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W. Edwards Deming

2009-03-24 21:20:26

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

William Edwards Deming (October 14, 1900 December 20, 1993) was an American

statistician, professor, author, lecturer, and consultant. Deming is widely

credited with improving production in the United States during World War II,

although he is perhaps best known for his work in Japan. There, from 1950

onward he taught top management how to improve design (and thus service),

product quality, testing and sales (the last through global markets)[1] through

various methods, including the application of statistical methods.

Deming made a significant contribution to Japan's later renown for innovative

high-quality products and its economic power. He is regarded as having had more

impact upon Japanese manufacturing and business than any other individual not

of Japanese heritage. Despite being considered something of a hero in Japan, he

was only beginning to win widespread recognition in the U.S. at the time of his

death. [2]

Contents

[hide]

o 2.1 Work in Japan

o 2.2 Honors

o 2.3 Later work in the U.S.

o 3.1 The Deming System of Profound Knowledge

o 3.2 Deming's 14 points

o 3.3 Seven Deadly Diseases

[edit] Overview

Dr. Deming's teachings and philosophy can be seen through the results they

produced when they were adopted by the Japanese, as the following example

shows: Ford Motor Company was simultaneously manufacturing a car model with

transmissions made in Japan and the United States. Soon after the car model was

on the market, Ford customers were requesting the model with Japanese

transmission over the USA-made transmission, and they were willing to wait for

the Japanese model. As both transmissions were made to the same specifications,

Ford engineers could not understand the customer preference for the model with

Japanese transmission. It delivered smoother performance with a lower defect

rate. Finally, Ford engineers decided to take apart the two different

transmissions. The American-made car parts were all within specified tolerance

levels. On the other hand, the Japanese car parts had much closer tolerances

than the USA-made parts - e.g. if a part was supposed to be one foot long, plus

or minus 1/8 of an inch - then the Japanese parts were within 1/16 of an inch.

This made the Japanese cars run more smoothly and customers experienced fewer

problems. [3].

Deming received a B.S. in electrical engineering from the University of Wyoming

at Laramie (1921), an M.S. from the University of Colorado (1925), and a Ph.D.

from Yale University (1928). Both graduate degrees were in mathematics and

physics. Deming had an internship at Bell Telephone Laboratories while studying

at Yale. He subsequently worked at the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the

Census Department. While working under Gen. Douglas MacArthur as a census

consultant to the Japanese government, he famously taught statistical process

control methods to Japanese business leaders, returning to Japan for many years

to consult and to witness economic growth that he had predicted as a result of

application of techniques learned from Walter Shewhart at Bell Laboratories.

Later, he became a professor at New York University while engaged as an

independent consultant in Washington, D.C.

Deming was the author of Out of the Crisis (1982 1986) and The New Economics

for Industry, Government, Education (1993), which includes his System of

Profound Knowledge and the 14 Points for Management (described below). Deming

played flute & drums and composed music throughout his life, including sacred

choral compositions and an arrangement of The Star Spangled Banner.[4]

In 1993, Deming founded the W. Edwards Deming Institute in Washington, D.C.,

where the Deming Collection at the U.S. Library of Congress includes an

extensive audiotape and videotape archive. The aim of the W. Edwards Deming

Institute is to foster understanding of The Deming System of Profound Knowledge

to advance commerce, prosperity and peace.[5]

[edit] Early life and work

Born in Sioux City, Iowa, Deming was raised in Polk City, Iowa on his

grandfather's chicken farm, then later in Powell, Wyoming. His father's name

was also William, so he was called Edwards (the maiden name of his mother,

Pluma Irene Edwards).[6] In 1917, he enrolled in the University of Wyoming at

Laramie, graduating in 1921 with a B.S. in electrical engineering. In 1925, he

received an M.S. from the University of Colorado, and in 1928, a Ph.D. from

Yale University. Both graduate degrees were in mathematics and mathematical

physics. Deming worked as a mathematical physicist at the United States

Department of Agriculture (1927 39), and was a statistical adviser for the

United States Census Bureau (1939 45). He was a professor of statistics at New

York University's graduate school of business administration (1946 1993), and

he taught at Columbia University's graduate School of business (1988 1993). He

also was a consultant for private business.

In 1927, Deming was introduced to Walter A. Shewhart of the Bell Telephone

Laboratories by Dr. C.H. Kunsman of the United States Department of Agriculture

(USDA). Deming found great inspiration in the work of Shewhart, the originator

of the concepts of statistical control of processes and the related technical

tool of the control chart, as Deming began to move toward the application of

statistical methods to industrial production and management. Shewhart's idea of

common and special causes of variation led directly to Deming's theory of

management. Deming saw that these ideas could be applied not only to

manufacturing processes but also to the processes by which enterprises are led

and managed. This key insight made possible his enormous influence on the

economics of the industrialized world after 1950.[7]

Deming edited a series of lectures delivered by Shewhart at USDA, Statistical

Method from the Viewpoint of Quality Control, into a book published in 1939.

One reason he learned so much from Shewhart, Deming remarked in a videotaped

interview, was that, while brilliant, Shewhart had an "uncanny ability to make

things difficult." Deming thus spent a great deal of time both copying

Shewhart's ideas and devising ways to present them with his own twist.[8]

Deming developed the sampling techniques that were used for the first time

during the 1940 U.S. Census. During World War II, Deming was a member of the

five-man Emergency Technical Committee. He worked with H.F. Dodge, A.G.

Ashcroft, Leslie E. Simon, R.E. Wareham, and John Gaillard in the compilation

of the American War Standards (American Standards Association ZI.1-3 published

in 1942)[9] and taught statistical process control (SPC) techniques to workers

engaged in wartime production. Statistical methods were widely applied during

World War II, but faded into disuse a few years later in the face of huge

overseas demand for American mass-produced products.

[edit] Work in Japan

In 1947, Deming was involved in early planning for the 1951 Japanese Census.

The Allied powers were occupying Japan, and he was asked by the U.S. United

States Department of the Army to assist with the census. While Deming was

there, his expertise in quality control techniques, combined with his

involvement in Japanese society, led to his receiving an invitation from the

Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE).[6]

JUSE members had studied Shewhart's techniques, and as part of Japan's

reconstruction efforts, they sought an expert to teach statistical control.

During June August 1950, Deming trained hundreds of engineers, managers, and

scholars in statistical process control (SPC) and concepts of quality. He also

conducted at least one session for top management.[10] Deming's message to

Japan's chief executives: improving quality will reduce expenses while

increasing productivity and market share.[1] Perhaps the best known of these

management lectures was delivered at the Mt. Hakone Conference Center in August

1950.

A number of Japanese manufacturers applied his techniques widely and

experienced theretofore unheard of levels of quality and productivity. The

improved quality combined with the lowered cost created new international

demand for Japanese products.

Deming declined to receive royalties from the transcripts of his 1950 lectures,

so JUSE's board of directors established the Deming Prize (December 1950) to

repay him for his friendship and kindness.[10] The Deming Prize especially the

Deming Application Prize, which is given to companies has exerted an

immeasurable influence directly or indirectly on the development of quality

control and quality management in Japan.[11][12]

[edit] Honors

In 1960, the Prime Minister of Japan (Nobusuke Kishi), acting on behalf of

Emperor Hirohito, awarded Dr. Deming Japan s Order of the Sacred Treasure,

Second Class.[13] The citation on the medal recognizes Deming's contributions

to Japan s industrial rebirth and its worldwide success. The first section of

the meritorious service record describes his work in Japan:[10]

The second half of the record lists his service to private enterprise through

the introduction of epochal ideas, such as quality control and market survey

techniques.

Among his many honors, an exhibit memorializing Dr. Deming's contributions and

his famous Red Bead Experiment is on display outside the board room of the

American Society for Quality[14].

[edit] Later work in the U.S.

David Salsburg wrote:

"He was known for his kindness to and consideration for those he worked with,

for his robust, if very subtle, humor, and for his interest in music. He sang

in a choir, played drums and flute, and published several original pieces of

sacred music." (page 254, The Lady Tasting Tea)[15]

Later, from his home in Washington, D.C., Dr. Deming continued running his own

consultancy business in the United States, largely unknown and unrecognized in

his country of origin and work. In 1980, he was featured prominently in an NBC

documentary titled If Japan can... Why can't we? about the increasing

industrial competition the United States was facing from Japan. As a result of

the broadcast, demand for his services increased dramatically, and Deming

continued consulting for industry throughout the world until his death at the

age of 93.

Ford Motor Company was one of the first American corporations to seek help from

Deming. In 1981, Ford's sales were falling. Between 1979 and 1982, Ford had

incurred $3 billion in losses. Ford's newly appointed Division Quality Manager

John A. Manoogian was charged with recruiting Dr. Deming to help jump-start a

quality movement at Ford. [16] Deming questioned the company's culture and the

way its managers operated. To Ford's surprise, Deming talked not about quality

but about management. He told Ford that management actions were responsible for

85% of all problems in developing better cars. In 1986 Ford came out with a

profitable line of cars, the Taurus-Sable line. In a letter to Autoweek

Magazine, Donald Petersen, then Ford Chairman, said, "We are moving toward

building a quality culture at Ford and the many changes that have been taking

place here have their roots directly in Dr. Deming's teachings."[17] By 1986,

Ford had become the most profitable American auto company. For the first time

since the 1920s, its earnings had exceeded those of arch rival General Motors

(GM). Ford had come to lead the American automobile industry in improvements.

Ford's following years' earnings confirmed that its success was not a fluke,

for its earnings continued to exceed GM and Chrysler's.

In 1982, Dr. Deming, as author, had his book published by the MIT Center for

Advanced Engineering as Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Position, which

was renamed Out of the Crisis in 1986. Deming offers a theory of management

based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for

the future brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs.

Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative

plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and

provide more jobs through improved products and services. "Long-term commitment

to new learning and new philosophy is required of any management that seeks

transformation. The timid and the fainthearted, and the people that expect

quick results, are doomed to disappointment."

Over the course of his career, Deming received dozens of academic awards,

including another, honorary, Ph.D. from Oregon State University. In 1987 he was

awarded the National Medal of Technology: "For his forceful promotion of

statistical methodology, for his contributions to sampling theory, and for his

advocacy to corporations and nations of a general management philosophy that

has resulted in improved product quality." In 1988, he received the

Distinguished Career in Science award from the National Academy of Sciences.[6]

In 1993, Dr. Deming published his final book, The New Economics for Industry,

Government, Education, which included the System of Profound Knowledge and the

14 Points for Management. It also contained educational concepts involving

group-based teaching without grades, as well as management without individual

merit or performance reviews.

In December 1993, W. Edwards Deming died in his sleep at his Washington home at

about 3 a.m. due to "natural causes." His family was by his side when he died.

[18]

[edit] Deming philosophy synopsis

The philosophy of W. Edwards Deming has been summarized as follows:

"Dr. W. Edwards Deming taught that by adopting appropriate principles of

management, organizations can increase quality and simultaneously reduce costs

(by reducing waste, rework, staff attrition and litigation while increasing

customer loyalty). The key is to practice continual improvement and think of

manufacturing as a system, not as bits and pieces."[19]

In the 1970s, Dr. Deming's philosophy was summarized by some of his Japanese

proponents with the following 'a'-versus-'b' comparison:

(a) When people and organizations focus primarily on quality, defined by the

following ratio,

Quality\ = \frac{Results\ of\ work\ efforts}{Total\ costs}

quality tends to increase and costs fall over time.

(b) However, when people and organizations focus primarily on costs, costs tend

to rise and quality declines over time.

[edit] The Deming System of Profound Knowledge

"The prevailing style of management must undergo transformation. A system

cannot understand itself. The transformation requires a view from outside. The

aim of this chapter is to provide an outside view a lens that I call a system

of profound knowledge. It provides a map of theory by which to understand the

organizations that we work in.

"The first step is transformation of the individual. This transformation is

discontinuous. It comes from understanding of the system of profound knowledge.

The individual, transformed, will perceive new meaning to his life, to events,

to numbers, to interactions between people.

"Once the individual understands the system of profound knowledge, he will

apply its principles in every kind of relationship with other people. He will

have a basis for judgment of his own decisions and for transformation of the

organizations that he belongs to. The individual, once transformed, will:

into the new philosophy without a feeling of guilt about the past."

Deming advocated that all managers need to have what he called a System of

Profound Knowledge, consisting of four parts:

1. Appreciation of a system: understanding the overall processes involving

suppliers, producers, and customers (or recipients) of goods and services

(explained below);

2. Knowledge of variation: the range and causes of variation in quality, and

use of statistical sampling in measurements;

3. Theory of knowledge: the concepts explaining knowledge and the limits of

what can be known (see also: epistemology);

4. Knowledge of psychology: concepts of human nature.

Deming explained, "One need not be eminent in any part nor in all four parts in

order to understand it and to apply it. The 14 points for management in

industry, education, and government follow naturally as application of this

outside knowledge, for transformation from the present style of Western

management to one of optimization."

"The various segments of the system of profound knowledge proposed here cannot

be separated. They interact with each other. Thus, knowledge of psychology is

incomplete without knowledge of variation.

"A manager of people needs to understand that all people are different. This is

not ranking people. He needs to understand that the performance of anyone is

governed largely by the system that he works in, the responsibility of

management. A psychologist that possesses even a crude understanding of

variation as will be learned in the experiment with the Red Beads (Ch. 7) could

no longer participate in refinement of a plan for ranking people."[20]

The Appreciation of a system involves understanding how interactions (i.e.

feedback) between the elements of a system can result in internal restrictions

that force the system to behave as a single organism that automatically seeks a

steady state. It is this steady state that determines the output of the system

rather than the individual elements. Thus it is the structure of the

organization rather than the employees, alone, which holds the key to improving

the quality of output.

The Knowledge of variation involves understanding that everything measured

consists of both "normal" variation due to the flexibility of the system and of

"special causes" that create defects. Quality involves recognizing the

difference in order to eliminate "special causes" while controlling normal

variation. Deming taught that making changes in response to "normal" variation

would only make the system perform worse. Understanding variation includes the

mathematical certainty that variation will normally occur within six standard

deviations of the mean.

The System of Profound Knowledge is the basis for application of Deming's

famous 14 Points for Management, described below.

[edit] Deming's 14 points

Deming offered fourteen key principles for management for transforming business

effectiveness. The points were first presented in his book Out of the Crisis

(p. 23-24)[21].

1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with

the aim to become competitive and stay in business, and to provide jobs.

2. Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management

must awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on

leadership for change.

3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for

inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product in the first

place.

4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead,

minimize total cost. Move towards a single supplier for any one item, on a

long-term relationship of loyalty and trust.

5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to

improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease cost.

6. Institute training on the job.

7. Institute leadership (see Point 12 and Ch. 8 of "Out of the Crisis"). The

aim of supervision should be to help people and machines and gadgets to do a

better job. Supervision of management is in need of overhaul, as well as

supervision of production workers.

8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company. (See

Ch. 3 of "Out of the Crisis")

9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales,

and production must work as a team, to foresee problems of production and in

use that may be encountered with the product or service.

10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force asking for

zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such exhortations only create

adversarial relationships, as the bulk of the causes of low quality and low

productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the work

force.

11. a. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute

leadership.

b. Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers,

numerical goals. Substitute workmanship.

12. a. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride of

workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be changed from sheer

numbers to quality.

b. Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their

right to pride of workmanship. This means, inter alia, abolishment of the

annual or merit rating and of management by objective (See Ch. 3 of "Out of the

Crisis").

13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.

14. Put everyone in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The

transformation is everyone's work. "Massive training is required to instill the

courage to break with tradition. Every activity and every job is a part of the

process." [22]

[edit] Seven Deadly Diseases

The Seven Deadly Diseases (also known as the "Seven Wastes"):

1. Lack of constancy of purpose.

2. Emphasis on short-term profits.

3. Evaluation by performance, merit rating, or annual review of performance.

4. Mobility of management.

5. Running a company on visible figures alone.

6. Excessive medical costs.

7. Excessive costs of warranty, fueled by lawyers who work for contingency

fees.

A Lesser Category of Obstacles:

1. Neglecting long-range planning.

2. Relying on technology to solve problems.

3. Seeking examples to follow rather than developing solutions.

4. Excuses, such as "Our problems are different."

Dr. Deming's advocacy of the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle, his 14 Points, and Seven

Deadly Diseases have had tremendous influence outside of manufacturing and have

been applied in other arenas, such as in the relatively new field of sales

process engineering[23].

[edit] Quotations and concepts

In his later years, Dr. Deming taught many concepts, which he emphasized by key

sayings or quotations that he repeated. A number of these quotes have been

recorded.[24] Some of the concepts might seem to be oxymorons or contradictory

to each other; however, the student is given each concept to ponder its meaning

in the whole system, over time.

know more, about everything in the system. It is considered as a contrast to

the old statement, "There is no substitute for hard work" by Thomas Alva Edison

(1847 1931). Instead, a small amount of knowledge could save many hours of hard

work.

important, long term, cannot be measured in advance. However, they might be

among the factors that an organization is measuring, just not understood as

most important at the time.

the greatest impact, long term, can be quite surprising. Analogous to an

earthquake that disrupts service, other "earth-shattering" events that most

affect an organization will be unknown or unknowable, in advance. Other

examples of important things would be: a drastic change in technology, or new

investment capital.

need to interpret and apply information against a theory or framework of

concepts that is the basis for knowledge about a system. It is considered as a

contrast to the old statement, "Experience is the best teacher" (Dr. Deming

disagreed with that). To Dr. Deming, knowledge is best taught by a master who

explains the overall system through which experience is judged; experience,

without understanding the underlying system, is just raw data that can be

misinterpreted against a flawed theory of reality. Deming's view of experience

is related to Shewhart's concept, "Data has no meaning apart from its context"

(see Walter A. Shewhart, "Later Work").

obtained, or data is measured, the method, or process used to gather

information, greatly affects the results. For example, the "Hawthorne effect"

showed that people just asking frequently for opinions seemed to affect the

resulting outcome, since some people felt better just being asked for their

opinion. Dr. Deming warned that basing judgments on customer complaints alone

ignored the general population of other opinions, which should be judged

together, such as in a statistical sample of the whole, not just isolated

complaints: survey the entire group about their likes and dislikes. The extreme

complaints might not represent the attitudes of the whole group. Similarly,

measuring or counting data depends on the instrument or method used.

measuring and testing to predict typical results. If a phase consists of inputs

+ process + outputs, all 3 are inspected to some extent. Problems with inputs

are a major source of trouble, but the process using those inputs can also have

problems. By inspecting the inputs and the process more, the outputs can be

better predicted, and inspected less. Rather than use mass inspection of every

output product, the output can be statistically sampled in a cause-effect

relationship through the process.

quality to be variations outside the control limits of a process. Such

variations could be attributed to one-time events called "special causes" or to

repeated events called "common causes" that hinder quality.

Deming stressed the importance of establishing a level of variation, or

anomalies, acceptable to the recipient (or customer) in the next phase of a

process. Often, some defects are quite acceptable, and efforts to remove all

defects would be an excessive waste of time and money.

the next action, the Deming Cycle describes a simple method to test information

before making a major decision. The 4 steps in the Deming Cycle are:

Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA), also known as Plan-Do-Study-Act or PDSA. Dr. Deming

called the cycle the Shewhart Cycle, after Walter A. Shewhart. The cycle can be

used in various ways, such as running an experiment: PLAN (design) the

experiment; DO the experiment by performing the steps; CHECK the results by

testing information; and ACT on the decisions based on those results.

automation gone awry ("robots painting robots"): instead, he advocated

human-assisted semi-automation, which allows people to change the

semi-automated or computer-assisted processes, based on new knowledge. Compare

to Japanese term 'jidoka' (which can be loosely translated as "automation with

a human touch").

emphasized that the top-level management had to change to produce significant

differences, in a long-term, continuous manner. As a consultant, Deming would

offer advice to top-level managers, if asked repeatedly, in a continuous

manner.

work together to try to accomplish the aim of the system. A system must have an

aim. Without an aim, there is no system. The aim of the system must be clear to

everyone in the system. The aim must include plans for the future. The aim is a

value judgment. (We are of course talking here about a man-made system.)" [20]

the Western world, components become selfish, competitive. We can not afford

the destructive effect of competition." [20]

transformation into a new style of management is required. The route to take is

what I call profound knowledge knowledge for leadership of transformation."

[20]

Management s job. It is management s job to direct the efforts of all

components toward the aim of the system. The first step is clarification:

everyone in the organization must understand the aim of the system, and how to

direct his efforts toward it. Everyone must understand the damage and loss to

the whole organization from a team that seeks to become a selfish, independent,

profit centre." [20]

that you get without new machinery, without new people. Anybody can produce

quality if he lowers his production rate. That is not what I am talking about.

Statistical thinking and statistical methods are to Japanese production

workers, foremen, and all the way through the company, a second language. In

statistical control, you have a reproducible product hour after hour, day after

day. And see how comforting that is to management, they now know what they can

produce, they know what their costs are going to be." [26]

they can just copy from Japan but they don't know what to copy!" [26]

the process?" [20] Dr. Shewhart created the basis for the control chart and the

concept of a state of statistical control by carefully designed experiments.

While Dr. Shewhart drew from pure mathematical statistical theories, he

understood that data from physical processes never produce a "normal

distribution curve" (a Gaussian distribution, also commonly referred to as a

"bell curve"). He discovered that observed variation in manufacturing data did

not always behave the same way as data in nature (Brownian motion of

particles). Dr. Shewhart concluded that while every process displays variation,

some processes display controlled variation that is natural to the process,

while others display uncontrolled variation that is not present in the process

causal system at all times.[27] Dr. Deming renamed these distinctions "common

cause" for chance causes and "special cause" for assignable causes. He did this

so the focus would be placed on those responsible for doing something about the

variation, rather than the source of the variation. It is top management s

responsibility to address "common cause" variation, and therefore it is

management s responsibility to make improvements to the whole system. Because

"special cause" variation is assignable, workers, supervisors or middle

managers that have direct knowledge of the assignable cause best address this

type of specific intervention.[7]

fundamental. That's not getting at change and the transformation that must take

place. Sure we have to solve problems. Certainly stamp out the fire. Stamp out

the fire and get nowhere. Stamp out the fires puts us back to where we were in

the first place. Taking action on the basis of results without theory of

knowledge, without theory of variation, without knowledge about a system.

Anything goes wrong, do something about it, overreacting; acting without

knowledge, the effect is to make things worse. With the best of intentions and

best efforts, managing by results is, in effect, exactly the same, as Dr. Myron

Tribus put it, while driving your automobile, keeping your eye on the rear view

mirror, what would happen? And that's what management by results is, keeping

your eye on results." [2]

on theory. Knowledge has temporal spread. Information is not knowledge. The

world is drowning in information but is slow in acquisition of knowledge. There

is no substitute for knowledge." [20] This statement emphasizes the need for

theory of knowledge (see: epistemology, Shewhart cycle, C. I. Lewis).

unknowable (Lloyd S. Nelson, director of statistical methods for the Nashua

corporation), but successful management must nevertheless take account of

them." [28] Deming realized that many important things that must be managed

couldn t be measured. Both points are important. One, not everything of

importance to management can be measured. And two, you must still manage those

important things. Spend $20,000 training 10 people in a special skill. What's

the benefit? "You'll never know," answered Deming. "You'll never be able to

measure it. Why did you do it? Because you believed it would pay off. Theory."

Dr. Deming is often incorrectly quoted as saying, "You can't manage what you

can't measure." In fact, he stated that one of the seven deadly diseases of

management is running a company on visible figures alone.

method, or process used to gather information, affects the results. Dr. Deming

warned that basing judgments on customer complaints alone ignored the general

population of other opinions, which should be judged together, such as in a

statistical sample of the whole (Sampling (statistics)). Changing the method

changes the results. Aim and method are essential. An aim without a method is

useless. A method without an aim is dangerous. It leads to action without

direction and without constancy of purpose. Deming used an illustration of

washing a table to teach a lesson about the relationship between purpose and

method. If you tell someone to wash a table, but not the reason for washing it,

they cannot do the job properly (will the table be used for chopping food or

potting plants?). That does not mean just giving the explanation without an

operational definition. The information about why the table needs to be washed,

and what is to be done with it, makes it possible to do the job intelligently.