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Confucianism arose in the tumultuous VI century AC, a century that, with a possible exception of IV century AD, is unmatched in its influence on all that is to come.
In Europe, the Hellenic thought, which will reach the zenith through the works of Plato, arises with the thinkers such as Thales of Miletus and Pythagoras — ‘the first philosopher.’
In the the Middle East the Jews are undergoing the Babylonian enslavement during which, through the contact with the oldest monotheistic religion — Zoroastrianism, they fundamentally change myths, beliefs, and practices of Judaism. Cyrus the Great — ‘King of Kings and King of the Four Corners of the World’ — unites the whole region under Achaemenid Empire. Zoroastrism flourishes and spreads to all corners of the world.
In India, the Vedic religion and the social order established thereon is in crisis. The first Upanishads are written. Śramaṇa movement, though Buddha and Mahavira, gives birth to Buddhism and Jainism.
In China, by now ancient Zhou dynasty(1) is in disarray. The royal authority over the myriad feudal states has eroded. The feudal lords are defying the royal court at Luoyang and obtaining de facto autonomy which leas to ever increasing warfare between newly independent states. The scale and intensity of conflicts increases through Spring and Autumn(2) and Warring States(3) periods culminating with the dissolution of Zhou and establishment of Qin. Out of the urgent need to respond to the rapid decline, the Hundred Schools of Thought (諸子百家) arise.
The essence of each school, be it religious, philosophical, political, or scientific, lies in its relation to the Zhou culture and the remedy it provides for the culture’s decline.
All schools referred to their teachings as daos. Generally, dao can be understood to be a teaching, skill, or recipe that is key to some arena of action, be it self-perfection, art, etc. In this sense it can be compared with the Indian concept of Dharma (धर्म). Daoists use it to denote the ‘eternally nameless’ and indescribable cosmic order that they called the Great Dao. In this sense it is similar to Greek λόγος and, indeed, the Christian translations use it in its stead.
For confucians, Dao seems to represent a holistic guiding moral order. Like daoists, the confucians treat Dao as indefinitable. Hanfeizi(12) said: ”As for what Dao is, it is undefined and unshaped, it yealds with the times, it and the order of things correspond to each other.”
Consistent with the general notion of Chinese thought as a ‘learning of life,’ the nature of Dao is dynamic. It is a was simultaneously followed and extended by the great sages. Confucious said: ”People are able to broaden the Dao, it is not the Dao which broadens people.”
The earliest known forms of the ideogram include elements showing a fast, crossroads and an eye decorated with an elaborate eyebrow, an element that represents the word for head, ‘shou’ (首). The head element may have served to indicate an early use connected with magical incantations and dances performed by a shaman as he purified a pathway to be used in a religious procession. If so, then from this pathway connection, the word dao derives its modern meaning of a path or way; from the formula of the dance, the word derives the meaning of “formula” or “method;” from the spoken element of the incantation, the word derives the meaning of “a teaching” and also serves as a verb “to speak.”
The meaning of De varies considerably with context. In general, it denotes the cultivation of Dao and various manifestations (powers) that come from following it. It can be compared with the Greek ἀρετή. Daoists use it to denote power acquired through self-cultivation. Confucians use it to denote a person’s moral disposition and in this sense it is best understood as both as virtue and as a transformative compelling moral force. Confucius said: ”Set your aspirations on the Dap, hold to virtue (De), rely on your humaneness (Ren), and relax in the study of the arts.” Confucians frequently contrast De with physical power. Xunzi said: ”The superior person uses moral power (De); the petty person uses physical power.”
Supreme omnipotent, all-good diety that has a special interest in the welfare of China. Almost all schools accepted that existence of some diety that influenced the human realm. Mohists were very instant on the omnipotence of Heaven and its active interest in human affairs. In contrast, confucians saw Heaven as less of a sentient diety and more as the unmotivated cosmic order. While daoists too speak of Heaven, it is unclear whether they are refering to a diety, nature as a whole, or an immage of the Great Dao.
The original character appears to have pictured a costumed dancer. Chinese believe that the patterns of civilization had been initially inspired by the patterns of the Heaven and the seasons. For Daoists, these patterns symbolized peoples fall from their origins in the Great Dao; unable to comprehend the Dao, people have focused on its lesser manifestations. For Confucians, Wen is the underlying framework of ritual and proper conduct (Li). The Heaven-inspired styles and patterns represent a Heaven-ordained destiny of people to join with both Heaven and Earth by establishing order within their own sphere of existence.
The most common meaning of Ming is command or order - ‘that which is ordained.’ Ming is not static, it takes into account random forces of circumstance and is in that sense similar to Roman fortuna. Related to the individual person, Ming is related to human limits and the notion of ‘lifespan.’ Ones Ming or lifespan cannot be extended regardless of ones actions. It can, however, be shortened trough reckless behaviour.
Like, for example, Ancient Egyptians, Chinese thought that thinking takes place in the hearth and not the brain. Xin refers both to the function of our minds as a cognitive, reasoning organ and its function as an emotionally responsive organ. Xin thinks rationally, feels emotionally, passes value judgments on the objects of thought and feeling, and initiates instinctive responses. Unlike most modern concepts of the mind, Xin is more embodied and its identification with the heart as an organ is not purely symbolic.
The main goal of Confucius’s teaching is establishing a harmonious society organized within a unified country. Having witnessed the dissolution of the Zhou and the corruption and decadence of its aristocracy, he understood that the existing social norms and institutions could no longer provide a foundation for a desirable society. Instead of the traditions and customs of, by now failing, aristocracy, he put forth the idea of Ren as the fundamental concept around which the society is to be ordered. It will be this ethical idea that will lead Confucius to restructure society on the basis of morality rather than heredity. This concept of virtue will be the pillar around which Confucianism will form and will be the source from which the myriad other concepts such as ritual propriety (Li), righteousness (Yi), etc., will be (re)defined.
Central term of Confucius’s teaching. Ren can be viewed as both a duty and earnest desire to do act, both actively and passively, for the well-being of others. It is a ‘comprehensive virtue’ in which all other virtues are rooted. Confucious said: ”...the man of perfect virtue (Ren), wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others. To be able to judge of others by what is nigh in ourselves - this may be called the art of virtue.” The term is often paired with love (愛). ”Fan Chi asked about benevolence (Ren). The Master said,’”It is to love all men.’” Mencius identifies Ren as a central trait of personhood: ”To be Ren is to be a person. Dao is the doctrine that puts these two together.” In line with the Confucian view of men as a social being, the logogram of Ren (仁) is comprised of a pictorgrams for a person (人) and number two (二). This indicates the idea that a person develops virtue (Ren) through appropriate social interaction. Similar to how Latin virtus has a root in vir, Ren is thought to have originally denoted ‘manliness.’
Withing the Thundered Schools of Thought, commitment to ritual propriety was the unique characteristic of the Confucian school. By Li Confucius meant not only the religious ritual institutions of the Zhou, of which he was a master, but also political and social norms of Zhou as well as proper everyday conduct. Li is a manner of attaining full mastery of the pattern (Wen) of civilized behavior, which Confucius saw as the essence of civilization itself. The proper conduct (Li) and artistic forms were established (discovered) by ancient sages to as means to transform China from a brutish to civilized state. Confucius saw the mastery of these outer forms as a path to inner sagehood. ”Li are those meaning-invested roles, relationships, and institutions which facilitate communication, and which foster a sense of community... They are a social grammar that provides each member with a defined place and status within the family, community, and polity. Li are life forms transmitted from generation to generation as repositories of meaning...”
Confucius put great emphasis on the virtue of filial piety. A traditional cultural imperative, he raised it to the level of fundamental self-discipline and character building. Confucianism views Xiao as one of the foundatial principles of society and its effect on the Chinese society was much more intensive and all-pervasive than the similar concepts of Pietas erga parentes and εὐσέβεια in Rome and Greece.
Originally referred to an aesthetic or artistic appropriateness of appearance, Yi was an important concept for both Confucians and Mohists. For the utilitarian Mohists, the righteousness of an act was determined by its utility in the with regards to human welfare without regard for its aesthetic or ritual form, while for Confucians it is closely linked to ritual prescripts (Li). Specifically, it is a (developed) ‘sense of appropriateness’ and a moral disposition to do good. As such, it is an important complement to Ren, denoting morally correct action choices, or the moral vision that allows one to make them. Xunzi said: ”A person concerned with Yi follows reason.”
A person with Li follows ritual propriety, but is also prepared to depart from it when appropriate or when circumstances demand. Xunzi said: ”If it is not timely (Shi?) and fitting (Yi), if it is not respectfully sociable, if it is not cheerfully enjoyed, although it may be beautiful, it is not ritual propriety (Li).”
In ordinary usage, Shi means “time” or “season.” As Liyi expresses, a virtuous man does not blindly follow the rules (Li) but considers his actions in light of contextual possibilities presented by changing circumstances. Those circumstances are denoted by Shi. Confucious said: ”When the Dao prevails in the world, appear; when it does not, hide.”
An ideally ethical and capable person who embodies the Confucian teaching. Originally denoting the son of a ruler, Confucius transformed the term into an ‘ethical prince’ in line with his view that true aristocracy is the ‘aristocracy of merit.’ The hallmark of the Junzi are complete internalization of virtue (Ren) and righteousness (Yi), and a full socialization through mastery and command of ritual propriety (Li). Confucius said: ”The moral power of the exemplary person (Junzi) is the wind; that of petty person is the grass. When the wind blows over the grass, it will surely bend.”
A man who aspires to becamo a Junzi. Originally denoting a man of good birth, the term underwent the same as Junzi, making it associated with morals and merit rather than privileges of birth.
A frequent term in most of the schools of the Hindered Schools of Thought. The Sage is a model of human excellence. Originally, Sheng denoted a person who can hear better than an ordinary people and is related to the verb ‘to listen.’ The evolution of the term is clear: The Sage is one who can hear the Dao. Daoists often speak of the sages. For Confucians it is similar to Junzi albeit fuller; it entails not only the excellence of character but practical success in endeavours as well.
When Zhou founders overthrew the Shang dynasty they defended their actions by claiming that they were following the will of Heaven, They were given the ‘mandate’ of Heaven who wished to replace decadent Shang with a new era of virtue. Religious and political doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven was developed to justify the rule of the Emperor - the Son of Heaven. Unlike the divine right of kings (God’s mandate) of Christian Europe, the Mandate of Heaven does not grant the Emperor an unconditional right to rule. Rather, it incorporates the right of rebellion. If the Emperor is not a virtues person, the Heaven rescinds its mandate and can indicate such a decision by natural disasters and general lack of welfare. In such a case, rebellion is both justified and required.
The entire human realm. By the virtue of the Mandate of Heaven, the Emperor claims the whole world as his domain. Those who are not under the rule of the Emperor are considered tributaries or barbarians. The ultimate goal of good government is to ‘harmonize all under heaven.’
Confucius was asked what he would do if he was a governor and he famously replied he would ‘rectify the names’ to make words correspond to reality. This encapsulates the idea of of Chengming (正名) - The Rectification of Names. Confucianism teaches that the social disorder often stems from the incorrect use of names which impairs perception and hinder understanding and dealing with reality. To correct his one must ‘rectify the names.’
“A superior man, in regard to what he does not know, shows a cautious reserve. If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect.”
The prerequisite for correct living, learning, social harmony, good governance, etc. is correct terminology - things should be made to accord with the implications attached to them by their names.
The basis of education in ancient China were Six Arts (六藝) of (in decreasing order of importance): Rites (禮), Music (樂), Archery (射), Chariotry (御), Calligraphy (書), and Mathematics (數). Confucius said: “To educate somebody, you should start from poems, emphasize on ceremonies, and finish with music.” Music's connection with Harmony - Hé (和) - gives it the ability to model, influence, and intensify order, be it a particular person or the society as a whole. On the other hand, bad music lead to, and is a sign of, degeneration. Music is seen objectively good or bad and the Confucian standard for good music is twofold: connotation and beauty. Confucius stressed that music without good connotation should be excluded: “Once the music of Zheng(13) is popular, corruptions will be everywhere.” As for beauty, the music must be harmonious, smoothly continuous, and clear. The Chinese awareness of deep structural relationship between music, rites, and social order is also seen in the character for Rhythm - Jié (节). Over time, The Six Arts were replaced by The Four Arts (四藝): Qin (a stringed instrument; 琴), Qi (the strategy game of Go; 棋), Shu (calligraphy; 書) and Hua (painting; 畫). The foremost place of music corresponds to the Confucian emphasis on its transformative power to uplift and order, purify and elevate.
“Performing music clarifies the will; cultivating ritual perfects conduct. The ear and eye become acute, blood and bodily energy harmonize and balance, movements and customs transform and change, everything under heaven becomes tranquil, and everyone together enjoys what is beautiful and good. Thus it said: music is joy. - Xunzi
(1) Zhou dynasty (周), 1046 AC - 256 AC. The third and the final dynasties of the Ancient China. Succeeded by the Qin dynasty (秦) that marked the beginning of the Imperial China.
(2) Spring and Autumn period (春秋時代), 771 AC – 476 AC.
(3) Warring States period (戰國時代), 476 AC – 221 AC.
(4) Confucious (孔子), 551 - 479 AC. Born in the state of Lu into the family of lower nobility that traced it ancestry to the dukes of Song of Shang dynasty. Philosopher, statesman, and editor of classics.
(5) Mencius (孟子), 371 - 289 AC. The ”Second Sage” of Confucianism. Born in the state of Zou into the into the noble family that traced it ancestry to the Duke of Zhou, founder of Zhou dynasty. Notable for asserting people’s innate goodness.
(6) Xunzi (荀子), 300 - 237 AC. Arguably the most sophisticated and prolific thinker of Ancient China. Often juxtaposed to Mencius due his differing view of human nature.
(7) Shang Yang (商鞅), 390 - 338 AC. Prominent statesman, jurist, and philosopher bor into the ruling family of the state of Wey.
(8) Han Feizi (韓非子), ? - 233 AC. Important scholar of Legalism and author of the classic text that bears his name.
(9) Mozi (墨翟), 470 - 391 AC. Founder of Mohisam and author of the classical text that bears his name.
(10) Laozi (老子), 601 – 531 AC. Legendary sage and the author of Dao De Jing (道德經).
(11) Zhuangzi (莊子), 369 - 286 AC. Philosopher and mystic. Author of the classical text that bears his name.
(12) Hanfeizi. Student of Xunzi.
(13) The music of Kingdom oz Zhen was infamous for being sexually suggestive.
Gemtext version of 2019. notes.