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                       (Formerly "FACTS, FANCY AND OTHERWISE")






          It is well-known that the making of intoxicating beverages is  as
          old as recorded history, and probably a great deal older. In this
          treatise,  we  wish  to  present  the  easiest  method  to make a
          `produce' that is both safe and pleasant to  consume.  The  goal,
          naturally,  is ethyl alcohol,  or C2H5OH;  the only base or stock
          from which good drinking whisky and  other  liquor  is  made.  In
          fact,  ethyl  alcohol  rapidly  oxidises  in  the  body to carbon
          dioxide and water,  and no  cumulative  effect  occurs.  We  will
          attempt  in  this article to combine the most useful chemical and
          technological information with `homespun' procedures,  as well as
          trying to keep the data simple and understandable.  The text,  by
          the way,  is "Chemistry and Technology of Wines and  Liquors"  by
          Herstein and Jacobs (excerpts from this book are within quotation
          marks).






                                    ?  page 1  ?











          INDEX
          ~~~~~




          Subject                                                      Page
          ???????                                                      ????


          General Conditions of Alcoholic Fermentation .................  2

          Rate of Fermentation .........................................  3

          Alcoholic Yield and By-products of Fermentation ..............  3

          The Basic Batch ..............................................  4

          Distillation Theory ..........................................  6

          Cleaning the Still ...........................................  6

          Safety Precautions in Distillation ...........................  7

          Common Pot Still ............................................. 12

          Running the Still ............................................ 12

          Reflux Column Distillation Units ............................. 15

          Ageing ....................................................... 16

          Endnote - please read ........................................ 17




                    General Conditions of Alcoholic Fermentation
                    ????????????????????????????????????????????

          Fermentable sugar, water, the presence of a ferment (yeast) and a
          favourable  temperature,  usually  between  75?F - 85?F and NEVER
          over 90?F,  are inescapable requirements.  Concentration of sugar
          (2?  lbs in 1 imperial gallon) and yeast and the acidity or pH of
          the fermentation mash are of great importance.  The pH  range  is
          usually 4?0 to 4?5.


                                    ?  page 2  ?







                                Rate of Fermentation
                                ????????????????????


          The  rate  of fermentation depends chiefly on the temperature and
          the CONCENTRATION of yeast.  The rate of fermentation is twice as
          fast at 95?F as at 77?F.  "However,  the antolysis (decomposition
          of the yeast) is favoured by higher temperatures, and the rate of
          UNDESIRABLE by-processes increased;  hence,  it is usual  to  set
          90?F  as  the upper limit." (In other words,  it is definite that
          the higher we go above 90?F,  your  probable  loss  of  yield  of
          alcohol will be from about 25% to 50% because yeast cells die, as
          well as undesirable products increasing at higher temperatures.)


                   Alcoholic Yield and By-products of Fermentation
                   ???????????????????????????????????????????????


          [1]  The  overall chemical equation of the conversion of sugar to
               alcohol is:

               C(6)H(12)O(6)  ->      ?C(2)H(5)OH     +    ?CO(2)
               (Hexoco)               (Ethyl alcohol)      (Carbon dioxide)

          [2]  The weight of products  from  fermentation  of  one  hundred
               pounds of sugar is as follows:

                         Alcohol                  48?5 lbs
                         Carbon dioxide           46?7
                         Glycerol                  3?2
                         Organic acids             0?6
                         Miscellaneous             1?2
                                                 ?????
                                                 100?2 lbs

               The  extra  0?2  lbs  is due to the fixation of water in the
               formation of some of the by-products.

          [3]  In general,  the chief products of vinous  fermentation  are
               alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide  (94%  -  95%  of  the sugar),
               glycerol (2?5% - 3?6%), acids (0?4% - 0?7%), and appreciable
               quantities of fusel oils (higher alcohols), acetaldehyde and
               other  aldehydes,   and  esters.   The  minor  products   of
               fermentation are:

                    Formic acid         Acetic acid         Propionic acid
                    Butyric acid        Lactic acid         Ethyl Butyrate
                    Ethyl Acetate       Ethyl caprate



                                    ?  page 3  ?







          [4]  Very  little  methyl  alcohol is found in grape wine,  about
               0?15%. Methyl alcohol is NOT produced by the fermentation of
               pure sugar,  its sole source appears to be the hydrolysis of
               pectins.  Pectins  are  found  in grapes,  commercial orange
               juice and other fruits.  The addition  of  several  cans  of
               orange  juice  is not necessary and may,  in fact,  increase
               methyl alcohol content.  It is far safer to use  a  chemical
               `booster'  such  as  ammonium phosphate-dibasic,  or a close
               substitute containing nitrogen and phosphate.  Calgon  water
               softener  is  also  a  fair  substitute.  Perhaps  we should
               explain that the reason for  adding  an  ingredient  to  the
               sugar,  water  and yeast mix is solely for the yeast to have
               `food' in order to `work' properly.  It has been established
               that  yeast  needs  nitrogen,  phosphate  and  potassium for
               `food', but only in very small proportions.  In other words,
               the   ammonium   phosphate-dibasic   has  the  nitrogen  and
               phosphate, and the raw water has the potassium.


                                   The Basic Batch
                                   ???????????????


          There are a  great  many  ferments  or  batches,  and  trying  to
          catalogue  them  in  all  varieties  would  be a tremendous task;
          therefore,  we will discuss only a `basic'  ferment  that  proves
          itself  reliable and gives optimum results time after time.  Keep
          in mind that it is only possible to produce a certain per cent of
          alcohol, 9% to 16% by volume, depending on what type of yeast you
          use (at the right temperatures),  regardless of  `pet'  additions
          such as molasses,  corn sugar,  cornmeal, wheat, large quantities
          of juices, etc. Therefore the `basic' ferment saves money.

          [1]  Ten pounds refined sugar (always 2 lbs per imperial  gallon)
               dissolved  in  lukewarm (80?F) RAW WATER before pouring into
               your container.

          [2]  One cup of baker's yeast. If this large amount causes raised
               eyebrows, read over "Rate of Fermentation",  page 3,  again.
               Also, according to the text, yeasts multiply most rapidly in
               the presence of a supply of air;  however,  by using a large
               amount of yeast at the start (one cup per five  gallon  mix)
               it  is not necessary to start a culture of sugar-water-yeast
               and later add this mixture to the batch.

          [3]  One teaspoon of ammonium phosphate-dibasic, or, as explained
               in  [4]  under   "Alcoholic   Yield   and   By-products   of
               Fermentation",  page 3,  a close substitute. The addition of
               this chemical booster will shorten the time the batch works.



                                    ?  page 4  ?








          [4]  After the above items have been put into the mash container,
               fill the container to the 5 gallon mark.  THE BEST METHOD OF
               ELIMINATING  UNWANTED  OXYGEN AFTER THE REACTION HAS STARTED
               IS TO STOPPER THE CONTAINER AND LEAD A HOSE OR TUBE FROM THE
               CONTAINER TO A CAN OR BOTTLE FILLED WITH WATER.  This allows
               the  carbon  dioxide  gas  to  bubble off through the water,
               thereby  preventing  oxygen  from  entering  the  container,
               otherwise,  if  the  ferment  stands  too  long  without  an
               adequate  `check  valve',  a  vinegar  process  could  start
               turning the mix sour.

          [5]  As   stated   under   "General   Conditions   of   Alcoholic
               Fermentation", page 2,  and "Rate of Fermentation",  page 3,
               temperature  control of the ferment is very important.  Keep
               your batch within the 75?F - 85?F range and never over 90?F.

          [6]  Up to now, if the steps have been faithfully followed,  your
               mix  will  stop  working in about 6 to 9 days.  Although the
               ferment might stop working in this time estimate,  it  takes
               several days more for the batch to settle. The best practice
               is  to  keep  two  or  three  batches in the various working
               stages so that you can allow the  ferment  to  clear  up  or
               settle  before running.  Apparently,  although this point is
               not covered in the text, the longer a stoppered batch `sits'
               up to a certain time limit, the better the yield. The reason
               the mix stops working is that the higher the  percentage  of
               alcohol  in  your batch,  the more yeast cells die until the
               alcoholic content is so high that all yeast cells  die,  and
               your  mix  stops working.  Baker's yeast yields around 9% to
               10% alcohol,  wine yeast,  on the other hand,  yields 14% to
               16%, because wine yeast has a greater tolerance for alcohol.
               Therefore  a  cup  of baker's yeast (dry) for each 10 lbs of
               refined sugar is about the right concentration of yeast  for
               our purpose.  We are also reasonably sure that the distilled
               product from a  sugar-water-yeast-chemical  booster  ferment
               will   contain  only  ethyl  alcohol,   carbon  dioxide  and
               distilled  water  at  the  end  of  a  four-run  process  as
               described in this article.

               We  make  this  statement  even though it is contrary to the
               facts as set forth in "Alcoholic Yield  and  By-products  of
               Fermentation",  but  keep  in  mind that we said `reasonably
               sure',  and it only deals  with  the  fermentation  process,
               whereas  our  statement concerns the product after the four-
               run distillation process.






                                    ?  page 5  ?







                                 Distillation Theory
                                 ???????????????????


          A simple definition of distillation is:  the  separation  of  the
          components  of a mixture by partial vaporisation of a mixture and
          the separate  recovery  of  the  vapour  and  the  residue;  i.e.
          distillation  is a method of separation and concentration,  based
          on differences in volatility. The apparatus in which this process
          is carried on is called a STILL,  of which  the  essential  parts
          are:

          [1]  The kettle in which vaporisation is effected.
          [2]  The   connecting  tube  which  conveys  the  vapour  to  the
               condenser.
          [3]  The condenser where the vapours are re-liquified.
          [4]  The receiver in which the distillate is collected.

          Modifications involving the addition of other parts to the  still
          are  introduced for various purposes such as conservation of heat
          and to effect rectification. The condensed vapours,  returning to
          accomplish rectification,  are called reflux.  In other words,  a
          simple distillation is a means of separating  a  volatile  liquid
          from a non-volatile residue. A fractional distillation is a means
          of   separating  liquids  of  different  volatility.   Fractional
          distillation rests on the fact that no two liquids  of  different
          chemical  composition  have  the  same  vapour  pressure  at  all
          temperatures,  nor very often the same  boiling  point.  However,
          every  liquid  has  a  definite  vapour  pressure  at  any  given
          temperature.  The various types of stills may be  classified  as:
          Pot stills;  Coffey or Patent stills;  Vat stills; and Continuous
          stills.


                                 Cleaning the Still
                                 ??????????????????


          There are too many variations of the four types of still  in  our
          interesting hobby to attempt an explanation of each `cooker', but
          our  chief  worry,  regardless  of  type,  is cleanliness and the
          prevention of accidents and fires.

          Keeping a clean still  is  only  common  sense,  and  is  greatly
          simplified if your cleaning begins immediately after the last run
          while the metal is warm. Use water to wash out all parts and keep
          the kettle well-scrubbed.  Do not use soap,  as it might impart a
          disagreeable taste to your product. It is necessary to supplement
          the plain water rinse  by  establishing  the  following  cleaning
          practice at least once a month:


                                    ?  page 6  ?







               Dissolve  ?  cup  of  salt in about 16 oz of vinegar and
               pour this solution back and  forth  through  the  tubing
               several times, then rinse thoroughly with water.

          This  procedure  is all that is necessary for the pot still,  but
          the reflux types need special attention to the  cleaning  of  the
          reflux chamber and the `marbles', helices, etc.


                         Safety Precautions in Distillation
                         ??????????????????????????????????


          The  home distillation of alcohol CAN be either very hazardous or
          reasonably  safe,  depending  upon  the  degree  of  care  taken.
          Unfortunately,  accidents  have  occurred  resulting  in burns to
          people and destruction of property.  These accidents can be  well
          summed-up  in  General  "Hap" Arnold's message,  in which we have
          substituted the word `distilling' for  `flying'.  "DISTILLING  IS
          NOT  INHERENTLY  DANGEROUS,  BUT,  LIKE  THE SEA,  IT IS TERRIBLY
          UNFORGIVING OF CARELESSNESS, INCAPACITY OR NEGLECT."

          In  this  discussion  the  unsafe  practices  which  produce  the
          majority of all distilling accidents are described and the proper
          method  of  operation  to  eliminate the hazards is set forth for
          your safety.

          First,  we must recognise  and  accept  the  fact  that  for  all
          practical purposes, WHEN DISTILLING ALCOHOL WE MIGHT JUST AS WELL
          BE DISTILLING GASOLINE. Take a look at the comparable properties,
          given in the table on the following page:





















                                    ?  page 7  ?











          ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
          ?                                    Alcohol         Gasoline   ?
          ?                                  (160 proof)  (Average grade) ?
          ?                                  ???????????  ??????????????? ?
          ?                                                               ?
          ?Flash point                           68?F            45?F     ?
          ?    (alcohol from condenser                                    ?
          ?    is well above this                                         ?
          ?    temperature)                                               ?
          ?                                                               ?
          ?Ignition temperature                 793?F            536?F    ?
          ?    (any flame or electric                                     ?
          ?    spark is above                                             ?
          ?    temperature)                                               ?
          ?                                                               ?
          ?Explosive limits                   4?3% to 19%     1?4% to 7?6%?
          ?    (% by volume -                                             ?
          ?    note wide range of                                         ?
          ?    vapour/air mixture                                         ?
          ?    which can be ignited)                                      ?
          ?                                                               ?
          ?Vapour density (Air = 1)               1?59           3 to 4   ?
          ?    (although there is a tendency                              ?
          ?    for rich alcohol vapours to                                ?
          ?    settle, it should be noted                                 ?
          ?    that alcohol/air mixtures in                               ?
          ?    the flammable range have a                                 ?
          ?    specific gravity only very                                 ?
          ?    little greater than that of                                ?
          ?    air (1?02 - 1?11); therefore,                              ?
          ?    air currents will distribute                               ?
          ?    such mixtures widely)                                      ?
          ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????




            IT SHOULD BE OBVIOUS FROM THE ABOVE DATA THAT, FROM THE FIRE
             POINT OF VIEW, ALCOHOL IS ALMOST AS HAZARDOUS AS GASOLINE.









                                    ?  page 8  ?







          [1]  IF YOU USE GLASS BOTTLES FOR MASH,  BE SURE THAT THE BOTTLES
               ARE TAPED WITH MASKING TAPE to avoid the hazard of cuts from
               broken glass.  Should the bottle break,  there  is  no  fire
               hazard  from  the  mash,  because the alcohol content of the
               mash is too low to create a flammable  mixture  at  ordinary
               room  temperatures.  Never  attempt to carry heavy 10-gallon
               bottles: their structural strength may be  insufficient  and
               they  have been known to fracture upon the slightest impact.
               Also,  the strength of your back is inadequate in an awkward
               position.  Use a dolly to transport the bottle on or, better
               yet, siphon into the still.  The best bet is to get metal or
               plastic containers from one of the main mail order houses.

          [2]  NEVER FILL A STILL ON THE STOVE. Of all the dangerous things
               to  do,  the  second  most hazardous is to fill a still with
               second or subsequent runs when the still is  on  the  stove.
               Even though the fire is out,  the pilot light or oven may be
               lit.  Any spillage of alcohol at this time can get you  into
               serious  trouble.  If the vapour flashes,  you will probably
               drop  the  dispensing  container,  with  the  likelihood  of
               splashing flaming alcohol on yourself or others,  as well as
               starting a large fire.

               ALWAYS CHARGE THE STILL ON THE FLOOR AWAY FROM THE OVEN and,
               if it is too heavy for one person to lift, get help.  Any of
               your friends will help in this important endeavour.  To form
               correct habits,  this practice should be  followed  even  to
               charge the still with mash.

          [3]  NEVER  LEAVE A STILL UNATTENDED - THIS IS THE MOST HAZARDOUS
               ACTION OF ANY AND IS ABSOLUTELY INEXCUSABLE.

               First:    Condenser water can fail due to -
                         a. Failure of hose lines.
                         b. Low water pressure.
                         c. Shutdown of utilities.
                         d. Failure of condenser shell.
               Without adequate  condensing  means,  alcohol  vapours  will
               rapidly spread within the room until a source of ignition is
               reached.  The  degree  of  flash  fire  will depend upon the
               accumulation of vapours,  but in  most  cases  the  fire  is
               immediately  beyond control.  If the concentration of vapour
               is sufficiently widespread, an explosion can occur.

               Second: The receiver can overflow.  This will create a large
               area  from  which  the  alcohol can vaporise.  Usually under
               these conditions the flash point is reached.  Flash point is
               defined  as  the  lowest  temperature at which a liquid will
               give off flammable vapour  at  or  near  its  surface.  This
               vapour  forms  an intimate mixture with air,  and it is this
               mixture which ignites.

                                    ?  page 9  ?







          [4]  LOCATE THE DISTILLED ALCOHOL RECEIVER AT AS LOW A  LEVEL  AS
               POSSIBLE  and extend the run-down tube from the condenser to
               the bottom of the receiver.

               First: Placing the receiver at a low level will tend to keep
               any alcohol vapour away from the flames at the  top  of  the
               stove.  Note that any flames (main burners or pilots) in the
               oven or boiler units are usually lower and tend to draw  the
               air for combustion from a low level;  therefore, all flames,
               including the pilots, in ovens or boilers,  should be turned
               off.  In  a  few  of our stoves (older wedgewood models) all
               pilots are controlled from a single  safety  shut-off  valve
               that shuts down the entire stove if an oven pilot goes out -
               on  these  stoves it is impossible to cut off the oven pilot
               and keep the top  burners  operating,  therefore,  for  such
               cases,  the  receiver should be located at least 3 feet away
               from the bottom of  the  stove  and  the  recommendation  in
               "PLACE THE RECEIVER IN AN  AUXILIARY  CONTAINER",  paragraph
               [6], must be followed.

               Second:  When the run-down tube extends to the bottom of the
               receiver and becomes submerged  in  the  liquid,  there  are
               several safety features created:

               a.   The alcohol liquid that contacts air is reduced to only
                    the stilled surface in the receiver.
               b.   If  any  alcohol  vapour  remains uncondensed,  it will
                    bubble in the liquid receiver and serve as a warning of
                    insufficient condensing capacity.
               c.   If there is abundant condensing capacity, the condenser
                    will establish a partial vacuum in the system and  draw
                    up  a liquid head that will stand in the run-down tube.
                    This will be proof of adequate condensing capacity.

               NOTE: When the still is first started, it contains air above
               the liquid. This air must be displaced;  therefore,  the end
               of the run-down tube may bubble at first.

          [5]  USE A RECEIVER WITH A SMALL FILLING OPENING. A small opening
               cuts  down on the quantity of vapours escaping into the room
               and it also saves you alcohol.  If a fire does occur at  the
               receiver,  it  will  burn at the small opening and be easily
               controlled.  With a large opening,  the fire  will  be  much
               larger,  a lot more heat will be rapidly given off,  and the
               fire will be more  difficult  to  contain.  If  such  should
               occur,  extinguish  all  sources  of  flame  and  follow the
               suggestions  in  paragraph  10,   "IN  CASE   OF   ACCIDENT,
               IMMEDIATELY CALL THE FIRE DEPARTMENT".




                                    ?  page 10  ?







          [6]  PLACE  THE  RECEIVER  IN  AN  AUXILIARY  CONTAINER.  If  the
               receiver is placed in a dishpan or other type  of  auxiliary
               container,  an  accidental  overflow will be restricted much
               more than would be the case if it  should  run  out  on  the
               floor.

          [7]  Be  sure exhaust fans or other means of ventilation are used
               to reduce the possibility of alcohol vapour accumulation.

          [8]  NEVER USE A STILL IF YOU DO NOT HAVE COMPLETE CONFIDENCE  IN
               THE  EQUIPMENT.  Stills  should be of welded or brazed metal
               construction with metal tubing and tight-fitting slip joints
               or bolted gasket heads.  All joints should be carefully made
               up  to  avoid  leaks  of  either  vapour  or liquid alcohol.
               CONDENSER CAPACITY SHOULD BE ADEQUATE for the  maximum  rate
               of  distillation.  If  you are not qualified to appraise the
               condition of your equipment or its method of operation,  get
               a qualified friend to make the inspection for you.

          [9]  DON'T  STORE  UNCUT  ALCOHOL.  If a fire should involve this
               highly flammable liquid,  the situation could rapidly become
               very serious.  Cut your alcohol BEFORE you store it. Alcohol
               cut to 90 proof has a flash point of 77?F, whereas 160 proof
               alcohol has a flash point of only 68?F.

          [10] IN CASE OF ACCIDENT,  IMMEDIATELY CALL THE FIRE  DEPARTMENT.
               DO  NOT  DELAY,  OTHER  THAN TO GET ALL OCCUPANTS OUT OF THE
               HOUSE.  It is a good  practice  to  have  your  garden  hose
               attached  to  the  outside faucet and readily available.  An
               alcohol fire can be extinguished with water if  the  alcohol
               is  sufficiently  diluted.  However,  the heat release is so
               rapid that,  except for very  small  fires,  you  will  need
               trained  help  in  handling  the  situation.  DON'T DELAY IN
               EVACUATING THE HOUSE AND CALLING THE FIRE  DEPARTMENT;  then
               do the best you can to control the situation.

          [11] Above all else:

               a.   DON'T LEAVE A STILL UNATTENDED!
               b.   DON'T DRINK AND RUN THE STILL!
               c.   DON'T RUN THE STILL IF YOU ARE SLEEPY!!!

               Distillation  can  be  interesting  and it can be reasonably
               safe,  but don't spoil it through unintelligent operation or
               plain carelessness. Though you may be a brave soul with lots
               of  luck,  don't expose yourself and other people to serious
               injury  or  yourself  to  liability  for  serious   property
               damages.  REMEMBER, IF AN ACCIDENT OCCURS, YOU ARE THE CAUSE
               AND THE ONE LEGALLY RESPONSIBLE.



                                    ?  page 11  ?







          [12] One special word of caution  for  those  who  use  immersion
               heaters. These heaters must be completely immersed in liquid
               all  the  time.  If they are not,  they will overheat and be
               destroyed.  If this happens while  a  flammable  mixture  of
               alcohol  vapour  and air is in the top portion of the still,
               an  explosion  will  occur.   Such  an  explosion  would  be
               extremely  dangerous  both from a standpoint of flying parts
               of the still and a very rapid spread of fire.


                                  Common Pot Still
                                  ????????????????


          This section deals with the 3 or 4  run  system,  using  a  basic
          sugar-water-yeast-chemical  booster  ferment,  and the common pot
          still apparatus.  Incidentally,  the reflux  chamber  stills  are
          excellent  (one  run  equals  four  runs  in  pot stills) but the
          majority of us use a pot still over a gas  flame;  therefore,  in
          this section we will concern ourselves with this method.  Be sure
          your thermometer is mounted in the vapour space chamber  so  that
          temperatures  will  be  vapour  temperatures.  Do  not mount your
          thermometer in the liquid;  keep it AT LEAST 3 inches  above  the
          liquid level.


                                  Running the Still
                                  ?????????????????


          Using the ferment described in "The Basic Batch", page 4.
          NOTE: TURN ON EXHAUST FAN FOR ALL RUNS.

          First Run: Run to 207?F or 97?2?C
          ?????????????????????????????????

          Pour your ferment into the kettle up to the 5-gallon mark and set
          up the apparatus.  Adjust your condenser and turn on the flame or
          flames FULL BLAST.  (This section is based on a  one-burner  heat
          source  -  if  you  can  use  two  burners,  your  times  will be
          considerably shorter.)

          44?F indicates the  start  of  air  moving  through  the  system.
          Depending  on  the alcohol and water proportions,  as well as the
          temperature of the mix before heating,  the run should  start  in
          about  one hour between 170?F and 175?F.  Approximately two hours
          later, when 207?F is reached,  you will have a good working stock
          of  about  one  or  one and a fifth gallons.  BUT if your ferment
          temperatures were too high,  you might be unlucky and get only  ?
          gallon! (See "Rate of Fermentation," page 3.)


                                    ?  page 12  ?







          Your  first  run  distillate  should  amount  to  about 40% ethyl
          alcohol and 60% water and by-products.  Disconnect the kettle and
          POUR  OUT  THE  RESIDUE.  Be  careful  while  pouring out the hot
          residue,  as splashes might  cause  you  to  drop  the  container
          resulting in painful burns.  A good way to empty a large still is
          to use a piece of garden hose as a syphon.  Put one  end  in  the
          liquid and fill the hose by turning on the water faucet.  As soon
          as all the air is removed,  disconnect the hose from  the  faucet
          and  let the liquid syphon down the drain.  At this point it is a
          good idea to rinse out the tubing so that  any  lurking  `solids'
          are flushed away.

          We might also add that sometimes one gets anxious and runs before
          the mix stops working the green or unsettled batch bubbles inside
          the  pot.  Consequently,  if  there is not enough space above the
          level of the liquid in the kettle,  solids  will  come  over  and
          cause the condensate to turn milky in the receiver.  This is also
          caused by running `full blast' or,  in other words,  there is too
          much heat applied to the pot.

          If this should be the case, keep on running at a REDUCED HEAT and
          when  you  finish,  be  SURE  to  rinse  out the entire apparatus
          thoroughly before starting the second run.  Incidentally,  unless
          you have had lots of experience,  it is not a good idea to run at
          `full blast' for the entire run.  Most of us use  the  high  heat
          only to cut down the heating period of the batch.


          Second Run: Run to 204?F or 95?6?C
          ??????????????????????????????????

          Pour  your first run into the kettle as it is,  do NOT add water.
          Set up the apparatus again and turn on the heat TAKING GREAT CARE
          THAT THE KETTLE IS BUTTONED UP. This time results come faster. At
          about 170?F - 180?F (76?7?C - 82?2?C) it starts, and in about one
          hour the 204?F mark is reached. If you are lucky, you should have
          about 0?75 gallon of about 70% ethyl alcohol,  and the  remainder
          water and by-products.  Once again,  pour out the waste,  and, if
          you wish, rinse out the tubing.  We now have a pretty good stock,
          but yeast waste and other by-product traces are definitely there,
          although in very small proportions.  At this point, remember, 70%
          alcohol is 140 proof and has a flash point of 70?F.  YOU NOW HAVE
          A VERY FLAMMABLE PRODUCT.

               Note:     Multiply % alcohol x TWO to get `proof'
                         i.e. 90 proof whisky is 45% alcohol






                                    ?  page 13  ?






          Third Run: Save everything from 170?F - 184?F (76?7?C - 84?7?C)
          ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

          This is the run that counts,  the first two runs served to get us
          a good working stock,  now we start to refine it.  Pour  in  your
          second  run  without adding water,  button up the apparatus,  and
          turn on the heat.  Stand by to watch your thermometer.  At  about
          150?F - 160?F the needle or column really moves fast to the 170?F
          - 172?F mark;  this jump is normal, don't let it worry you. Throw
          away whatever comes off before 170?F (or  that  which  comes  off
          before  the  trickle steadies into a solid stream),  and save the
          rest up to 184?F.  Time for this third run is about ?  hour,  and
          the  distillate  will  amount  to  about ? gallon,  which will be
          around 82% to 87% ethyl alcohol and the remainder water and very,
          very small traces of by-products.  Some of us stop here and  call
          it  quits.  The elapsed time from start to this point is about 4?
          hours.


          Fourth Run: Save everything from 170?F - 180?F (76?7?C - 82?2?C)
          ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

          Now we are on the home stretch.  Pour in your third  run  without
          adding  water,  button  up and turn on the heat.  As before,  the
          needle will jump to the 170?F to 172?F mark.  Throw away whatever
          comes  off  before  170?F to 172?F and keep the rest up to 180?F.
          This time the run will last only about ? hour and will amount  to
          about  ?  gallon  consisting  of 90% to 95% ethyl alcohol and the
          remainder distilled water.  We are betting our first drink on the
          fact  that  the  by-products will be negligible.  Now you have an
          excellent base for any type of liquor you care to concoct.

          Notice that we have not once run according to proof;  now,  bring
          out  your hydrometer,  and let's cut the fourth run back to about
          90 proof.  Be sure that you use your hydrometer  at  the  correct
          temperature,  usually 60?F;  otherwise,  if the product is warmer
          than prescribed, there will be an error in proof.  After cutback,
          you  should  now  have about 0?8 to 1?5 gallons of the finest raw
          whisky this side of the Esk (well ... ).  Here's a thought: don't
          worry  if  your  ferment  didn't start running at the temperature
          we've indicated; it is rare that two batches are exactly alike in
          alcoholic  content;  therefore,  there  will  be  differences  in
          initial boiling temperatures as explained in the footnote below.

          NOTE:     These   temperatures   are  approximate.   It  is  very
                    difficult to run exactly according  to  the  prescribed
                    degree because:

                    a.   Your thermometer might be off.
                    b.   Percentage   of   alcohol   vs.   water  may  vary
                         considerably,   even  though  you  have   followed
                         correct instructions.

                                    ?  page 14  ?






          Therefore,  as you gain experience,  you will learn to judge both
          temperatures and the strength of the  first  trickle  during  the
          third  and  fourth runs.  Usually you throw away that which comes
          off before the trickle steadies.


                          Reflux Column Distillation Units
                          ????????????????????????????????


          [1]  APPARATUS:  Essentially  there  will  be  a  pot  (5  to  20
               gallons),  a  packed  column (1? to 3 feet) and a condensing
               system.

               The  pot  requires  little  comment  except  to  state  that
               operators  of gas-heated units should be careful because the
               produce is nearly pure  ethyl  alcohol  and  thus  extremely
               combustible.  The  top  and  sides  of  the  pot  should  be
               insulated.

               The usual packing materials are - stainless  steel  mesh  or
               turnings,  glass beads or rings, and porcelain saddles. When
               packed normally,  one can expect 6 inches of  packed  column
               height  to  be equivalent to one stage.  Thus the pot and 1?
               feet of packed column will be equivalent to  the  4-run  pot
               still.  The  outside  of  the  column  will need insulation,
               otherwise too much internal condensation will occur  due  to
               heat loss to atmosphere.

               There  are two schools of thought on the need of an internal
               reflux condenser.  Certainly if one is  used,  then  careful
               control  must be exercised,  otherwise the column may become
               flooded and thus  impair  efficiency  of  separation.  There
               should  be  a separate needle valve for controlling internal
               reflux water - do not allow  the  complete  condenser  water
               stream  to  pass through the internal reflux condenser.  One
               way to decide on the need of internal reflux is the adequacy
               of the  column  insulation.  If  the  column  is  not  well-
               insulated, then the need for internal reflux is lessened.

          [2]  OPERATION:  As  in any distillation,  the faster the rate of
               distilling,  the lower the efficiency of separation.  If a 3
               foot  column  is  used,  the process can be forced and still
               yield good product with one run.  If a short column (1? foot
               of  packing) is used,  a lower rate is desirable in order to
               get by with one run.

          [3]  CLEANING: The cleaning operations of a reflux column  depend
               on  one's techniques of distilling.  After every batch,  one
               should backwash the column,  and after 4 or 5  batches,  the
               column  packing  should  be removed and cleaned thoroughly -
               hot, soapy water, vinegar rinse, raw water and sweet water.

                                    ?  page 15  ?







                                       Ageing
                                       ??????


          It was supposed for a long time that by ageing straight whisky in
          charred wood a chemical change took place which rid the liquor of
          fusel oils, and this destroyed the unpleasant taste and odour. It
          now appears by chemical analysis that this is untrue -  that  the
          effect  of  ageing  is only to dissipate the odour and modify the
          raw, unpleasant flavour,  but to leave the fusel oil still in the
          straight whisky.

          It  is known that wood absorbs some of the undesirable components
          while some of the materials in the wood are,  in turn,  dissolved
          by the whisky.  At the same time,  some of the secondary products
          are changed into acids and esters, so that in matured whisky many
          of the  secondary  components  are  actually  present  in  HIGHER
          content  than  in  green  liquor.  The esters increase in matured
          whisky,  but to a lesser extent,  while the furfurol  and  higher
          alcohols,  i.e. fusel oil, remain practically unchanged. There is
          also the change in proof in  whisky  stored  in  wooden  barrels,
          since  water  diffuses more rapidly through the pores of the wood
          than does alcohol.

          The above paragraph throws a new light on the subject. Apparently
          it is not true that ageing  in  charred  wood  gets  rid  of  the
          undesirable  by-products,  but still some of us like the taste of
          the esters because that's what gives the `whiskey taste' to  much
          Stateside liquor.

          It follows,  then,  that RUNNING ACCORDING TO TEMPERATURES IS ONE
          OF THE BEST WAYS OF GETTING RID OF UNWANTED BY-PRODUCTS.

          In the past,  some people have used the technique of  accelerated
          ageing  by  double-boiler  heating  of  90 proof alcohol and wood
          chips. We definitely DO NOT recommend this method because, first,
          alcohol vapours are released above the flame of the stove,  which
          is hazardous, and second, the method requires a loose-fitting cap
          on  the  alcohol  container.  It  is difficult to specify what is
          loose and what is not. If the cap should accidentally be fastened
          too tightly, it is possible that pressure can build up inside the
          container, and it might explode.  This is a double hazard because
          of  the  shrapnel-like  articles  of the container and the sudden
          release of the flammable alcohol vapours.








                                    ?  page 16  ?







                                       Endnote
                                       ???????


          The story is that "The Blue Flame" was  written  for  circulation
          amongst   expatriate  Britons  in  countries  where  alcohol  was
          difficult or impossible to get. One rumour, and it is probably no
          more than that,  is that it was put together by the staff of  one
          of  Her  Majesty's  representations in the Middle East,  the idea
          being that since people were going to do it anyway, they might as
          well be provided with instructions for doing it  safely.  (Cynics
          might think this too commonsense an attitude for diplomats of any
          country to adopt.)

          Would-be experimenters should be warned that, in the UK at least,
          a  licence is required to manufacture poteen.  These are not easy
          to get. Laws will vary from country to country, as will penalties
          for breaking them. In some countries the penalties can be violent
          and painful. In the UK they are merely undignified.  In a country
          where  the penalties are severe,  you might prefer to let someone
          else take the risk if you can  get  a  supply  at  an  affordable
          price.  Shabby, but `watching the wall' means you don't get parts
          cut off you.  It seems to be the case in practice that  compounds
          of  foreign workers in these countries will have well-established
          means of getting or making alcohol, and are pretty safe. You just
          need to get to know someone.

          I'm told the title "The Blue  Flame"  derives  from  a  test  for
          suspect  alcohol.  I  can't vouch for the chemical reliability of
          the test, but here it is:

               Heat a small amount of the spirit in a pan until  it  is
               well warmed.  Turn off the heat, then put a flame to the
               warmed  alcohol.  If  it  is  `clean'  spirit  with  few
               impurities,  it should burn with a steady blue flame. If
               the flame is flecked with yellow or orange,  or  if  the
               flame  sputters while burning,  do not drink it - use it
               as an embrocation instead.

          If you value your organs,  make sure any spirit made in this  way
          is cut.  If you don't have a hydrometer, a rule of thumb is equal
          quantities of tap-water and alcohol.  Do this even if you  intend
          to mix it further with tonic or fruit juice. Try cutting a cupful
          first  -  taste  will guide you to the right proportions of water
          and firewater.







                                    ?  page 17  ?