove I shall
That I am the noblyst man of us all.
For I have nede of no maner thyng
That ye can do to help of my lyffyng
For every thyng whereby ye do
I noryssh it and to you both do gyf,
I plow, I tyll, and I ster the ground,
Wherby 1 make the corn to habounde,
Whereof ther is made both drynk and bred,
Wyth the which dayly ye must nedis be fed.
I noryssh the catell and fowlys also,
Fyssh and herbis, and other thyngis mo.
Fell, herr, and woll, whych the bestis do bere,
I noryssh and preserve, which ye do were,
Which yf ye had not, no dowt ye shuld
Starve for lak of clothis, because of colde.
So both you shulde die or lyve in necessite,
If ye had not comfort and help of me.
And as for your fyne cloth and costly aray.
I cannot see whi ye ought or mai
Call your self noble because ye were it,
Which was made bi other menis labour and wit.
And also your dilicate drinkis and viand
Bi other menis labours be made so pleasand.
Therefore, mayster marchaunt, now to you I sei,
I can not see but I am able, and mai
Lyf wythout you or your purveaunce,
For of fode and cloth I have suffisaunce
Of my self for lyffing necessary
And now, sir Knyght, to you I sey playnly,
I see not that ye can any thyng do
For the commyn well, or ought longyng ther to.
But ech man, beyng in auctoryte,
Havyng wit, may do it as well as ye
Therfore, to spek now of necessyte,
Ther is nother of you both but ye be
In more nede than I; therfore I sey playn,
I am more noble than other of you twayn.
Marchaunt Now that is a folysh reason, so God me save,
For by the same reason, thou woldyst have
Everi best, fyssh, and other foule than
To be more noble of birth than a man.
For man hath more nede of bodely coveryng
Than they have, for they nede no thinge
The bestis have herr and also a thik skin,
The fissh, skalis or shells to kepe theyr bodyes in,
The foulis, fethirs, and so everi thing
Bi nature hath his proper covering,
Save man him self, which is born all nakyd,
And therfore he shuld be than most wrechyd.
Plowman Mary, no man can make a better reason,
For that is a sure and a trew conclusyon.
For if a child, when he is furst born,
Were not holp and coveryd, he were sone lorn.
He hath no strenght to help hym never a dell,
Yet bestis have power to help them self well.
So, consideryng manns body; in dede
A best is more noble, and man more wrechyd,
Because he hath nede of many mo thyngis
Than bestis have to help of theyer lyffyngis.
Also, man must dayly labour and swete,
To get hym sustynaunce, as drynk and mete;
The grownd he must dyg, and the bestis kyll,
For brede and mete his bodi to fyll,
Grapis, frutis, and herbis norssh dyligently
To make good drynkis to refressh his body.
But all brut bestis have coveryng natural,
Sufficyent to cover their bodyes with all,
And fynd theyr fode ever on the grownd redy
Without any payn, labour or study.
So everi man, by reason of hys body,
Is more wrechyd and in more mysery
Than bestis be. Yet this not wythstandyng,
Man is most noble of creaturys lyvyng,
Not by hys body, for that i-s impotent,
But by hys soule, beyng so excellent.
For, by reason of hys soule intyllectyve,
He subdewyth all other bestis alyve,
And compellyth all other bestis that be,
By hys wit, to releve his necessyte.
But bestis have no wyt them self to defende,
Nor can get no more than God hath them-send.
For take any best that weryth heer,
And do clyp it of bare agayns wynter;
That best hath no maner of polecy
To get other coveryng for hys body
Of cloth nor skyns, nor hath no wyt
To put it uppon hym thaugh one have made it,
Nor can byld no house nor kyndyl no fyre
To warme hys body yf nede shuld requyre.
But yet a man hath wyt and understandyng,
For to help hym self in every such thyng.
So man for his soule intellectuall
Is most noble creature of bestis all.
Marchaunt That is a verey good and pregnant reason,
Yet me thynkith thou makist a degression
From the argument that we furst began,
Which was to prove who was most gentylman,
Whych we disputyd. I wold thou haddist hard it.
Plowman Tussh, I hard what ye seyd everi whit.
Knyght Then shew thy reason therin or thou go
Plowman Nay, be God, I have some what ells to do.
I must go by me a halporth of gresse,
The spokes of my cart therwith to dresse.
Trowe ye that I wyll leve my bysynes
For your babelyng pomp and folysshnes?
Nay, by Sent Mary, I wyll not do so,
For I can now to the merket goo
And for an halpeny as much gresse by
As shall cost me in our town a peny.
And I tell the playnly without any bost
A halpeny is as well savid as lost.
Marchaunt Straw for an halpeny. therin is no wast.
Tary with us a while, perhapps thou mast
By our acquayntaunce now here get more
Than thou gatist with thi cart this monyth before.
Plowman Straw for thi councell, torde, a fart
Trowist I will gyf up my plow or cart
And folow thy folish appityte and mynde?
Nay, I am not yet so mad nor so blynd.
For when I am at my cart o
I am more meryer than other of you.
I wold not chaunge my lyf nor my lyffyng
For to be made a grete lorde or a kyng
There is no joy nor pleasure in this world here
But hyll bely, fill bely, and make good chere
Be it prynce, lorde, gentilman, or knave,
Hit is all the joy that here he can have.
But these covetous and ambicious wretches,
They set there myndys in honoure and ryches
So much, that they be never content;
So they lyf ever in payn and torment.
But a man that can this meanys fynd,
To have fode and cloth and a mery mynde,
And to desyre no more than is nedefull--
That is in this worlde the lyf most joyfull;
Which lyfe in this worlde no man shall acquire
Tyll he subdew his insaciat desyre.
Marchaunt I see well thou hast a curst apysh wit
Then yf thow wylt depart, I pray the, yet
Come agayn when thy bisines is doo
Plowman For what intent now shuld I do so?
Marchaunt For we will in oure olde argument prosede:
Who shulde be callyd a gentylman in dede,
And we wolde be glade to here thy reason.
Plowman I wyll come agayn uppon a condicion
That ye wyll wayt uppon me both twayn,
And be not out of the way when I come agayn
Knyght We wyll not be farr hens.
Plowman Then I wil not fayle.
Marchaunt Then I pray the let not thi promyse quaile.
Plowman Lo, here is my fynger, now trust me well.
I will come agayn yf I have my hele,
For, by God, I promyse you one thyng
I am as trew of my worde as the kyng.
But if I fynde you not here, then, by my trough,
I shall call you oppenly false knavys both
Marchaunt Thou shalt fynde us trew in every thyng
Plowman I thynk so, except lyeng and stelyng.
Knyght Then farwell for a season, a dew.
Plowman Then fare ye well both - 1 dare say, as trew
As some that be tyede at a post in Newgate. [Exit]
Marchaunt Well, now he is gone, God sped well his gate.
But what shall we do now the meane season?
Knyght Let us take now some recreacyon,
And come agayne here and kepe our poyntment.
Marchaunt Now therto I am ryght well content,
And in the meayn wyle, good Lord, of thy grace
Preserve all the people here in this place. Amen.
[Exeunt]
[Enter] The Plouman
Plowman Here I may walk and wander to and fro,
But 1 se not them whych 1 wold speke to
[Enter the Merchant and the Knight]
Marchaunt Yes, by the rode, here we be both twayn,
To whom thou dydyst promys to mete here agayn
To dyspute the questyon that we began
Whych of us coud prove hym most gentylman.
Knyght Thou seydyst thou hardyst our argumentes all.
Plowman So dyd I nother good nor substancyall,
For thy folyssh and pyvyssh oppynyon
Was, because of the grete domynyon
Of the landis and rentis wher to thou wast bore,
Whych thyn auncestours had long tyme before,
Thou thynkyst thy self a gentylman to be,
And that is a folyssh reason, semyth me.
For when Adam dolf and Eve span,
Who was then a gentylman?
But then cam the churll and gederyd good,
And ther began furst the gentyll blod.
And I thynk verely ye do beleve
That we cam all of Adam and Eve.
Then, to speke by reason, grete possessions
Make no gentylmen but gentyl condycyons.
That is the cause and best reason why
One shuld be callyd a gentylman truly.
And forthermor mark well this reason then:
If a mannis auncestours have be gentylmen
And verteous and good to commyn well,
That ought to be reputyd never a dell
To the prayse of the chyld whych doth refuse
Such good condycyons and the contrary use.
But he ought to be dyspraysyd the more
Because hys auncestours hath shewid hym before
A precedent of gentylnes and vertew,
Whych good example he doth
For the gentylnes of hys blode cler[l]y
In hym doth decay and utterly dye
So he that usyth condycyons verteous,
Though that hys auncestours were vycyous,
Ought not to be dyspraysyd therfore,
But ought to be honoryd and praysyd the more.
Knyght Yet me thynkyth more honor shulde be gyffyn
To hym whych ys of noble blood and kyn.
Plowman Then yf thou wylt loke honoured to be
Because of thy blod, then mark well and see
The vylyst beggar that goth by the dore--
Had ye not both one God and creature?
Ye cam of one furst stock and progenye,
Both of Adam and Eve, ye wyll not denye
The beggar and thou wer both, dowtles,
Conseyvyd and born in fylth and unclennes.
Thy blood and the beggars of one colour be;
Thou art as apt to take seknes as he.
Yf thou be in the body woundyd,
Thy flessh is as yll as his to be helyd.
Alas, I have knowen many or thys,
So proud of theyr byrth that all theyr lyffys
Wold gyf them to no labour nor lernyng,
Whych brought them to myserable endyng,
That in poverte wrechydly dyd dye
Or fallyn to theft and hangyd therfore full hye.
So I sey vertew and good condycyons than
Is that whych makyth the very gentylman.
And though the fadyr may bequeth to hys son
Hys ryches, hys land and hys possessyon,
Yet may he nother gyf nor bequeth
Unto hym in no wyse after hys deth
Hys vertew nor hys gentyl condycyons.
They can not descend as other possessyons.
And yf thou wylt be a gentylman, nedys
Thou must than use vertew and gentyll dedys
Knyght Why desyre men, then, prayse evermore
Of the actis of theyr auncestours done before?
Plowman One cause therof ys for lak of lernyng;
They perceyve not the reason of the thyng.
Another is because ther be many
That call them self gentylmen unworthy,
Whych lyfe voluptuously and bestyall
And do no good in the world at all,
But lyfe in pryde, slouth, and unthryftynes.
And because they have no maner goodnes
Nor properte nor vertew in them wherby
Any man shulde thynk them any prayse worthy,
Therfore they seke for commendacyon
Of the actys that theyr auncestours have done
Marchaunt Then I mervell men desyre to be callyd
Of the blode of them that excellyd
In worldly honour, as kyngis and emperours,
Where some were tyranttis, some were conquerours;
And few desyre to be callyd of their blod,
Whych have ben callyd just men, verteous and good,
And usyd indyfferent justyce and equyte,
Mekenes, abstynens or wylfull poverte.
Plowman Yf I shuld tell the the verey cause trew,
It is because they love no such vertew,
Whych vertew and gentyll condycyons shuld be
Longyng to gentylmen of properte
Knyght If gentyl condycyons be the cause, lo,
Then wyll I compare with both you two.
For I have usyd ever gentyll maner,
And so have myn auncestours that before were.
For furst of all when thys worlde began,
Long after ther were but few people, than
Men had suffycyent of every thyng
Wythoute gret labour for fode and clothyng
All thyng was in commyn among them, doutles,
But after warde, when people dyd omcrese.
Ich man to increse hys pleasure and volupte
Of goodis and landes desyryd properte,
Wereof grete stryf and debate dyd aryse
Then such as mine auncestours were that were wyse
Did studi to make laws how the people myght be
Lyffyng togedyr in pease and unyte,
And agayns enmiys alwey defendyd
The people that tyllyd the ground and laboryd.
The people perseyvyng than theyr goodnes,
Theyr gret wyt, dyscressyon and gentylnes,
Were content to gyfe them part of the pruffet
Comyng of theyr landis whych they dyd get,
As corn, catell, and such thyngis as they wan
But after, when that coyn of money began,
They chaungid those revenuse and were content
To gyfe them in money an annyell rent
So for theyr good and verteous condycyons
They cam furst to landis and possessyons
So possessyons began and were furst found
Uppon a good and resonable ground.
Plowman By Gogges swete body, thou lyest falsely;
All possessions began furst of tyrann
For when people began furst to encrese,
Some gafe them self all to idylnes
And wold not labour, but take by vyolence
That other men gat by labour and dylygence,
Than they that labouryd were fayne to gyfe
Them part of theyr gettingis in peas to lyfe,
Or elles, for theyr landis, money a porcyon.
So possessyons began by extorcyon.
And when such extorsyoners had oppressyd
The labouryng people, than they ordeynyd
And made laws mervelous strayte and hard,
That theyr heyrys myght injoy it afterward.
So the law of inherytaunce was furst begon,
Whych is a thyng agayns all good reason
That any inherytaunce in the world shuld be.
Knyght That is a shamefull opynyon, semyth me,
For when I have labouryd and by grete study
Gat and purcheysyd landys truly,
It is good reason that I have lyberte
To gyfe those landis to whom it lyketh me,
Or elles to let them descend lynyally
To my chyld or cosyn of my blod most nye
For inherytaunce must nedys be a good thyng
Because so much good therof is procedyng,
Every man to hys blod such love doth bere.
Because the land shall descend to hys heyre,
He wyll byld theron and the land improw
And make corn and grasse to encrese and grow,
Graft frute, set trees, and norysh tymber
And to incresse fyssh make pondys wyth water,
Stok busshis and wedes whych dystroy herbage,
And all baren ground bryng to tyllage,
And amend the hye wayes that be ther about,
And do many other good dedis, no dowt,
For the profet of hys heyrys that shalbe,
And for the commyn welth of his countre
Which thyngis surely he wold never intend,
Yf the land shuld not to hys heyre descend.
Plowman By thy reason no nothyr thyng is ment
But a good dede uppon an yvell intent.
When men for love or pryd do such good dedis,
The dyvell therfore shall quyt them theyr medys.
Knyght Whyder God or the devyll quyt them therfore,
Is now to our purpose never the more,
For theyr myndys and intentis no man can tell
But touchyng inherytaunce, thys I wot well,
Much good commyth therof and dayli doth grow
Plowman Nay, mych ill commyth therof, I shall prove how
For these men that be of gret possessyons
Unto theyr blod have such affeccyons,
Yf any land lyke them that lyeth nye them
Of theyr pore neghbors, they wyll distroy them
Or by extort meanys they wyll them compell
The land for half the worth to them to sell.
And when they lake money they wyl alwey
Ever borow and never wyllyng to pay.
And when they shall dye ye see thexperience:
Few of them have remors of consyens
To make any maner restytucyon
Of any land so wrongfully gotton
Knyght Thou hast spoke sore agayns gentylmen,
But what seyst thou of marchaundis then?
Plowman Many be go
And many charitable dedis they do-
Byld churchys and amend the hye ways,
Make almyshowsys and help many decays.
But sorne be covetous, and full falsely
Get theyr goodis by dysseyt and usury,
And when they have a thousand pound in theyr cofers,
They wyll rathyr suffer theyr neyghbers
To sterve for hunger and cold and to dye
Or they wyll gyfe to help them a peny.
And yet, more over, when any of them be
Promotyd to rule or auctoryte,
They dysddyn all lernyng law and reason,
And jugge all by wyll and affeccyon.
Marchaunt Thou art but a rayler, to speke so sore
Agayne gentylmen and marchauntis evermore
Be not plowmen and other that dryfe the cart
And such rusticall felows as thou art
Fals shrews, and lyfe as vycyously also
As gentylmen of landis and marchauntis do?
Knyght Yes, this vylleyn carters almost echon
Have nother conscyens nor devocyon,
For brybe and stele every thyng they wyll,
If they may secretly come theruntyll.
And as for prayer and dyvyne servyce,
They love them in no maner wyse,
Nor nevyr wolde labour nor work do
If nede of lyffyng drofe them not therto
Plowman Yet gentylmen and the rych marchauntis that be
Use mych more vyce and iniquyte
Marchaunt Why, thynkyst all marchauntis and gentylmen nought?
Plowman Nay, I sey not so, that is not my thought
I am not yet so folysh nor so mad,
For I know many good thougfl some be bad
Yet some wyll suffer hys dettis unpayd to be
And dye and jeopard hys soule, rather than he
Wyll any of hys landys mynysh and empayre,
That shuld after hys deth come to hys heyre
And some of them so proud be of theyre blod
And use small vertew and doo lytyll good,
But gyfe all theyre myndys and theyre study
To opprese the pore people by tyrrany
And some of them thynk thys for a surete,
It is the most honour to them that can be
To be able for to doo extorcyon
And to mayntayn it wythout punycyon.
Knyght Bi Goggis swet bodi thou art a stark knave,
Noble men and gentylmen so to deprave
Plowman What, thou proud horeson fole, whom dost thou knave?
I trow thou woldist a good blowe or two have
Wyth a good whypstoke to tech the curtesy
Knyght Avaunt beggerly knave, I the defye.
Plowman What, wylt thou wage battell by and by now?
That shall I prove strayght, I make God avowe.
Et hic verberat eos.
Marchaunt Kepe the peace, masters, hold your handys, for shame
To make thys besynes ye be gretely to blame
Ye wyll dysturb all thys hole company.
Plowman Nay, mary, it is a cause to make them mery,
To walke such a proude foole is but sport and game
Knyght By cokkys body, were not for worldly shame,
I shuld cut thy flesh or elles see thy herte blode.
Marchaunt Sir, hold your tong, your wordis be nothyng good
We lose here with thys lewyd altercacyon
Mych good pastyme and recreacyon
Plowman Why, what better pastyme her canst thou have,
Then to here one to call an other knave
And see such a proud foole walkyd with a whyp?
Marchaunt But I love it not; therfore, of felyshyp,
Leve thys brablyng and with good argument
Trye the matter that is most convenyent.
Plowman Nay, I wyll trye it how so ever he wyll,
Be it with wordys or dedys 1 wyll answere hym styll.
For, be God, yf he wyll not be content
To be concludyd by good argument,
I wyll conclud hym one way, or that I goo,
Or I shall prove it on hys pate, that shall I doo.
Knyght Thow spekyst lyk a clerk that hath lyttyll wyt
When a case is put, yf he can not soyle it
By no maner reason that he can ley,
Then wyll he answere hym thys wyse and sey,
"Beware what ye sey, syr, now I advyse you'
For it is treason or herysy that ye spek now,
To thentent to rebuke hym opynly
Before the unlernyd people that stand therby.
And yf he can no colour of such thyng fynd,
Then wyll he vex and chafe in hys mynd
And cast owt some lewd wordis of quarelyng,
To torn the hole matter to chydyng and fyghtyng,
And so dost thou now lyke one that were tnad.
Plowman Nay, I wold thou knewist, thou folysh lad,
I am nother mad nor dronken yet
For myn oppynyon I have well provyd it
By substancyall reason and argurnent,
That enherytaunce is not convenyent,
And shewyd better reasons than thou canst doo.
Knyght Nay, thy reasons may soone be answered unto
For God defende that estates of enherytaunce
Shuld be dystroyed, for by that good ordynaunce
Gentylmen of landes undoutydly
Brynge up theyr chyldren full honourably:
Some put to the scole to lerne connynge
To instruct the people in vertuous lyvynge,
Some made to be actyfe in marcyall dedys,
Able to defend the land when nede is,
And the rustycall people that have no land
Such thyngis be not able to take in hand.
Wherfore yf we shuld dystroy enherytaunce,
We shulde dystroy all good rule and ordynaunce.
Plowman But such men as have gret rentis and landys
And no estate but terme of theyr lyvys,
And every thyng theron wyll norysh and save,
For the grete zele and love that they only have
To the commyn welth of theyr contrey
And for God sake - lo, these people be they
That be worthy to have possessyons.
And such people of vertuouse condycyons
And no nother shuld be chosyn governours,
And thei shuld have landys to maintain their honours
Terme of theyr lyvys as long as they take payn
For the commyn welth; thys is good reason playn.
So that no man owght to have any land
But such as be apt and have charge in hand
For the commyn welth, as pryncys, and rulers,
Bysshoppys, curates, prechers, and techers,
Jugges, mynysters, and other offycers,
That of the commyn welth be executers,
And valyant men of the chyvalry,
That be bounde to defende the people dayly.
Such men as be apt to all such thyngis
Shuld have landys to mayntayne theyr lyffyngis.
So enherytaunce is not besemynge
To let them have landys that can do no such thing.
Nor I thynk it not resonable nother,
One man to lyf by labour of an nother,
For ych man is borne to labour truly,
As a byrde is to fle naturally
Nor a man ought not to have such lyberte
To lefe landys to hys chyld, wherby that he
Shall lust for to lyfe in slouth and gloteny,
Compellyd to do nought but lyfe voluptuously.
Marchaunt There is alway good remedy for that:
That is to compell them to do somwhat,
So that ych man havyng enherytaunce
Have some auctoryte and governaunce,
Wherein he shulde take payne and besynes
To constrayn hym to eschew idelnes
Plowman Then thys grete myschef shuld folow of hit
Oft tymes they shuld rule that have lyttyll wyt
Or disposyd to be proud and covetous
Or to lyfe after theyr lustis voluptuous.
Which, yf such men had auctoryte,
Many thyngis no dowte mys orderyd shuld be:
Where justyce shuld be, there wold be tyranny,
Where peas shuld be, warr, debat and envy.
So there is no good reason that I can se
To prove that any enherytaunce shuld be.
Knyght Yes, that shall I prove by good auctoryte,
For rede in the byble and thou shalt therin see,
God sayd to Abraham, "tibi dabo
Terram hanc et semine tuo.,
Whych is as much to say, to expounde yt trew,
'I shall gyfe thys land to the and thyn yssew'
Here is a good prove that it was Goddes wyll
That Abraham and his blode shulde continew styl
As possessyoners and have the governaunce
Of that lande as theyr propre enherytaunce.
Plowman Thou answerest me now even lyke a fole,
As some of these fonde clarkes that go to scole
When one putteth to them a subtyll questyon
Of phylozophy to be provyde by reason,
Whan they have all theyr wyttes and reason spende
And can not tell how theyr parte to defende,
Than they wyll aledge some auctoryte
Of the lawes or elles of devynite,
Whiche in no wyse men may denye
And yet ye knowe well that of phylozophy
The pryncyples oft contraryant be
Unto the very groundys of devynite
For the phylozophers agre here unto.
Quod mundus fuit semper ab eterno,
And devynys: quod in principio omnium
Creavit deus terram et celum
But thou dydest promyse openly, eyen now,
Onely by naturall reason to prove how
That enherytaunce ought for to be had
Marchaunt By Gogges body, syrs, I holde you bothe mad
Ye be lyke some woman that I knowe well,
When they wolde any matter unto a man tell,
They wyll tell twenty talys by the way
Nothynge to purpose to the matter that they
Dyd furst intend to tell and declare.
And in lyke maner now both ye do fare,
For ye dyspute now whytheyr enherytaunce
Be a resonable thyng or a good ordynaunce,
Whych is a matter no thyng perteynyng
To the questyon movyd at the begynnyng
For the questyon was whych of us all thre
Coud prove hym selfe most gentylman to be.
Knyght As touchyng that, we have all spoke and sayd
Ich man for his part as much as can be layd
Plowman Nay, I have yet reasons laft wherby I can
Prove my selfe of us all most gen
That nother of you both can voyde by reason
Marchaunt If thou have ought elles to say, now speke on.
Plowman Then to you both, answer me thys short clause:
ls not gentyll condycyons the most princypall cause
To make one to be a gentylman?
Knyght Paradventure it may be so, what than?
Plowman 'Paradventure,' quod'a
Nay, I shall prove that by examples many on:
For musyke makyth one a musycyon,
Grammer to be good gramareon,
And also geomytry a good geometrycyon,
And chorlysh condycyons a chorle for to be,
And so of every other estate and degre.
And where gentyll condycyons be, doutles,
In any person there is gentyllnes.
Than as vertew makyth a good man,
So gentyl condycyons, a gentylman
Marchaunt All those poyntys I thynk must nedys grauntyd be.
What arguyst more therof, forth let us see.
Plowman How seyst than to pryde, wrath, and envy?
Knyght They be nought and evyll, I thynk verely
Plowman What is mekenes, pacyens, and charyte?
Knyght Everychone a gentyll and good properte.
Plowman What is covetous and lyberalyte?
Knyght The furst good, the other nought, for surete.
Plowman What is gloteny, sloth, and lechery?
Knyght They be nought all, who can that deny?
Plowman What abstynens, good besynes, and chastyte?
Knyght Verteous and gentyll propertees they be.
Plowman Syth ye have grauntyd thys, I shall prove playn
I am a gentylman, so is none of you twayn.
Furst, for pryde, your rayment shewyth what ye be,
For ye wyll never be content except that ye
Have the fynest cloth and sylke for to were
Of oryent colours, and all your gere
So costly; your housys gylt gloryously,
As though ye wold therin your self deyfy.
Ye covet evermore goodis, landis, and rent;
What so ever ye get, yet never content.
Wrathfull, ye be movyd to anger anon,
And envyous, dysdaynyng every man
And as for me, I am content alwey
Wyth a pore cotage and symple aray.
I dysdayn no man and yet pacyently
Can suffer to be callyd knave and not angry;
Somtyme I call hym knave agayn in hast,
And when I have sayd, my anger is past.
Ye have your beddys so pleasaunt and soft,
Wherein ye ease your self to long and to oft,
Whych makyth your bodyes so tender to be
What ye can not endure labour lyke me.
Wyth no maner course fode ye wyll be fede,
But wyth pleasand wynys and most whytest brede,
Wyth flesh and fysh most dylycate and fat,
All frutis and spyces that can be gat.
And when ye have had such pleasaunt refeccyons,
To aswage your carnall insurreccyons,
What so ever she be - wyfe, wedow or mayde----
If she come in the way, she shalbe assayd.
Marchaunt Thou liest, sklanderours chorle, for I think of troth
Thou usyst sych vyse more then we both
Plowman Nay, by cokkys body, I use no sych lyfe,
For 1 am content wyth blak Maud my wyfe.
Trow ye that I care for these nise proude primmys,
These paintyd popagays that hold up their chynnys
And loke so smoterly, as who say they wold
Have every man woo them that doth them behold?
Tote, man, for all sych venerall werk
As good is the foule as the fayre in the derk.
Knyght Thou sayst trew -- drafe is good inough for swyne.
Plowman Yet thou answerest to no reson of myne.
Knyght Thy reasons all, ryght well answere I can,
For I sey it becommeth a noble man
To have rych apparell and clothyng
And goodly housys of costly byldyng,
And that ych man accordyng to hys degre
Be knowyn from other and what they be
For yf such costly thyngis were not made,
Work for pore peple coud never be hade
And many folkys than shuld fall to idylnes,
Whych is the moder of vyce and wrechydnes.
Plowman Ye, but I delyte noo sych vanytese worldly.
I delyte nother in sloth nor gloteny.
I dyg and delfe and labour for my lyvyng,
Never ydyll but somwhat ever doyng.
Dayly I ren and go bere, swete and swynk,
I ete broun brede and drynk small drynk,
Content with cours mete, what so ever it be,
So it quench the hunger, it suffysyth me.
These poyntes I use wych I have rehersyd now----
Be not these gentyl condycyons I pray you?
Marchaunt If thou use them, nede compellyth the therto,
For if thou coudist, hardli thou woldist other wise do
Plowman What I wold doo then ye can not tell
It is not to purpose, but thys I wot well:
Syth that I use my lyfe in such good maner
Whyth such gentyll condycyons expressyd here,
More then ye both do, styll contynuyng,
And syth that gentyll condycyons is the thyng
To make a gentylman, the cause pryncypall,
Wherin I use my lyfe most of us all,
Who can by any reason denye than
But that I am of us all most gentylman?
Knyght In feyth, yf thou be a gentylman therfore,
Thou art a gentylman agaynst thy wyll full sore.
Marchaunt Syth I see he standyth in his own consait so well,
That opynyon we shall never expell
From hym by no argument nor reason.
Therfore now for a lytyll season
Jet us depart from hym, I hold it best,
Then we shall have wyth hym some rest.
Knyght I agre therto, for Caton sayth this-
Contra verbosos noli contendere verbis.
Contend nor argu never in no matter
With hym that is full of wordys and clatter.
Marchaunt Wherfore for a season let us both depart.
Knyght I am agreid therto with all myn hart
Plowman Why, syrs, than wyll ye depart and be gon?
Marchaunt Ye, that we wyll; farewel for a season
For to tary here lenger we see no grete cause.
[Et exeant.] (trans. and exits)
Plowman Then fare ye well - as wyse as two dawys!
And I pray God sende you such grace both twayn
To be stark cokecoldys or ye come agayn
Now masters, they be both gone away
Therfore one worde, now harke what I sey.
We see well now by playne experience
When a man is set in a wylfull credens
All to fortefye hys owne oppynyon,
If God hym selfe wold than wyth hym reason,
In effect it shall nomore avayle
Than wyth a whyp to dryfe forth a snayle.
Therfore no remedy is that I can see,
For yvell men that be in auctoryte.
But let them alone tyll God wyll send
A tyme tyll our governours may intend
Of all enormytees the reformacyon,
And bryng in theyr handis the rod of coreccyon,
And the reformyng of injuryes them self see,
And wyll sey precysely,'thus it shall be'.
For exortacyons, techyng, and prechyng,
Gestyng, and raylyng, they mend no thyng.
For the amendement of the world is not in me.
Nor all the grete argumentes that we thre
Have made syth we resonyd here togedyr
Do not prevayle the weyght of a fe
For the helpyng of any thyng that is amy
We can not help it, then syth it so is,
I wyll let the world wagg and home wyll I goo
And dryf the plowgh as I was wont to do,
And praye God send us peas I wyll no farr mell,
Therfore, masters all, now fare ye well.
[Exit]
[Hic miles et mercator iterum intrant.] (trans. Here the soldier and the merchant enter again.)
Knyght Now, by my troth, I am glad that he is gon.
Marchaunt And so am I, by swete Seynt John
I hard not a chorll thys sevyn yere
Shew so curst reasons as he hath don here
For the mayntenaunce of hys oppynyon.
Yet he hys dyssevyd for all hys reason,
For it is necessary that rulers be
To have possessyons to mayntayn theyr degre;
And those few to dryfe the multytude all
Of the other people to labour to fall.
For yf the rulers drof them not therto
The peple wold be ydyll and nothyng doo.
Knyght And most reason is that governaunce
Shuld come to such rulers by inherytaunce,
Rather than to have them chose by eleccyon,
Oft tymys by drede, mede and affeccyon,
Men of evyll conscyens that grete tyrauntys be.
Rede old cronyclys, the prove ye shall see.
And though they hafe grete wyt and lernyng,
Yet so proud they be therof, they fere nothyng,
Nother God nor man, but evermore styll
Without councell or advyse folow theyr own wyll.
But th[e]y that by enherytaunce rulers be,
Though they have no grete lernyng, yet we see
Yt makyth them more ferefull and better content
To folow wyse mens councell and advysement.
And syth that yt hath ben so long contynuyd
Enherytours to have rule, and so long usyd,
And that they have rulyd by as good dyscressyon
As the other that have be chose by eleccyon,
If that order of rule by successyon of blode
Shuld be dystroyd, it shuld doo hurte and no good.
Marchaunt That reason is so grete no man can debarr.
Neverthelas that churllysh knave, that cartar,
After hys fond oppynyon thynkyth thus
Hym selfe more gentylman than any of us.
Knyght And therin he lyeth, for by experiens we see
That gentyll condycyons most commenly be
In them that be of noble blode borne
For take twenty carters wych never were beforne
Aquayntyd, let them be togyder;
Take twenty straynge gentylmen in lyke maner;
These churllysh carters, I dare well say,
Wyll not agre togeder skant one day
Without chydyng, quarellyng or fyghtyng.
Ychone wyll stele from other and be pykyng
And stryfe whych of them at the skot shall pay lest
And indever them who can play the knave best.
But these gentylmen, I warant you, wyll study
Who can shew to other most curtesey
And of theyr gentylnes wyll profer to pay
For the other and shew what pleasurs they may.
So, touchyng gentylnes, I say surely
Men of grete byrth use it most commynly.
Marchaunt There can be no truer sayng nor sentence
And the cause therof we see by experience,
For these pore wreches that have nothyng
Must be nygardys, churlysh and spayryng.
But gentylmen be taught to be lyberall,
And so they may be, for they have wherewithall.
Knyght And as touchyng noblenes, that argument
Whych the plowman rnade late provyth evydent
That gentylmen borne to land must nedys be
For suffycyency of most nobylyte.
For besyde Goddys gyftys of grace and of nature,
As wyt and bodely stryngth, yet they be sure
Of other ryches, as of land and rent,
To avoyd nede, so they be more suffycyent
Of them self than other pore people doutles.
Then yf nede of straunge helpe cause wrechydnes,
And suffysauns be cause of nobylyte,
Men born to gret landys must nedys most noble be,
For it is impossyble that noblenes
Be in them whych lyve in nede and wrechydnes.
Marchaunt A better reasone no man can devyse.
And yet, forthermore, I thynk lykewyse
He that hath grete haboundaunce of ryches
May use lyberalyte and gentylnes.
And also it is ever necessary
That some lyfe in welth and some in mysery.
And let churllys bable and say what they wyll,
Hit hath ben so ever and wyll be so styll,
For it is almyghty Goddys purveaunce
Wyse men of folys to have the governaunce.
And they that rule well, I besech Jhesu
Send them good lyfe and long to contynew. Amen
[Enter the Phylosopher]
Phylosopher Ye soferayns all, dyscrete and excellent,
Before whom thys dyalog shewyd hath be,
Touchyng thre poyntys by wey of argument--
Furst what is gentylnes and what nobylyte,
And who shuld be chose to hye auctoryte--
Thys questyouns they be so hye and sottell
Few dare presume to dyffyne them well
Yet I thynk now, under your coreccyons,
The thyng that makyth a gentylman to be
Ys but vertew and gentyll condycyons,
Whych as well in pore men oft tymes we se
As in men of grete byrth or hye degre
And also vycious and churlyssh condycyons
May be in men born to grete possessyons.
And forther, as touchyng nobylyte,
Yet standyth much part I thynk doutles
In suffycyencye, reason doth agre;
But that suffysaunce makyng noblenes
Must nedys be annexid unto goodnes,
For suffysauns is not the cause pryncypall
That God is noble, but hys goodnes wythall.
So vertue is ever the thyng pryncypall
That gentylnes and noblenes doth insue.
Then these hedys, rulers, and governours all
Shuld come therto be cause of theyr vertue,
And in auctoryte they ought not contynue
Except they be good men, dyscrete and wyse,
And have a love and zele unto justyce.
Wherfore, sovereyns, all that here present be,
Now marke well these reasons here brought in
Both agayns men of hye and of low degre
for thys intent only - to rebuke syn.
For the best wey that is for one to begyn
To convert the people by exortacyon
Ys to perswade them by naturall reason.
For when that a man by hys owne reason
Juggyth hym selfe for to offend,
That grudgyth his conscyens and gyffyth compuncyon
In to hys herte to cause hym amend
But such blynd bestis that wyl not intend
To here no good councell nor reason
Ought by the law to have sharp coreccyon.
But then yf the laws be not suffycyent
Whych have be made and ordeynyd before
To gyfe therfore condygne ponyshment,
The pryncys and governours be bound evermore
To cause new laws to be made therfore,
And to put such men in auctoryte
That good men, just and indyfferent, be.
But because that men of nature evermore
Be frayle and folowyng sensualyte,
Yt is impossyble in a maner therfore
For any governours that be in auctoryte
At all tymys just and indyfferent to be,
Except they be brydelyd and therto compellyd
By some strayt laws for them devysyd,
As thus, that no man such rome ocupye
But certayn yerys and than to be removyd;
Yet that whyle bound to attend dylygently,
And yf he offend and surely provyd,
Wythout any favour that he be ponysshyd.
For the ponysshment of a juge or offycer
Doth more good than of thousand other.
And untyll that such orders be devysyd
Substauncyally, and put in execucyon,
Loke never to see the world amended
Nor of the gret myschefes the reformacion.
But they that be bounde to see the thynges done,
I pray God of his grace put in theyr myndys
To reforme shortly such thynges amys.
And though that I my selfe now percase
Thus myn oppynyon have publysshed,
Or any of my felowes here in this place,
In any poynt here have us abused,
We beseche you to holde us excused
And so the auctour hereof requyreth you all,
And thus I commyt you to God eternall. Amen.
JOHANES RASTELL ME FIERI FECIT (trans. John Rastell caused me to be printed)
CUM PRIVILEGIO REGALI (trans. With The King’s Permission)