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VACCINE
Peer Review

The History Of The Global Vaccination Program
In 1000 Peer Reviewed Reports And Studies

1915-2015
A Jeff Prager Publication

“Dissent is crucial for the advancement of science.
Disagreement is at the heart of peer review and is important for uncovering
unjustified assumptions, flawed methodologies and problematic reasoning.”
I. de Melo-Martín and K. Intemann, Division of Medical Ethics, Department of Public Health, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, USA

“the harm from vaccines has seriously exceeded the benefit of disease prevention”
Dr. Harold Buttram

“No batch of vaccine can be proved safe before it is given to children”
Surgeon General of the United States, Leonard Scheele, addressing an AMA convention in 1955

“The only safe vaccine is a vaccine that is never used”
Dr. James A. Shannon, National Institutes of Health

“Immune challenges during early development,
including those vaccine-induced, can lead to permanent
detrimental alterations of the brain and immune function.

Experimental evidence also shows that simultaneous administration
of as little as two to three immune adjuvants can overcome genetic
resistance to autoimmunity. In some developed countries, by the time
children are 4 to 6 years old, they will have received a total of
126 antigenic compounds along with high amounts of
aluminum adjuvants through routine vaccinations.

According to the US Food and Drug Administration, safety assessments for vaccines
have often not included appropriate toxicity studies because vaccines have not been
viewed as inherently toxic. Taken together, these observations raise plausible concerns
about the overall safety of current childhood vaccination programs.”
From the Journal Lupus, February 2012 by Lucija Tomljenovic & CA Shaw, Neural Dynamics Research Group

Institutional Corruption of Pharmaceuticals
and the Myth of Safe and Effective Drugs
Donald W. Light
Rowan University, School of Osteopathic Medicine
Harvard University - Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics
Joel Lexchin
York University
Jonathan J. Darrow
Harvard Medical School
Donald W. Light, Ph.D., is a fellow for 2012-2013 at the Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics
at Harvard University in Cambridge, MA. He received his Ph.D. in sociology from
Brandeis University and is a professor of comparative health policy at
Rowan University, School of Osteopathic Medicine.
Joel Lexchin, M.Sc., M.D., has been teaching health policy for 12 years at York University in Toronto, ON.
He received his M.D. from the University of Toronto in 1977 and since 1988 has been
an emergency physician at the University Health Network in Toronto.
Jonathan J. Darrow, J.D., M.B.A., LL.M., S.J.D., is a research fellow at
Harvard Medical School and a lecturer on law at Bentley University in Waltham, MA.
He received his S.J.D. from Harvard in 2013.
~ June 1, 2013 ~
Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics, 2013, Vol. 14, No. 3:590-610
Abstract
Over the past 35 years, patients have suffered from a largely hidden epidemic of side effects from drugs that usually have few offsetting benefits. The pharmaceutical industry has corrupted the practice of medicine through its
influence over what drugs are developed, how they are tested, and how medical knowledge is created. Since 1906,
heavy commercial influence has compromised Congressional legislation to protect the public from unsafe drugs.
The authorization of user fees in 1992 has turned drug companies into the FDA’s prime clients, deepening the
regulatory and cultural capture of the agency. Industry has demanded shorter average review times and, with less
time to thoroughly review evidence, increased hospitalizations and deaths have resulted. Meeting the needs of the
drug companies has taken priority over meeting the needs of patients. Unless this corruption of regulatory intent
is reversed, the situation will continue to deteriorate. We offer practical suggestions including: separating the
funding of clinical trials from their conduct, analysis, and publication: independent FDA leadership; full public
funding for all FDA activities; measures to discourage R&D on drugs with few if any new clinical benefits; and
the creation of a National Drug Safety Board.

Institutional corruption is a normative concept of growing importance that embodies the systemic dependencies
and informal practices that distort an institution’s societal mission. An extensive range of studies and lawsuits
already documents strategies by which pharmaceutical companies hide, ignore, or misrepresent evidence about
new drugs; distort the medical literature; and misrepresent products to prescribing physicians. We focus on the
consequences for patients: millions of adverse reactions. After defining institutional corruption, we focus on evidence that it lies behind the epidemic of harms and the paucity of benefits.
It is our thesis that institutional corruption has occurred at three levels. First, through large-scale lobbying and
political contributions, the pharmaceutical industry has influenced Congress to pass legislation that has compromised the mission of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Second, largely as a result of industry pressure,
Congress has underfunded FDA enforcement capacities since 1906, and turning to industry-paid “user fees” since
1992 has biased funding to limit the FDA’s ability to protect the public from serious adverse reactions to drugs

that have few offsetting advantages. Finally, industry has commercialized the role of physicians and undermined their position as independent, trusted advisers to patients.
Institutional Integrity: The Baseline of Corruption
If “corruption” is defined as an impairment of integrity or moral principle, then institutional
corruption is an institution’s deviation from a baseline of integrity. In the case of Congress,
integrity demands that democratically elected representatives should be dedicated solely to
the best interests of the people they represent. According to seminal essays on institutional
corruption by Dennis Thompson and Larry Lessig, this baseline of integrity is corrupted
because elections are not publicly funded. As a result, congressional representatives must
constantly raise funds from a tiny percent of the population and respond to their priorities.
This dependency corruption creates an “economy of influence,” even if individual actors
are well-intentioned. Lessig’s examples portray how secrecy and rationalizations disguise
distortions in the democratic process and mission.
The concept of institutional corruption highlights numerous distinctions — between what
is legal and illegal; between good people doing bad things, not bad people doing bad things;
between influence, not money, affecting decisions. These are the ends of continua, and
there is a need to recognize degrees of corruption in between.
Special interests also influence members of Congress to make legal what has been illegal or
else to game the rules, thereby blurring the line between legal and illegal as well as making
it hard to determine the law’s intent.
Just as a proper electoral democracy is devoted to the public good, health care systems are
founded on the moral principles of beneficence, nonmaleficence (“ first, do no harm”), respect for autonomy, and the just distribution of scarce resources. Based on these principles,
health care workers are obliged to use the best medical science to relieve suffering and
pain, treat illness, and address risks to health. The institutional corruption of health care
consists of deviations from these principles.
The major patent-based research pharmaceutical companies also nominally commit themselves to improving health and relieving suffering. For example, Merck promises “to provide innovative, distinctive products that save and improve lives ... and to provide investors
with a superior rate of return.” Pfizer is dedicated “to applying science and our global resources to improve health and well-being at every stage of life.” Pharmaceutical companies
continuously emphasize how deeply society depends on their development of innovative
products to improve health. But in fact, these companies are mostly developing drugs that
are little better than existing products but have the potential to cause widespread adverse
reactions even when appropriately prescribed.
This deviation from the principles of health care by institutions allegedly dedicated to
health care is institutional corruption. We present evidence that industry has a hidden business model to maximize profits on scores of drugs with clinically minor additional benefits.
Physician commitment to better health is compromised as the industry spends billions to
create what Lessig calls a “gift economy” of interdependent reciprocation. New research
finds that truly innovative new drugs sell themselves in the absence of such gift-economy
marketing.

Regulators such as the FDA and the Environmental Protection Agency arise when unregulated competition is perceived to cause serious harm to society and government regulation
is needed to address the problem. The FDA was founded to protect the public’s health from
the fraudulent cures peddled in the 19th century. Through a series of legislative enactments, often in response to a drug disaster, the pharmaceutical regulatory side of the FDA
has acquired ever-wider responsibilities to ensure that new drugs do more good than harm.
Institutional corruption consists of distortions of these responsibilities, such as approving
drugs that are mostly little better than existing medications, failing to ensure sufficient testing for serious risks, and inadequately guarding the public from harmful side effects. These
distortions serve commercial interests well and public health poorly.
For the past 50 years, patent-based research companies have objected to the FDA’s gatekeeping function as being too rigid and too slow. They have claimed that an obsessive concern about safety has undermined patient access to drugs that could save lives or reduce the
burdens of ill health. This message is increasingly being accepted by the FDA.
Flooding the Market with Drugs of Little Benefit
In response to the emphasis by pharmaceutical companies, their lobbyists, and their trade
association — the Pharmaceutical Research Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) — on the
high risk and cost of research and development (R&D), Congress has authorized billions in
taxpayer contributions to support R&D, exemptions from market competition, and special
privileges. Patents, of course, can be found in all industries, but lobbyists for the pharmaceutical industry have successfully pressured Congress to provide several forms of market
protection beyond patents.
Therapeutic Value of Drugs Marketed in France, 2002-2011
The industry measures “innovation” in terms of new molecular entities (NMEs), but most
NMEs provide at best minor clinical advantages over existing ones and may lawfully be
approved by the FDA even if they are inferior to previously approved drugs. The preponderance of drugs without significant therapeutic gain dates back at least 35 years. From the
mid-1970s through the mid-1990s, multiple assessments have found that only 11 to 15.6
percent of NMEs provide an important therapeutic gain. Millions of patients benefit from
the one out of six drugs that are therapeutically significant advances; but most R&D dollars
are devoted to developing molecularly different but therapeutically similar drugs, which
tends to involve less risk and cost for manufacturers. These drugs are then sold through
competition based on brand name, patent status, and newness, rather than on their therapeutic merits.
An analysis of data from the National Science Foundation by Donald Light and Joel Lexchin indicates that patent-based pharmaceutical companies — often deemed by Congress,
the press, the public, and themselves to be “innovative” — in fact devote only 1.3 percent
of revenues, net of taxpayer subsidies, to discovering new molecules. The 25 percent of
revenues spent on promotion is about 19 times more than the amount spent on discovering
new molecules. In short, the term “R&D” as used by industry primarily means “development” of variations rather than the path-breaking “research” that onlookers might like to
imagine.
The independent drug bulletin, La revue Prescrire, analyzes the clinical value of every

new drug product or new indication approved in France. From 1981 to 2001, it found that
about 12 percent offered therapeutic advantages.But in the following decade, 2002- 2011,
as shown in Figure 1, only 8 percent offered some advantages and nearly twice that many
— 15.6 percent – were judged to be more harmful than beneficial. A mere 1.6 percent offered substantial advantages. Assessments by the Canadian advisory panel to the Patented
Medicine Prices Review Board and by a Dutch general practice drug bulletin have come to
similar conclusions. No comparable review has been done in the United States on the 229
NMEs approved by the FDA between 2002 and 2011.
This decrease does not come from the “innovation crisis” of fewer new molecules entering
trials or eventually being approved but from fewer new drugs being clinically superior. The
number of products put into trials has actually increased as the number of clinically superior drugs has decreased. These facts provide evidence that companies are using patents
and other protections from market competition primarily to develop drugs with few if any
new therapeutic benefits and to charge inflated prices protected by their strong IP rights.
Despite the small number of clinically superior drugs, sales and profits have soared as successful marketing persuades physicians to prescribe the much more costly new products
that are at best therapeutically equivalent to established drugs. Both an American and a Canadian study found that 80 percent of the increase in drug expenditures went to paying for
these minor-variation new drugs, not for important advances. Companies claim that R&D
costs are “unsustainable.” But over the past 15 years, revenues have increased six times
faster than has investment in R&D.
Almost a decade ago, Jerry Avorn, a widely respected pharmacoepidemiologist and author
of a book on the risks of drugs, described how the big pharmaceutical companies exploited
patents and concluded that “[l]aws designed to encourage and protect meaningful innovation had been turned into a system that rewarded trivial pseudo-innovation even more
profitably than important discoveries.” He also noted that efforts in Congress to introduce
a “reasonable pricing clause” that would reflect large taxpayer contributions to new drugs
were defeated by industry lobbyists.
An Epidemic of Harmful Side Effects
Most new drugs approved and promoted since the 1970s lack additional clinical advantages over existing drugs and — as with all drugs — they have been accompanied by harmful
side effects. A systematic review of the 39 methodologically strongest studies performed in
the U.S. between 1964 and 1995 examined patients who were hospitalized due to a serious
adverse drug reaction (ADR) or who experienced an ADR while in the hospital.
The review found that 4.7 percent of hospital admissions were due to serious reactions from
prescription drugs that had been appropriately prescribed and used. In addition, 2.1 percent
of in-hospital patients who received correctly prescribed medications experienced a serious
ADR, for a total of 6.8 percent of hospital patients having serious ADRs. Applying this 6.8
percent hospital ADR rate to the 40 million annual admissions in U.S. acute care hospitals
indicates that up to 2.7 million hospitalized Americans each year have experienced a serious adverse reaction. Of all hospitalized patients, 0.32 percent died due to ADRs, which
means that an estimated 128,000 hospitalized patients died annually, matching stroke as
the 4th leading cause of death. Deaths and serious reactions outside of hospitals would
significantly increase the totals.

An analysis conducted in 2011, based on a year of ADRs reported to the FDA, came to similar conclusions: Americans experienced “2.1 million serious injuries, including 128,000
patient deaths.”
Other studies reveal that one in every five NMEs eventually caused enough serious harm
in patients to warrant a severe warning or withdrawal from the market.
Of priority drugs that were reviewed in slightly more than half the normal time, at least one
in three of them caused serious harm.
The public health impacts are even greater when milder adverse reactions are taken into
account. Given estimates that about 30 ADRs occur for every one that leads to hospitalization, about 81 million side effects are currently experienced every year by the 170 million
Americans who use pharmaceuticals. Groups such as pregnant women, elderly patients,
and those who are taking multiple medications are especially at risk. Most of these medically minor adverse reactions are never brought to clinical attention, but even minor reactions can impair productivity or functioning, lead to falls, and cause potentially fatal motor
vehicle accidents.
Contributors to More Harm and Less Benefit
Are the adverse side effects we have just been describing simply the “price of progress or
an unavoidable risk of drug therapy?” In fact, evidence suggests that commercial distortions of the review process and aggressive marketing contribute to both undermining beneficence as health care’s raison d’être and to the epidemic of harm to patients.
Distorting, Limiting, and Circumventing Safety Regulations
Since at least the 1890s, the public has clamored for Congress to regulate contaminated
or adulterated foods and harmful or ineffective medicines (medicines that may delay truly
useful treatments). At that time, lobbyists — paid from drug profits — argued that even
bills to require accurate listing of secret ingredients would destroy the industry. These lobbyists had managed to have earlier bills sent to die in the Committee on Manufactures until
President Roosevelt intervened to secure passage of the 1906 Food and Drug Act, which
still only required that statements on labels be true and provided no budget for enforcement.
Work on what would become the 1938 food and drug law began in 1933 with a bill that
would prohibit misstatements in advertising and require manufacturers to prove to the FDA
that drugs were safe before being allowed to sell them. The companies’ two trade associations launched “well-choreographed screams of protest” and letter-writing campaigns to
mislead Congress and to distort its mission to protect its constituents from harm. Employees of drug makers wrote to Congress, arguing that requiring companies to make honest
claims about safe drugs would put thousands out of work. The FDA staff wanted the legislation passed but were stopped by threats of prosecution if they campaigned for it. Then a
manufacturer added diethylene glycol (antifreeze) to a sulfa drug to make a sweet-tasting
elixir and children started dying. Public response trumped industry lobbyists and Congress
passed the 1938 law, requiring that drugs be safe but leaving it to companies to decide how
to define and test for safety.

For the next 25 years, drugs were approved within 180 days unless the FDA objected,
based on the companies’ tests and reports of safety. Some companies “tested” their products by sending samples out to providers for feedback, keeping no records of the results,
and denying serious harms when reported by doctors. Daniel Carpenter, the author of a
book considered to be a definitive work on the politics of the FDA, has detailed how the
FDA staff dedicated themselves to enforcing the rules and developing better criteria for
safety and efficacy. But as Malcolm Salter, at the Harvard Business School emphasizes,
companies institutionalize corruption by getting legislative and administrative rules shaped
to serve their interests, either directly or by crafting rules in ways they can game.
In his review of new pharmaceutical products in the 1940s and 1950s, Dr. Henry Dowling,
an AMA senior officer and expert, found that companies launched 200-400 a year but only
three on average were clinically useful. Physicians, swamped with far more drugs than they
could know much about, relied on sales reps to brief them, entertain them, and leave an
ample supply of free samples as gifts that the physicians could then give to their patients
— a two-stage economy of reciprocation. In effect, through political pressure and lobbying, companies minimized the role of the FDA as the protector of public health for its first
56 years.
Following the 1962 amendments, propelled to passage by the thalidomide tragedy, the
FDA commissioned the National Research Council, as part of the National Academy of
Sciences, to review the effectiveness of all 2820 drugs (available in 4350 different versions) approved between 1938 to 1962. Companies were required to submit substantial
evidence of effectiveness. The review concluded that seven percent of the drugs reviewed
were completely ineffective for every claim they made and a further 50 percent were only
effective for some of the claims made for them. Although the FDA has acted to remove
many of these ineffective drugs from the market, some pre-1962 drugs are — more than 50
years later — still under-going review and are among the “several thousand drug products”
that, according to a 2011 FDA guidance document, are today “marketed illegally without
required FDA approval.”
Regulatory capture begins with the dependency corruption of Congress, which passes the
regulations and provides the funding for agencies to protect the public. While the 1962
amendments ushered in the modern era of testing for safety and efficacy before a drug can
be approved, three key features of the modern drug-testing system actually work for industry profits and against the development of safe drugs that improve health.
First, three criteria used by the FDA contribute to the large number of new drugs approved
with few therapeutic advantages. New drugs are often tested against placebos rather than
against established effective treatments, and the use of surrogate or substitute end points,
rather than actual effects on patients’ health. Noninferiority trials that merely show that
the product is not worse than another drug used to treat the same condition by more than
a specified margin are accepted, rather than requiring superiority trials. Silvio Garattini,
founder of the Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, points out that placebo
and noninferiority trials violate international ethical standards and provide no useful information for prescribing.
Second, allowing companies to test their own products has led them — as rational economic actors — to design trials in ways that minimize detection and reporting of harms
and maximize evidence of benefits. Furthermore, clinical trials for new drugs are designed

to test primarily for efficacy and generally are not able to detect less common adverse
events.
Industry-friendly rules allow companies to exclude those patients most likely to have adverse reactions, while including those most likely to benefit, so that drugs look safer and
more effective than they are in practice. Approvals based on scientifically compromised
trials underlie the large number of heavily marketed new drugs with few or no new therapeutic benefits to offset their under-tested risks of harm.
Third, companies have created what can be characterized as the trial-journal pipeline because companies treat trials and journals as marketing vehicles. They design trials to produce results that support the marketing profile for a drug and then hire “publication planning” teams of editors, statisticians, and writers to craft journal articles favorable to the
sponsor’s drug. Articles that present the conclusions of commercially funded clinical trials
are at least 2.5 times more likely to favor the sponsor’s drug than are the conclusions in articles discussing non-commercially funded clinical trials. Yet, journal approval is deemed
to certify what constitutes medical knowledge. Published papers legitimate the pharmaceutical products emerging from the R&D pipeline and provide the key marketing materials.
Furthermore, companies are much less likely to publish negative results, and they have
threatened researchers who break the code of secrecy and confidentiality about those results. Positive results are sometimes published twice — or even more often — under different guises. This further biases meta-analyses — a method of statistically combining the
results of multiple studies — and clinical guidelines used for prescribing. The result is “a
massive distortion of the clinical evidence.”
For decades, the FDA has kept silent about these practices and about the discrepancies
between the data submitted to the FDA by companies and the findings published in journal articles, to the detriment of patients but much to the benefit of the companies. In sum,
testing and FDA criteria approval provide little or no information to clinicians on how to
prescribe new drugs, a vacuum filled by company-shaped “evidence” that misleads physicians to prescribe drugs that are less safe and effective than indicated by evidence that the
FDA possesses.
PDUFA: Conflict-of-Interest Payments
In 1992, after years of underfunding and cuts in the 1980s that contributed to drug review times ballooning from 6 to 30 months, Congress passed the Prescription Drug User
Fee Act (PDUFA), authorizing the FDA to collect “user fees” from drug companies that
would allow it to hire 600 more reviewers and thereby speed up drug review. Supporters
claimed that fees would increase incentives for innovation and improve health; but aside
from clearing the backlog of NMEs waiting for approval, industry fees have not increased
innovation as measured by clinically superior drugs.
In return for paying user fees, companies required the FDA to guarantee that it would review priority applications within six months and standard applications within 12 months
of submission. Shortened review times led to substantial increases in serious harms. An
in-depth analysis found that each 10-month reduction in review time — which could take
up to 30 months — resulted in an 18.1-percent increase in serious adverse reactions, a 10.9percent increase in hospitalizations, and a 7.2-percent increase in deaths. Now, 20 years

later, what Carpenter calls “corrosive capture” has set in — a weakened application of regulatory tools and
a cultural capture of rhetoric about saving lives by getting new drugs to patients more quickly.
For the FDA, the reduction in review time combined with the fear that missing review deadlines will jeopardize continued PDUFA funding has also led to an increase in “up against the wall” approvals as review
deadlines approach. Carpenter and his colleagues found that “the probability of a drug approved in the two
months before the deadline receiving a new black-box warning (the most serious safety warning that the
FDA can issue) is 3.27 times greater than a drug approved at some other time” and the likelihood of a drug
being withdrawn from the market because of serious adverse events is 6.92 times greater.
These detailed studies corroborate what FDA staff told the Office of the Inspector General, namely, that
concerns arising near the end of the review period are not adequately addressed, that needed meetings with
advisory committees are not held, and that label warnings and contraindications are hastily written. As a
result, there are “tens of thousands of additional hospitalizations, adverse drug reactions, and deaths.”
The 1998 withdrawal of five drugs, used by 19.8 million Americans, prompted critical reflection. Three
distinguished physicians were struck by how little information had been gathered about the harmful side
effects of these drugs before they were withdrawn. They attributed inaction to the FDA’s lack of interest in
safety, lack of funds, and to “the lack of a proactive, comprehensive and independent system to evaluate
the long-term safety, efficacy, and toxicity of drugs” after FDA approval.
To compensate for the FDA’s failures, they called for an independent National Drug Safety Board — akin
to the National Transportation Safety Board that investigates each plane crash and holds public meetings
— so that the same part of the FDA that approves drugs, the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
(CDER), would not later be asked to decide whether that drug should be restricted or withdrawn. In other
words, public health would not depend on FDA officials’ willingness to admit their own mistakes. Such
an independent board should establish an active monitoring system and gather comparative data across a
given therapeutic class so it could provide objective information and develop better strategies for addressing adverse reactions as a major cause of death.
In 1997, a year before these five withdrawals, Congress had passed PDUFA II and companies had insisted
that none of the fees collected be spent on post-market surveillance or on drug-safety programs. PDUFA
II, III, IV, and V and related legislation provided the FDA with steeply increasing user fees but included
lower criteria for approval, mandated that an industry representative be on FDA scientific advisory committees, lowered barriers to promotional efforts by companies, and required FDA officers to consult and
negotiate with industry on the agency’s goals and plans.
Offsetting the harms associated with PDUFA I’s shortened approval framework are several tools created
in PDUFA III through V for detecting, managing, and raising awareness of risks such as the Sentinel system and the Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies; but there is no clear evidence these are reducing
the epidemic of harms. These tools are inadequate to counterbalance the increase in risks — let alone to
improve safety.
The additional $10 million of funding provided by PDUFA III for the Office of Drug Safety and the $7.5
million provided for the FDA’s advertising enforcement arm are tiny in comparison to the more than $690
Read the rest:

https://app.box.com/s/5414zf7lufhtwf3czjfo9msafnoz6ht5

or:

million in user fees that flow to the FDA each year. In sum, PDUFA allocates user fees overwhelmingly
to ensure speedy review of new drug applications while leaving safety and enforcement dependent on
grossly inadequate funding, perpetuating a history of underfunding safety.
Granting priority status to more drugs further increases the number of drugs reviewed in the shortest time
and the chance of a major safety issue increases from one drug in five to one in three. Between 1999 and
2008, the FDA gave priority review status to almost 47 percent (114 of 244) of new drug applications,
more than four times the proportion of drugs found to have superior clinical effects by independent review
groups. Reflecting the cultural and corrosive capture of the FDA, its Commissioner said recently that “an
increasing number of treatments are being approved under the agency’s fast-track, priority review ... to get
critical and innovative medicines to market more rapidly.” Quicker reviews and less evidence of clinical
benefit have rewarded the hidden business model of developing still more drugs with minor benefits.
The FDA’s obligation to serve the public is being corroded by pressures to serve the companies it regulates. As for post-market surveillance — “the single most important function…for protecting the public
against the dangers of harmful drugs” — it is put largely in the hands of the manufacturers and the FDA
Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), the part of the FDA that companies pay to review their
new drug applications.
After approval, aggressive marketing of new drugs to doctors for both approved and unapproved uses
before good safety information is available maximizes the number of patients exposed to risks from the
roughly 25 to 40 new NMES approved annually.
Field studies find that most drug representatives do not discuss adverse side effects. Although the law
requires companies to submit some marketing materials for review, Congress and the FDA allocate only
a small budget and staff to review about 75,000 submissions a year for false or misleading information.
Further, the small stream of letters ordering that inaccuracies be corrected is subject to a review process
that delays their reaching the companies.
Marketing for unapproved or “off-label” uses worsens the balance of harm and benefit and undermines
the purpose of testing to show that a drug is effective and safe for a specific use. While trying drugs for
new uses is clinically important, especially for certain populations such as children and cancer patients, 75
percent of off-label prescribing is neither supported by sound evidence nor accompanied by an organized
means for gathering such evidence. Companies retain leading experts to expand use, broaden clinical
guidelines, and conduct small, short sham trials that companies get published and hand out to their physician-customers as “evidence.”
A 15-month investigation by the Committee on Government Reform of the U.S. House of Representatives
found “a growing laxity in FDA’s surveillance and enforcement procedures, a dangerous decline in regulatory vigilance, and an obvious unwillingness to move forward even on claims from its own field offices.”
The resulting 2006 report also documented a 53.7-percent decline in warning letters. Since then, FDA
leadership has shifted to talking about being a “partner” with industry to get more drugs to patients more
quickly. For the reasons we explained above, the proportion of new products with clinical advantages
seems to have moved from about 1 in 8 down to 1 in 12, while the proportion with serious harms has gone
up from 1 in 5 towards 1 in 3 as the number of drugs given priority status increases.
http://ethics.harvard.edu/news/institutional-corruption-and-pharmaceutical-policy

Direct from author: https://www.academia.edu/6750219/Institutional_Corruption_and_the_Myth_of_Safe_and_Effective_Drugs

Medical Veritas • 2008

The truth behind the vaccine cover-up
Russell L. Blaylock, MD
Abstract
On June 7-8, 2000 a secret conference was held at the Simpsonwood Conference Center in Norcross, Georgia to discuss a study examining the link between increasing doses of Thimerosal and neurodevelopmental disorders. The study was done using the Vaccine
Safety Datalink (VSD) data-base, an official governmental data bank collecting patient vaccination information on the children from
the health maintenance organizations (HMOs) being paid to participate. Attending were 51 scientists, representatives of pharmaceutical vaccine manufacturing companies and a representative of the World Health Organization; the public and the media were unlawfully excluded. The conclusions of this meeting were quite startling, since it confirmed a dose-response link between Thimerosal and
neurodevelopmental disorders that held up to rigorous statistical analyses.
In their discussion, they make plain why the meeting was held in secret: the conclusions would have destroyed the public’s confidence in the vaccine program, and more importantly, their faith in vaccine authorities. When the results of this study were published
three years later in the journal Pediatrics, the “problem” had been fixed, in that by adding another set of data from a third HMO, reorganizing the criteria for inclusion and restructuring the patient groupings, a less than statistically significant link was demonstrated.
In my analysis I discuss the more outrageous statements made during the meeting and how accepted experts in the field of mercury
neurotoxicity were excluded from the meeting.
I was asked to write a paper on some of the newer mechanisms of vaccine damage to the nervous system, but in the interim I came
across an incredible document that should blow the lid off the cover-up being engineered by the pharmaceutical companies in conjunction with powerful governmental agencies.
continued on page 725-726

“There is a great deal of evidence to prove that immunization of children does more harm than good”
Dr. J. Anthony Morris, former Chief Vaccine Control Officer, FDA

Table of Contents
Chapter One

Manufacturing Biologics

Page 24

Chapter Two

Thimerosal • Mercury

Page 129

Chapter Three

Alum • Aluminum Salts

Page 308

Chapter Four

The HPV Vaccine

Page 489

Chapter Five

Vaccination History 1915 - 2015

Page 525

Chapter Six

On Autism

Page 980

Chapter Seven

Short Essays On Vaccination

Page 1041

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Page 624 ........ Vaccines and Autism
Page 645 ........ Biological Evidence of Significant Vaccine Related Side-effects Resulting in Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Page 649 ........ Chronic Microglial Activation and Excitotoxicity Secondary to Excessive Immune Stimulation: Possible Factors in Gulf War Syndrome and Autism
Page 697 ........ FDA Science and Mission at Risk
Page 698 ........ Current childhood vaccine programs
Page 699 ........ Vaccines, depression, and neurodegeneration after age 50 years: another reason to avoid the recommended vaccines
Page 705 ........ Modeling Neurodevelopment Outcomes and Ethylmercury Exposure from Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines
Page 720 ........ Current childhood vaccine programs: An overview with emphasis on the Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine
Page 726 ........ The truth behind the vaccine cover-up
Page 818 ........ Vaccination: Why the ‘one size fits all’ vaccination argument does not fit all!
Page 872 ........ Hidden in Plain Sight: Vaccines as a Major Risk Factor for Chronic Disease
Page 912 ........ Methodological issues and evidence of malfeasance in research purporting to show thimerosal in vaccines is safe
Page 998 ........ A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders Part 1
Page 999 ........ A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders Part 2
Page 1000 ...... A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders Part 3

January 2016 • Vaccine Peer Review • The History Of The Global Vaccination Program In 1000 Peer Reviewed Reports And Studies • 1915-2015 • Jeff Prager Books • for Camillie, Syrena and Illiana

http://jprager9.wix.com/jeffpragerbooks

Introduction

V

accines are not the product of altruistic and generous or benevolent
action on the part of the manufacturers. Gardasil alone sells for
well over 100 dollars per injection. As a consequence, each of us at
birth immediately represents thousands of dollars worth of income across
the over 188 injections we’ll receive in a lifetime—according to the complete recommended US vaccination schedule—starting with 128 antigen,
adjuvant and excipient injections before reaching adulthood.
Vaccines are sold under an extremely clever marketing strategy that encompasses not only a “must-have” scenario for each of us but included with that
is absolutely no liability for harm. What do you suppose motivated the vaccine manufacturers to work so exceedingly hard through public and governmental processes to establish a “lawsuit-free zone” for vaccines? Was it to
avoid any chance at all of legal challenges? The extraordinary harm you’ll
read about here is directly related to seeking that discharge of legal responsibility for damage. Many of us won’t remember that years ago the lawsuits
were mounting and the vaccine business was about to come to an end.
This collection of reports reveals the gruesome and stark reality that lies
hidden behind what is actually “open-source and public” medical literature that, for reasons unknown, the general public will rarely see. Perhaps
the difficulty in finding representative material is an obstacle. Maybe the
complexities surrounding the issue are an impediment to fruitful searches.
This PDF was created for these reasons. Admittedly, this is a large collection of data that can’t be examined properly in a weekend. Yet the totality
of the data is what’s so very important. If one person told us that repeatedly
injecting aluminum, mercury, antigens or excipients could be dangerous we
might question the theory but when 100s of professionals make a medically
supported claim, we should listen closely, don’t you think?
The vaccine industry is rife with corruption and fraud and that’s about the
only thing that isn’t actually printed. The human damage and the collateral toll from vaccination is carefully recorded and this collection discloses
some of that harm. While there may be 1000 peer reviewed reports here,
I can assure you that there are 1000s more just the same. This collection
provides the reader with the peer review that is less complex and easier to
understand. Some of you, hopefully, will research the more complex issues
further on your own using terms, authors and subject matter found here.
If you take the time to read all of the reports collected here you’ll come to
understand certain uncomfortable realities. For example, that all of the 350plus vaccines currently in use are nothing more than population-wide experiments. The pre-licensing trials are so short and with small cohorts and they

use only very healthy, robust people, that they can’t gain any knowledge at
all regarding adverse events in the general population. It’s common knowledge within the industry that a vaccine isn’t tested and that adverse events
are virtually unknown, until after it’s been used for some time in large segments of the population. Several years to a decade or more later they may
find that there are serious problems related to a particular vaccine. This is
what happened with Thimerosal. The scientific evidence came in decades
later that autism, neurological disorders and other human diseases were promoted by and often caused by Thimerosal. You’ll read peer reviewed reports
here from respected journals about the epidemic human damage and the
cover-up. In fact, if not for the cover-up we might have been able to reduce
or even eventually halt the autism epidemic. Instead, the issue has been concealed from the public and Thimerosal was quietly replaced with aluminum.
Thimerosal was not “removed” from vaccines. All Thimerosal-containing
vaccines (TCVs) were used up and the new lots of vaccine were made with
a new adjuvant.
Various aluminum salts, adjuvants used in many vaccines, may be even
more insidious than Thimerosal. Numerous authors from around the world
believe so. A new disease, encompassing nearly 100 different disorders and
affecting as many as 50 million people in the US, has been named and studied. ASIA, autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants, was
officially named by the medical research community in 2013. To paraphrase
one of the authors within these pages, we’ve reached a point in time where
the damage from vaccines has exceeded the hoped for protection from disease. To paraphrase further, childhood illnesses like chicken pox, measles,
mumps and others are “challenge viruses” that strengthen the immune system and we’ve removed a significant and very important immune fortifying
evolutionary step from humankind by vaccinating.

rophagic Myofasciitis (MMF), Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Alzheimers Disease (AD), Learning Disabilities (ADHD), Arthritis, Inflammatory Bowel
Disease, Crohn’s Disease (CD), Autoimmune And Inflammatory Syndrome
Induced By Adjuvants (ASIA), Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas, Allergies, Asthma and nearly 100 more diseases and disorders are all reaching
epidemic proportions. They’re all caused by vaccines.
Yet the greatest human epidemic of the 20th and 21st centuries will be the
enormous spectrum of neurological and biological symptoms and complications associated with autism, ADHD and learning disabilities. Taken together, these neuro-bio-disorders affect one in 6 children in the USA and
they are directly related to the US vaccine schedule.
The material collected herein will inform the reader that vaccines cause
disorders that increase the profits on tablet and capsule style drugs substantially and that vaccines are not safe, nor are they effective. The collateral
damage currently being caused by what the reader will come to know as a
very primitive and largely unknown and unproven science, is beyond imaginable and beyond description. It requires 100s of pages of text to accurately
describe the full gamut of human damage caused by the global vaccination
programs and that’s exactly what we’ve collected here.

Misleading advertising campaigns with deceptive and often times unproven claims accompanied by well organized sham-marketing strategies have
completely misled the average consumer who buys vaccines like lattes. The
resulting tragedy is a series of epidemics of disease and disorder that translates into nothing short of the very definition of the word “pandemic.”

The reports within these pages were written by many celebrated, accomplished and esteemed authors who are well known within their fields, independent authors whose integrity hasn’t been compromised by influence or
wealth. Represented here are hundreds of prominent and duly recognized
medical professionals and specialists, scientists, clinicians and researchers
from around the world, people such as Dr. Christopher Exley, one of the
worlds leading experts on Aluminum, and whose sense of humor in the face
of extraordinary, planet-wide adversity, is a welcomed respite. I hope you’ll
become acquainted with Dr. Jose Dorea, Dr. CA Shaw, Dr. Harold Buttram,
Dr. Joachim Mutter, Dr. Russell Blaylock and Dr. Lucija Tomljenovic and
their varied, prescient and wholly honest writing styles. There are many
others. These are just some of my favorites. Look for them and read what
they have to say and your understanding of vaccination will grow accordingly. After all, they’re writing to you.

Across the globe the vaccination programs have traded several childhood
diseases for nearly 100 new disorders many of which were virtually unknown just a century ago. Measles, mumps, rubella, chicken pox and other
tolerable, “immune system fortifying” childhood illnesses have been replaced by epidemics, and I’m not using that word lightly. Epidemics of
Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS), Mac-

These issues are so critically important to these professionals that they write
about them repeatedly. You can literally hear their voices in their writing.
Many of the 100s of authors within these pages may be risking career advancement to expose the truth— that the harm from vaccines has seriously
exceeded the benefit of disease prevention—yet none of these authors have
compromised their morals. Please, listen to them.

Preface
Most of the ingredients in vaccines—including aluminum, mercury, formaldehyde, B2 glycoprotein, Triton X-100®,
Polysorbate or Tween 80®, 60 and 20, 2-Phenoxyethanol, etc.—are neurotoxins, toxic to cells, cell structure and
neurons. Vaccines are designed such that “tissue damage” is a necessary component of antibody creation to acquire
some level of assumed immunity. Tissue damage, cell death or apoptosis are required aspects of vaccination success.
The key is to cause tissue damage without damaging the person herself. After 100 years of vaccination science we
are still as yet unable to achieve that goal. Vaccine damage is ubiquitous.
There are low-responders and non-responders the medical profession fails to discuss publicly and inform us about.
Within every country-population cohort—people that will respond to vaccination with low or zero recognizable titers
and whose immune system simply will not “take” to the vaccine—make up a normal and expected percentage of the
population. Non- and low-responders can be responsible for outbreaks of disease just as fully vaccinated individuals
can acquire and spread the illnesses they were vaccinated for. Vaccination is never, ever 100% and comes with no
guarantees of protection or immunity to disease nor guarantees against serious harm or death.
Historically, the innate immune system was at the forefront of disease defense and it mobilized epithelial barriers
(referring to the skin and the thin tissue covering the body’s surface and lining the alimentary canal and other hollow
structures of the ears, eyes, nose and throat), special lymphocytes called “ natural killer (NK)” cells, plasma proteins
and other immune system components. Vaccination bypasses the innate immune system and directly affects only the
humoral immune system (referring to antibodies in body fluids as distinct from cells).
Decades of bypassing the innate immune system along with removal of common and tolerable childhood “challenge”
diseases—mumps, chicken pox, measles, etc.—has caused a reversal in the way our bodies fight viral and bacterial
infection. Evolutions first line of defense and the faster, stronger primary system, the innate immune system, has
been relegated to second place with vaccination causing the slower acting humoral immune system to occupy the
first line of defense. The result of repeated vaccination to perturb the human immune system into developing antibodies to less than 2 dozen different tolerable childhood ailments—antibodies which have never been proven to be
markers of immunity—has manifest as 100 or more human disorders after little more than 100 years of vaccination.
The epidemic of disease we can now see surrounding us is staggering. The reasons for these epidemics of disease are
outlined herein and are supported not by any individual report or study but by the totality of the collected evidence.
I sincerely hope that the material represented here helps you to
better understand a very important aspect of life in this 21st century.
The link below accesses a collection of 44 full-length reports in PDF format that are
free to download and that are also included herein in shorter abstract form:
https://app.box.com/s/xa75ta0j9jbe05e615gd5xto9ff1mz4a

“It is now universally recognized that we have a steadily growing epidemic
of childhood autism, learning disabilities, and other developmental disorders,
with comparable increases in asthma and allergies.”
Medical Veritas International Inc • 2007

Reminiscences of America’s children in the 1930s
as compared with today, and the possible role of vaccines
in causing retrogressive changes
Editorial
by Harold Buttram, MD, FAACP
5724 Clymer Road Quakertown, PA 18951
HButtrum@woodmed.com
Abstract
It is now universally recognized that we have a steadily growing epidemic of childhood autism, learning disabilities, and other developmental disorders, with comparable increases in asthma and allergies. By any measure now
available, these conditions were rare during the 1930s and 1940s. If this trend is to be reversed, we must seek for
causes.
As largely disclosed during the U.S. Congressional Hearings on issues of vaccine safety, which took place from
1999 to December, 2004, there are gross deficiencies in vaccine safety testing. Because of this lack, we have no
means of identifying or proving adverse reactions when they do occur.
Almost totally lacking until now, the great need is for definitive before-and-after tests specifically designed to
search for adverse effects of vaccines on the neurological and immune systems as well as genetics of our children,
and in findings adverse effects to make appropriate safety modifications in vaccine programs. Over the years
there have been a scattering of before-and-after vaccine tests showing that there can be harm to the immune and
central nervous systems, bringing suspicion on vaccines as an underlying cause of current childhood epidemics.
However, these have always been of limited scale, seldom if ever with adequate follow-up.
In the opinion of this observer, until the safety of vaccine programs can be assured by such testing, any further
mandating of childhood vaccines will remain morally and ethically untenable.
http://www.medicalveritas.com/images/00166.pdf

Lucija Tomljenovic, PhD
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia
828 W. 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L8 tel: 604-875-4111 (68375)

Regarding H.527
Distinguished Members of the Vermont House,
The argument of forcing a parent to vaccinate their child in the name of the “greater good argument” is flawed
both scientifically and ethically. Firstly, all drugs are associated with some risks of adverse reactions. Because
vaccines represent a special category of drugs which are by and large given to healthy individuals, and for prophylaxis against diseases to which an individual may never be exposed, the margin of tolerance for side effects is very
narrow (in fact, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concurs with this point [1]) and careful assessment
of risks versus benefits essential in deciding whether one should be vaccinated or not. Removing the “philosophical exemption” as a means to opt out from vaccination will put vulnerable but otherwise healthy individuals at
risk of serious adverse reactions to vaccinations. Such an outcome should be of concern since cases of permanent
neurodevelopmental disabilities and deaths following vaccination in children with underlying genetic and other
susceptibilities have been firmly established in scientific literature [2-4]. Please consider carefully whether you
wish to be responsible for such potential outcomes should you facilitate this legislation to come to pass.
Secondly, medical ethics demand that vaccination should be carried out with the participant’s full and informed
consent. This necessitates an objective disclosure of the known or foreseeable vaccination benefits and risks. The
way in which pediatric vaccines are often promoted by various health authorities indicates that such disclosure is
rarely given from the basis of best available knowledge but rather, largely unproven and/or untenable assumptions
on both, vaccine safety and effectiveness. I shall herein elaborate on these arguments.
Is Vaccine Safety Evidence “Rock Solid”?
The statement by Dr Chen that “the science behind vaccination safety is rock solid” is factually inaccurate and
contradicts a large body of scientific literature published on this subject [3-35]. As with any medication, vaccines
can carry risks of adverse reactions (ADRs). However, in spite of the widespread notion that vaccines are largely
safe and serious adverse complications are extremely rare, a close scrutiny of the scientific literature does not support this view [10-12]. For example, to date the clinical trials that could adequately address vaccine safety issues
have not been conducted (i.e., comparing health outcomes in vaccinated versus non-vaccinated children). The
lack of such controlled trials may be because historically, vaccines have been assumed safe [12]. There is also a
view that conducting such trials would be extraordinarily difficult or unethical; the first is simply not correct, the
second is not a scientific issue per se.
It is also often assumed that vaccines face a tougher safety standard than most pharmaceutical products. However,
according to the U.S. FDA, “Historically, the non-clinical safety assessment for preventive vaccines has often not
included toxicity studies in animal models. This is because vaccines have not been viewed as inherently toxic”
[1]. This is a startling admission from an Agency which according to its own mission statement is ”responsible for
protecting the public health by assuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs”[36]. Essentially, what the FDA workshop [1] revealed is that not only are vaccines not adequately evaluated for toxicity but
also, that the reason for such an oversight rested on a belief rather than scientific evidence. Science is not a religion

in which dogmatic statements of faith can replace adequately powered, controlled, longitudinal vaccine safety studies in animals and people. Furthermore, such assumptions of safety, in the absence of actual experimental data, are
not only dangerous but have historically hampered serious scrutiny of potential vaccine harms.
To illustrate a recent example of grave consequences that resulted from pushing a poorly tested vaccine to young
children, note that there have been a large numbers of major ADRs from seasonal influenza vaccines. Consequently, they have been suspended for use in children under five years of age in Australia. In a series of Rapid Responses
addressing this issue, published in British Medical Journal, titled “Adverse events following influenza vaccination
in Australia-should we be surprised?” Collignon (Director of Infectious Diseases & Microbiology at Australian
National University) and colleagues from the Cochrane Collaboration review panel concluded: “There is poor
evidence on how well influenza vaccines prevent any influenza complications in children and other age groups.
There is good evidence that influenza vaccines study reports cherry pick results and achieve spurious notoriety.
Exposing human beings to uncertain effects is a risky business” [25].The authors also noted that worldwide, the
recommendations from public health authorities regarding influenza vaccination has been “misguided”[26].
It important to note that even those in the scientific community who are strong proponents of vaccinations have
come to question the scientific legitimacy of “one-size fits all” vaccination practices [37]. For example, Poland
(Editor in Chief of the journal Vaccine and co-author of “The age-old struggle against the antivaccinationists”
[38]) and colleagues rightly ask whether “with the advances coming from the new biology of the 21st Century”,
it is time to consider “how might new genetic and molecular biology information inform vaccinology practices of
the future?” [37]. In light of this question Poland et al. conclude that “one-size fits all” approach for all vaccines
and all persons should be abandoned. According to Poland, this conclusion applies to both vaccine efficacy, as
well as safety [37]. Regarding the latter, the widely held view that serious vaccine-related ADRs are rare needs
revision, as current worldwide vaccination policies indeed operate on “one-size fits all” assumption. This assumption persists despite the fact that historically, vaccine trials have routinely excluded vulnerable individuals with
a variety of pre-existing conditions (i.e., premature birth, personal or family history of developmental delay or
neurologic disorders including epilepsy/seizures, hypersensitivity to vaccine constituents etc. [39-43]). Because
of such selection bias, the occurrence of serious ADRs resulting from vaccinations may be considerably underestimated. As mentioned previously, such an outcome should be of concern in view of documented evidence of
permanent neurodevelopmental disabilities and deaths following vaccination in children with underlying genetic
and other susceptibilities [2-4]. Poland et al.’s current data may thus have far broader implications for understanding vaccines, not only in terms of efficacy and the desired immune response, but also in terms of safety. Indeed,
vulnerable populations will neither have the same antibody response nor the same level of tolerance to serious
ADRs as non-vulnerable populations [37,44].
The Quality of Existing Vaccine Safety Data
A further obfuscation of the actual rate of serious vaccine-associated ADRs may also be due to methodological inadequacy of existing vaccine trials (i.e, the frequent exclusion of individuals with potential pre-existing susceptibilities to vaccine-associated ADRs) [12], and due to the fact that the vast majority of such trials use an aluminum
adjuvant-containing placebo or another aluminum-containing vaccine as the “control group” [45]. That aluminum
is a demonstrated neurotoxin has been known for over 100 years [46] and in this context, it is becoming clear to
a number of investigators that its use as a placebo control is scientifically untenable [45,47].
Furthermore, with regard to the studies which allegedly demonstrably show no link between autism and vaccines,
it has to be emphasized that once such studies undergo proper expert scrutiny, the “evidence” against the link
becomes rather flimsy. In reviewing the published literature on measles- mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine (139

studies), the respected Cochrane Collaboration review panel concluded that, “The design and reporting of safety outcomes in
MMR vaccine studies, both pre- and post-marketing, are largely inadequate” [48]. Moreover, none of the 31 studies that were
included in the review met the Cochrane Collaboration’s methodological criteria. More specifically, referring to the 2001 Fombonne and Chakrabarti study [49] which was widely regarded by medical health authorities as most persuasive in disproving the
link between the MMR vaccine and autism, the Cochrane Collaboration commented the following: “The number and possible
impact of biases in this study was so high that interpretation of the results is impossible” [48]. Although the Cochrane Review
on the safety of MMR concluded that there was no credible link between MMR vaccination and autism and Crohn’s disease, as
pointed out earlier, the majority of the studies included in the evaluation were methodologically inadequate. The question thus is
what “credible” or “rock solid” evidence can be derived from inadequate studies?
Demonstrated Toxicity of Vaccine Constituents
Vaccines contain known neurotoxins (i.e., mercury, aluminum, formaldehyde), potent adjuvants designed to hyperstimulate the
immune system, as well as various antigenic compounds [10,50] albeit all in relatively small amounts. Thus a typical vaccine
formulation contains all the necessary biochemical components to induce both autoimmune as well as neuoroimmune disorders. The question is not whether these compounds are in vaccines or if they are toxic, rather if in such concentrations alone or
combined, they can harm the nervous and other systems. Experimental evidence indeed shows that some of these constituents
(mercury and aluminum) can cause long-term neurological impairments in animal models when individually administered in
vaccine-relevant human exposures [7,51-57].
Furthermore, data also demonstrate that over-stimulating the host’s immune system by repeated immunization with immune
antigens and/or adjuvants inevitably leads to autoimmunity even in genetically non-susceptible animals [58,59]. Specifically,
simultaneous administration of as little as two to three immune adjuvants can overcome genetic resistance to autoimmunity [59].
Yet in spite of these observations, according to the current U.S. immunization schedule by the time children are 4 to 6 years old,
they will have received a total of 126 antigenic compounds along with high amounts of Al adjuvants [10].
Given the scarcity of evidence of safety of the combined pediatric schedule and the fact that administration of only a few vaccines in human adults can lead to brain dysfunction and a variety of autoimmune conditions [8,16,17,19], the concerns about the
overall safety of current childhood vaccination programs are scientifically plausible and thus require urgent consideration [10].
Full Report with References
http://www.vaxchoicevt.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Lucija-Tomljenovic-PhD-letter.pdf
https://app.box.com/s/ev8bhi6vb3rofhrkavum3v3hpt2xlil9
http://vaccinechoicecanada.com/wp-content/uploads/Forced-Vaccinations-For-the-Greater-Good-Tomljenovic.pdf

“According to the Autism Society of America, autism is now considered to be an epidemic.”
Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part B, Critical Review • November 2006

Evidence of toxicity, oxidative stress, and neuronal insult in autism
Author information
Kern JK1, Jones AM.
Department of Psychiatry
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas
Dallas, Texas 75390-9119, USA
janet.kern@UTSouthwestern.edu
Abstract
According to the Autism Society of America, autism is now considered to be an epidemic. The increase in the rate
of autism revealed by epidemiological studies and government reports implicates the importance of external or
environmental factors that may be changing. This article discusses the evidence for the case that some children
with autism may become autistic from neuronal cell death or brain damage sometime after birth as result of insult;
and addresses the hypotheses that toxicity and oxidative stress may be a cause of neuronal insult in autism. The
article first describes the Purkinje cell loss found in autism, Purkinje cell physiology and vulnerability, and the
evidence for postnatal cell loss. Second, the article describes the increased brain volume in autism and how it may
be related to the Purkinje cell loss. Third, the evidence for toxicity and oxidative stress is covered and the possible
involvement of glutathione is discussed. Finally, the article discusses what may be happening over the course of
development and the multiple factors that may interplay and make these children more vulnerable to toxicity,
oxidative stress, and neuronal insult.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17090484

Medical Veritas • 2005

Vaccination and autoimmunity:
reassessing evidence
Marc Girard, MSc, MD
1 bd de la République
78000-Versailles, France
Phone:+330139670110
Fax:+330139670111
agosgirard@free.fr
Abstract
The autoimmune risks of vaccines seem frequently overlooked. Whereas most available
vaccinations are supposed to produce long-lasting immunity, the fact that they can also
produce long-term detrimental immune effects seems to be ignored as evidenced by the
short duration of safety studies during development. Likewise, whereas it seems natural
to simply rely on surrogate markers, such as antibodies, to demonstrate vaccine efficacy,
the levels of evidence required to acknowledge adverse effects is far higher. Reports to
the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) are deemed more conclusive
when reassuring than when suggesting significant toxicity. As a result of these blatant
biases in clinical and/or epidemiological research, experts on autoimmunity and vaccine
critics are limited to demonstrating theoretical mechanisms because evidence in practice
is lacking.
Known as the bias of the selective assessment, this unbalance in the demonstration of the
benefits as compared to the risks is the bête noire of evidence-based medicine. Therefore, when readjusted to the demonstrative level normally viewed as sufficient in clinical
research in general and in vaccine science specifically, the corpus of data on the autoimmune hazards of vaccines appears certainly more impressive than generally recognized
and calls for further research, for an overall reassessment of the benefit/risk ratio of vaccines including multiple vaccinations. Because vaccines are now aimed at preventing
diseases which may be quite rare, the Hippocratic principle of prudence is more than
ever a very topical issue.
Many other examples of poor methodology, selective assessment or dissimulation of
data could be given. This suggests that research and development on vaccines are still at
the zero- level of evidence-based medicine (EBM).
As assessed with the same units of measure used with other drugs, some vaccines and
specifically the hepatitis B vaccine have an unacceptable benefit/risk ratio, especially in
countries where the diseases they claim to control are not endemic.
For obvious reasons of profit, the threats to the scientific and medical ethics of our job
have reached a worrying level: it is the personal responsibility of each of us to resist
– and to support those who are the most under pressure.
http://www.know-vaccines.org/PDF/VaccinationAutoimmunity.pdf

“The autoimmune risks of vaccines
seem frequently overlooked. Many other examples
of poor methodology, selective assessment or dissimulation
of data could be given. This suggests that research and
development on vaccines are still at the zero-level
of evidence-based medicine (EBM) ... It is the personal
responsibility of each of us to resist”

Pace Environmental Law Review, vol. 28, no. 2 • 2011

Unanswered Questions
A Review of Compensated Cases of Vaccine-Induced Brain Injury
by Mary Holland, Louis Conte, Robert Krakow and Lisa Colin
Executive Summary
In 1986, Congress created the Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) under the National Childhood
Vaccine Injury Act (1986 Law). This Program has original jurisdiction for children’s claims of vaccine injury.
Because almost all children receive multiple vaccinations for daycare and school, it is critically important that the
Program provides fundamental fairness, due process and transparency.
This empirical investigation, published in a peer-reviewed law journal, examines claims that the VICP compensated for vaccine-induced encephalopathy and seizure disorder. The VICP has compensated approximately 2,500
claims of vaccine injury since the inception of the program. This study found 83 cases of acknowledged vaccineinduced brain damage that include autism, a disorder that affects speech, social communication and behavior. In
21 published cases of the Court of Federal Claims, which administers the VICP, the Court stated that the petitioners had autism or described autism unambiguously. In 62 remaining cases, the authors identified settlement agreements where Health and Human Services (HHS) compensated children with vaccine-induced brain damage, who
also have autism or an autism spectrum disorder.

“Using publicly available information,
the investigation shows that the Vaccine Injury
Compensation Program (VICP) has been
compensating cases of vaccine-induced brain
damage associated with autism for more than
twenty years. This investigation suggests that

Parents reported the existence of autism in telephone interviews and supplied supplemental materials including medical diagnoses, school records, and completed, standard autism screening questionnaires to verify their
reports. In 39 of the 83 cases, or 47% of the cases of vaccine injury reviewed, there is confirmation of autism or
autism spectrum disorder beyond parental report.

officials at HHS, the Department of Justice and the

This finding of autism in compensated cases of vaccine injury is significant. U.S. government spokespeople have
been asserting no vaccine-autism link for more than a decade. This finding calls into question the decisions of the
Court of Federal Claims in the Omnibus Autism Proceeding in 2009 and 2010 and the statement of Health and
Human Services on its website that “HHS has never concluded in any case that autism was caused by vaccination.”

this association but failed to publicly disclose it.”

Using publicly available information, the investigation shows that the VICP has been compensating cases of vaccine-induced brain damage associated with autism for more than twenty years. This investigation suggests that
officials at HHS, the Department of Justice and the Court of Federal Claims may have been aware of this association but failed to publicly disclose it.
The study calls on Congress to thoroughly investigate the VICP, including a medical investigation of compensated claims of vaccine injury. This investigation calls on Congress to get answers to these critically important
unanswered questions.
http://www.ebcala.org/unanswered-questions

Court of Federal Claims may have been aware of

“This eBook is free because the truth should always be free”
~ Jeff Prager

Chapter One
The Business Of Manufacturing Biologics
1969 - 2015
If the global vaccination programs are causing epidemic incidents of death and disease, and they are, then it’s our
responsibility to do something about it and revealing it using respected, independent peer review is a critically important component of that exposure. Here we provide basic insight into the highly complex and tricky business of
manufacturing injectable products. Laboratory creation of safe injectable’s is a dirty business fraught with risk and
unpredictable circumstances at every turn. Viruses mutate and new viruses appear out of nowhere to sully the product. Most, if not all, vaccine lots are contaminated. Enteroviruses, pestiviruses, DNA and RNA fragments, bovine
and porcine viruses and other components of the virus manufacturing process remain in the final product. We’re
told there’s no harm related to injecting these vagrant particles but the truth is, there’s absolutely no scientific data
to support that claim. Mutating viruses with the high potential for undiscovered contamination will eventually win
over man in his misguided attempt to repeatedly vaccinate every living human being. We’re each faced with almost
200 vaccines in our lifetime—128 antigen, adjuvant and excipient injections by adulthood if the vaccine schedule
is followed—and that extraordinary volume of repeatedly injected material is now causing devastating populationwide effects. The increase in disease and disorder is readily apparent to anyone that looks. This chapter describes
the dirty business of biological manufacturing.

“A cell line (MDCK) of dog kidney origin grows on a glass surface
as a mosaic of epithelium with many multicellular hemispherical vesicles. The cells lining the blisters
actively secrete into the cyst cavities. Suspensions of these cells injected intravenously in the chick embryo
produce brain metastases resembling adenocarcinoma.”
Science • January 1969

Secretory activity and oncogenicity of a cell line (MDCK)
derived from canine kidney
A cell line (MDCK) of dog kidney origin grows on a glass surface as a mosaic of epithelium with many multicellular hemispherical vesicles. The cells lining the blisters actively secrete into the cyst cavities. Suspensions of
these cells injected intravenously in the chick embryo produce brain metastases resembling adenocarcinoma.
[Editors Note: The MDCK (NBL-2) (ATCC® CCL-34™) cell line
has been used since 1958 to produce influenza and other vaccines]
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/163/3866/472.long
MDCK cell line:
http://www.atcc.org/products/all/CCL-34.aspx

“The phage contamination of virus
vaccines and its possible consequences
need further investigations.”
Journal of Biological Standardization
Volume 3, Issue 3, July 1975
Pages 307–308

Bacteriophage contamination
in live poliovirus vaccine
by Hedda Milch†, F. Fornosi†
Abstract
Bacteriophages lytic for Escherichia coli strains were isolated from two
lots of oral poliomyelitis vaccine. From one ultracentrifuged sample bacteriophages of four different plaque patterns were demonstrable with E. coli
C 3000 (2·8 × 102 PFU/ml) and E. coli (1·1 × 102 PFU/ml) as indicator
strains. The phage contamination of virus vaccines and its possible consequences need further investigations.
Purchase Price - $31.50
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0092115775900347

“The determination of the total 5,224 base-pair DNA sequence of the virus SV40
has enabled us to locate precisely the known genes on the genome.”
Nature • May 1978

Complete nucleotide sequence of SV40 DNA
Fiers W, Contreras R, Haegemann G, Rogiers R, Van de Voorde A,
Van Heuverswyn H, Van Herreweghe J, Volckaert G, Ysebaert M.
Abstract
The determination of the total 5,224 base-pair DNA sequence of the virus
SV40 has enabled us to locate precisely the known genes on the genome. At
least 15.2% of the genome is presumably not translated into polypeptides.
Particular points of interest revealed by the complete sequence are the initiation of the early t and T antigens at the same position and the fact that
the T antigen is coded by two non-contiguous regions of the genome; the T
antigen mRNA is spliced in the coding region. In the late region the gene for
the major protein VP1 overlaps those for proteins VP2 and VP3 over 122
nucleotides but is read in a different frame. The almost complete amino acid
sequences of the two early proteins as well as those of the late proteins have
been deduced from the nucleotide sequence. The mRNAs for the latter three
proteins are presumably spliced out of a common primary RNA transcript.
The use of degenerate codons is decidedly non-random, but is similar for the
early and late regions. Codons of the type NUC, NCG and CGN are absent
or very rare.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/205802

“Preservatives in multidose vaccine vials do not prevent short-term bacterial contamination.”
Pediatrics • February 1985

Outbreaks of group A streptococcal abscesses
following diphtheria-tetanus toxoid-pertussis vaccination
Stetler HC, Garbe PL, Dwyer DM, Facklam RR,
Orenstein WA, West GR, Dudley KJ, Bloch AB.
Abstract
Two outbreaks of group A streptococcal abscesses following receipt of diphtheria-tetanus toxoid-pertussis (DTP)
vaccine from different manufacturers were reported to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in 1982. The clustering of the immunization times of cases, the isolation of the same serotype of Streptococcus from all cases in
each outbreak, and the absence of reported abscesses associated with receipt of the same lots of vaccine in other
regions of the country, suggest that each outbreak was probably caused by contamination of a single 15-dose vial
of vaccine. The preservative thimerosal was present within acceptable limits in unopened vials from the same lot
of DTP vaccine in each outbreak. Challenge studies indicate that a strain of Streptococcus from one of the patients
can survive up to 15 days in DTP vaccine at 4 degrees C. Contamination of vials during manufacturing would
have required survival of streptococci for a minimum of 8 months. Preservatives in multidose vaccine vials do
not prevent short-term bacterial contamination. Options to prevent further clusters of streptococcal abscesses are
discussed. The only feasible and cost-effective preventive measure now available is careful attention to sterile
technique when administering vaccine from multidose vials.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3881728

Lancet • April 1987

Possible Role Of Pestiviruses In Microcephaly
Author Information
BarbaraJ. Potts, JohnL. Sever, NancyR. Tzan, David Huddleston, GregoryA. Elder
Infectious Diseases Branch
National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
Abstract
“The background of this suggestion was that, first, although usually a pathogen in
cattle and sheep, pestivirus infection can occur in children (Yolken et al. 1989). Second, an association has been reported between pestivirus exposure and microcephaly
in newborns (Potts et al. 1987), which might be due to a generalized reduction in white
matter bulk. Third, dysmyelination (Potts et al. 1985, Anderson et al. 1987b), frank
brain damage (Hewicker-Trautwein and Trautwein 1994), and hypothyroxinemia
(Anderson et al. 1987a) are characteristics of perinatal pestivirus infection in lamb
models, are found in preterm infants (Leviton and Gilles 1996, Reuss et al. 1997), and
are associated with each other among preterm infants (Den Ouden et al. 1996, Leviton
et al. 1999). “
Report available for purchase
http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(87)90311-4/abstract

“... an association has been reported
between pestivirus exposure and microcephaly
in newborns, which might be due to a generalized reduction
in white matter bulk. Third, dysmyelination, frank brain
damage and hypothyroxinemia are characteristics of
perinatal pestivirus infection in lamb models, are found
in preterm infants, and are associated with
each other among preterm infants ...”

“Vaccine produced on contaminated cells may in turn be contaminated,
leading to seroconversion or disease in the vaccine.”
Developments In Biological Standardization • 1991

Bovine viral diarrhea virus contamination
of nutrient serum, cell cultures and viral vaccines
Author information
Levings RL1, Wessman SJ.
National Veterinary Services Laboratories
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
USDA, Ames, IA 50010
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection is common in the bovine population.
Infection in utero leads to virus and antibody contamination of the fetal bovine serum used in cell cultures. These contaminants can interfere with diagnosis of viral
infection. The high frequency of virus and antibody detection in individual animal
or small pool samples suggests that any large pool of unscreened sera will be contaminated. Infection of cell cultures with BVDV can lead to interference with the
growth of other viruses. Vaccine produced on contaminated cells may in turn be
contaminated, leading to seroconversion or disease in the vaccine. The safety, purity,
and efficacy of viral vaccines require BVDV testing of ingredients, cell substrates
and final product. Methods for detection of BVDV in nutrient serum, cell cultures,
seed viruses, and viral vaccines, and the frequency of their detection at the National
Veterinary Services Laboratories are discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1665461

Developments In Biological Standardization • 1991

Viral contamination of fetal bovine serum
used for tissue culture: risks and concerns
Author information
Erickson GA1, Bolin SR, Landgraf JG.
Rollins Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory
Raleigh, NC 27605
Abstract
Four viral contaminants have been routinely detected in unprocessed and commercial lots of fetal bovine serum: bacteriophage, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, parainfluenza-3 and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Of those, BVDV
is consistently present in a majority of commercial lots of fetal bovine serum.
Methods for BVDV detection and removal are reviewed. The tentative role of
an unclassified pestivirus in microcephaly of infants has been reported. Its significance remains uncertain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1665460

“Four viral contaminants have been routinely detected in
unprocessed and commercial lots of fetal bovine serum:
bacteriophage, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis,
parainfluenza-3 and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV).
Of those, BVDV is consistently present in a majority of
commercial lots of fetal bovine serum. Methods for BVDV
detection and removal are reviewed. The tentative role of
an unclassified pestivirus in microcephaly of infants has
been reported. Its significance remains uncertain.”

Journal Of Clinical Microbiology • June 1994

Evidence of pestivirus RNA in human virus vaccines
Author information
Harasawa R1, Tomiyama T.
Animal Center for Biomedical Research
Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
We examined live virus vaccines against measles, mumps, and rubella for the presence of pestivirus RNA or of pestiviruses by reverse transcription PCR. Pestivirus
RNA was detected in two measles-mumps-rubella combined vaccines and in two
monovalent vaccines against mumps and rubella. Nucleotide sequence analysis of
the PCR products indicated that a modified live vaccine strain used for immunization of cattle against bovine viral diarrhea is not responsible for the contamination
of the vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8077414

“Pestivirus RNA was detected
in two measles-mumps-rubella combined vaccines
and in two monovalent vaccines against
mumps and rubella.”

“Sixty-one % of the neoplastic patients positive for SV40 sequences
had an age excluding exposure to SV40-contaminated polio vaccines, suggesting a contagious transmission of SV40.”
Cancer Research • October 1996

SV40 early region and large T antigen
in human brain tumors, peripheral blood cells, and
sperm fluids from healthy individuals
Author information
Martini F1, Iaccheri L, Lazzarin L, Carinci P, Corallini A,
Gerosa M, Iuzzolino P, Barbanti-Brodano G, Tognon M.
Institute of Histology and General Embryology
School of Medicine, University of Ferrara, Italy
Abstract
SV40 T antigen (Tag) coding sequences were detected by PCR amplification followed by Southern blot hybridization in
human brain tumors and tumor cell lines, as well as in peripheral blood cells and sperm fluids of healthy donors. SV40
early region sequences were found in 83% of choroid plexus papillomas, 73% of ependymomas, 47% of astrocytomas,
33% of glioblastoma multiforme cases, 14% of meningiomas, 50% of glioblastoma cell lines, and 33% of astrocytoma
cell lines and in 23% of peripheral blood cell samples and 45% of sperm fluids from normal individuals. None of the
13 normal brain tissues were positive for SV40 DNA, nor were seven oligodendrogliomas, two spongioblastomas, one
neuroblastoma, one meningioma, or four neuroblastoma cell lines. Expression of SV40 early region was found by reverse transcription PCR, and SV40-specific Tag was detected by indirect immunofluorescence in glioblastoma cell lines.
DNA sequence analysis, performed in four positive samples, confirmed that the amplified PCR products belong to the
SV40 early region. Sixty-one % of the neoplastic patients positive for SV40 sequences had an age excluding exposure
to SV40-contaminated polio vaccines, suggesting a contagious transmission of SV40. The possible role of SV40 Tag in
the etiopathogenesis of human brain tumors and the spread of SV40 by horizontal infection in the human population are
discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8841004

Biologicals • December 1996

Application of PCR for detection of
mycoplasma DNA and pestivirus RNA
in human live viral vaccines
Author information
Sasaki T1, Harasawa R, Shintani M, Fujiwara H,
Sasaki Y, Horino A, Kenri T, Asada K, Kato I, Chino F.
Department of Safety Research on Biologics
National Institute of Health, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
PCR techniques were applied for the detection of mycoplasma DNA and
pestivirus RNA to 43 lots of live viral vaccines (measles, mumps, rubella,
and oral poliomyelitis) produced by six manufacturers in Japan. Although
mycoplasma DNA was not detected in any of the vaccines tested, pestivirus RNA was detected in 12 lots (28%). The incidence of contamination
among the four viral vaccines was in the range of 20 to 37%, and the incidence among the six manufacturers varied from 0 to 56%.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9088554

“The incidence of contamination
among the four viral vaccines was
in the range of 20 to 37%, and the
incidence among the six manufacturers
varied from 0 to 56%.”

“These issues have received relatively little attention hitherto but are likely to achieve
greater prominence as development of such preparations proceeds.”
Developments In Biological Standardization • 1996

Reasons for instability
of bacterial vaccines
Author information
Corbel MJ.
Division of Bacteriology
National Institute for Biological Standards & Control
Potters Bar, United Kingdom
Abstract
Stability problems in relation to bacterial vaccines vary widely between different types of product. Killed whole cell bacterial vaccines including pertussis, cholera and typhoid vaccines generally show a high degree of stability of potency. Reversion to toxicity may occur in incompletely inactivated pertussis vaccines. Live attenuated vaccines such as BCG and Ty21a
typhoid vaccines lose potency through loss of viability when exposed to adverse conditions. Both vaccines are susceptible
to ultra violet radiation but Ty21a also has low thermal stability. Its fragility is probably a consequence of multiple mutations affecting structural and metabolic factors. Diphtheria and tetanus toxoids generally show high stability of potency.
Reversion to toxicity may occur if the toxoiding process is inadequate. Decline in potency may result from exposure to adverse conditions, such as freezing, that affect the interaction with the adjuvant. Similar problems may be encountered with
purified subunit vaccines such as acellular pertussis preparations. Some components, in particular pertussis toxin and filamentous haemagglutinin, show inherent low stability and degrade on storage at refrigerator temperatures unless stabilized
by a protein cross-linking agent. Bacterial proteases carried over from the cell cultures may also be responsible for degradation of purified components. Purified bacterial polysaccharides usually show high stability if freeze-dried under appropriate
conditions. Catalytic degradation may occur however, if the stabilizers are of inadequate purity. Polysaccharide-protein
conjugates such as Haemophilus influenzae b (Hib) polyribosylribityl phosphate-protein conjugates show high thermal
stability if freeze dried. In the liquid state, such conjugates tend to degrade by hydrolysis of the polysaccharide chains.
Combined vaccines may present special stability problems because of the interaction of the various components in the liquid state. It can be difficult to freeze-dry some components of such vaccines, particularly aluminium hydroxide-adsorbed
diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) components. Slow release vaccines based on polyglycolide-factolide microspheres may
show suboptimal stability of encapsulated antigen under both in vitro conditions as a result of gradual acidification through
polymer hydrolysis. Vaccines based on the use of live recombinant strains to express heterologous protective antigens may
present special stability problems. Apart from the carrier strains, heterologous genes carried on plasmids may be subject to
spontaneous deletion under adverse conditions. These issues have received relatively little attention hitherto but are likely
to achieve greater prominence as development of such preparations proceeds.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8854008

Monaldi Archives For Chest Disease • April 1998

Simian virus 40 and human cancer
Author information
Mutti L1, Carbone M,
Giordano GG, Giordano A.
S. Maugeri Foundation, IRCCS
Rehabilitation Institute of Veruno/Varallo S., Italy
Abstract
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) oncoviruses can induce neoplastic transformation by interfering with proliferative proteins. Simian virus 40
(SV40) has been shown to induce brain tumors, osteosarcoma, lymphoid
tumors and malignant mesothelioma in hamsters and SV40-like DNA
sequences corresponding to the Rb-pocket binding domain of SV40 Tantigen (Tag) have been detected in the same human tumors. Since only
a small percentage of people exposed to asbestos fibers develop a malignant mesothelioma, SV40 has been suspected to co-operate with the
fibers in the neoplastic transformation or even to itself induce the onset
of malignant mesothelioma in patients without expositive history. The
mechanism that seems to be involved in the SV40-induced carcinogenesis process is mediated by interaction of Tag, both with p53 and Rb
proteins, leading to their functional inactivation that is responsible for the
removal of their inhibitory cell cycle effect which determines the increase
of the number of cells entering the G1-S phase. Up to now the source
of SV40 human infections has not yet been completely identified even
though administration from 1957-1965 of SV40 contaminated polio vaccines is highly suspected. Horizontal infection by sexual transmission has
been also hypothesized. Due to the important public health implications
further investigations are required in order to establish both the source
and the carcinogenetic role of simian virus 40 in humans.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9689809

“Up to now the source of SV40
human infections has not yet been
completely identified even though
administration from 1957-1965 of SV40
contaminated polio vaccines is highly suspected.
Horizontal infection by sexual transmission
has been also hypothesized.”

Monaldi Archives Of Chest Disease • April 1998

The biological activities of simian virus 40
large-T antigen and its possible oncogenic effects in humans
Author information
Matker CM1, Rizzo P, Pass HI, Di Resta I,
Powers A, Mutti L, Kast WM, Carbone M.
Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
Loyola University of Chicago
Maywood, IL 60153, USA
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) is an oncogenic virus which induces tumors in hamsters and transforms human cells in tissue culture. Between 1955 and 1963, polio vaccines and adenovaccines were contaminated with SV40; therefore, millions of people were exposed to this
oncogenic virus. The SV40 proteins responsible for in vivo oncogenesis and in vitro cell
transformation are encoded by the early region of the virus. These proteins are called T
(tumor) antigens (Tags), because animals with tumors induced by SV40 have antibodies
against these viral proteins. Recently, we and other research laboratories have found SV40
in specific types of human tumors: mesothelioma, ependymoma and choroid plexus tumors,
osteosarcoma and sarcoma. The same tumor types will develop in hamsters which have been
injected systemically with SV40. SV40 causes cell transformation in tissue culture and tumors in animals, because SV40 Tag binds and inactivates the cellular tumor suppressor gene
products, Rb and p53. We found that SV40 Tag binds p53 and Rb in human mesotheliomas,
possibly contributing to the malignant phenotype.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9689808

“Between 1955 and 1963,
polio vaccines and adenovaccines
were contaminated with SV40; therefore,
millions of people were exposed
to this oncogenic virus.”

Monaldi Archives For Chest Diseases • April 1998

The detection of simian virus 40
in human tumors by polymerase chain reaction
Author information
Rizzo P1, Di Resta I, Powers A, Matker CM, Zhang A,
Mutti L, Kast WM, Pass H, Carbone M.
Loyola University of Chicago
Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
Maywood, IL, USA
Abstract
Simian virus (SV) 40 is a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) virus that induces
mesotheliomas, ependymomas, bone tumors, and lymphomas in hamsters.
In recent years SV40 sequences have been detected in approximately 60%
of mesotheliomas and ependymomas, in 33% of bone tumors and sarcomas,
and in 13% of lymphomas. Because the amount of human specimens available for molecular studies is usually minimal, the method most commonly
used to demonstrate SV40 in human specimens is the polymerase chain
reaction (PCR). PCR is a highly sensitive and useful technique. In the PCR
reaction, different sets of primers are used for targeting different regions of
DNA. The regions of the SV40 genome targeted by PCR include the large
T-antigen, the small t-antigen, the origin of replication, and viral protein-1
capsid protein. The use of these different sets of primers to test human tumor specimens for SV40 produce a different percentage of positive results.
This is because these experiments revealed that some primers are more
specific than others which may also detect sequences belonging to other
DNA papovaviruses. Therefore, the combined use of different sets of primers is recommended when it is important to distinguish SV40 from other
related papovaviruses such as BK and JC, which can also be occasionally
present in human cells. Furthermore, these experiments demonstrated that
polymerase chain reaction analyses for simian virus 40 can be performed
better and easier when using deoxyribonucleic acid extracted from fresh
and/or frozen tissue. Deoxyribonucleic acid from paraffin embedded specimens should not be used routinely for simian virus 40 testing because of
the high risk of obtaining false negative results. However, these paraffin
derived deoxyribonucleic acids can be used reliably in molecular laboratories specialized in these type of analyses. This paper describes the methods
that we have developed to test simian virus 40 in human specimens.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9689810

“This paper describes the methods
that we have developed to test simian
virus 40 in human specimens.”

BioDrugs • July 1998

Practical considerations in converting from
plasma-derived to recombinant hepatitis B vaccines
Author information
Lee PI1, Lee CY.
Department of Paediatrics
National Taiwan University Hospital
Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract
Plasma-derived and recombinant vaccines have been developed to prevent hepatitis B
virus infections. Both types of vaccine perform very well with respect to safety, immunogenicity and protective efficacy. The protection afforded by both types of vaccine
is satisfactory for at least 5 to 10 years after vaccination, and a further booster dose
is not necessary during this period. However, the plasma-derived vaccine is costly to
produce and there is an unjustified but prevalent fear that it may be contaminated by
potential pathogens. The supply of human plasma for production of the plasma-derived vaccine cannot be assured once use of hepatitis B vaccines becomes universal.
It is therefore inevitable that the recombinant vaccine will replace the plasma-derived
vaccine. If necessary, both vaccines can be used in combination. Future directions for
hepatitis B vaccine development include: determination of the need for incorporation
of pre-S gene products to enhance immunogenicity; defining a practical strategy to
combat the problem of escape mutants after vaccination; and development of combination vaccines containing other inactivated antigens to allow complete immunisation
against several diseases with a minimal number of injections.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18020583

“the plasma-derived vaccine
is costly to produce and there is
an unjustified but prevalent fear
that it may be contaminated by
potential pathogens. The supply of
human plasma for production of the
plasma-derived vaccine cannot be
assured once use of hepatitis B vaccines
becomes universal.”

Journal Of The National Cancer Institute • January 1999

Cell and molecular biology of simian virus 40:
implications for human infections and disease
Author information
Butel JS1, Lednicky JA.
Division of Molecular Virology
Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, TX 77030-3498, USA
jbutel@bcm.tmc.edu
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40), a polyomavirus of rhesus macaque origin, was
discovered in 1960 as a contaminant of polio vaccines that were distributed to millions of people from 1955 through early 1963. SV40 is a potent DNA tumor virus that induces tumors in rodents and transforms many
types of cells in culture, including those of human origin. This virus has
been a favored laboratory model for mechanistic studies of molecular processes in eukaryotic cells and of cellular transformation. The viral replication protein, named large T antigen (T-ag), is also the viral oncoprotein.
There is a single serotype of SV40, but multiple strains of virus exist that
are distinguishable by nucleotide differences in the regulatory region of
the viral genome and in the part of the T-ag gene that encodes the protein’s
carboxyl terminus. Natural infections in monkeys by SV40 are usually benign but may become pathogenic in immunocompromised animals, and
multiple tissues can be infected. SV40 can replicate in certain types of
simian and human cells. SV40-neutralizing antibodies have been detected
in individuals not exposed to contaminated polio vaccines. SV40 DNA has
been identified in some normal human tissues, and there are accumulating reports of detection of SV40 DNA and/or T-ag in a variety of human
tumors. This review presents aspects of replication and cell transformation
by SV40 and considers their implications for human infections and disease
pathogenesis by the virus. Critical assessment of virologic and epidemiologic data suggests a probable causative role for SV40 in certain human
cancers, but additional studies are necessary to prove etiology.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9923853

“Critical assessment
of virologic and epidemiologic data suggests
a probable causative role for SV40 in certain
human cancers, but additional studies are
necessary to prove etiology.”

“These data suggest that there may be an increased incidence of certain cancers
among the 98 million persons exposed to contaminated polio vaccine in the U.S.”
Anticancer Research • May 1999

Cancer risk associated with
simian virus 40 contaminated polio vaccine
Author information
Fisher SG1, Weber L, Carbone M.
Cancer Cause and Prevention Program
Loyola University Medical Center
Maywood, Illinois 60153, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The presence of SV40 in monkey cell cultures used in the preparation of the polio vaccine from 1955 through 1961
is well documented. Investigations have consistently demonstrated the oncogenic behavior of SV40 in animal models. Early epidemiologic studies were inadequate in demonstrating an increase in cancer incidence associated with
contaminated vaccine. Recently, investigators have provided persuasive evidence that SV40 is present in human
ependymomas, choroid plexus tumors, bone tumors, and mesotheliomas, however, the etiologic role of the virus in
tumorigenesis has not been established.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Using data from SEER, we analyzed the incidence of brain tumors, bone tumors, and mesotheliomas from 1973-1993
and the possible relationship of these tumors with the administration of the SV40 contaminated vaccine.
RESULTS
Our analysis indicates increased rates of ependymomas (37%), osteogenic sarcomas (26%), other bone tumors (34%)
and mesothelioma (90%) among those in the exposed as compared to the unexposed birth cohort.
CONCLUSIONS
These data suggest that there may be an increased incidence of certain cancers among the 98 million persons exposed
to contaminated polio vaccine in the U.S.; further investigations are clearly justified.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10472327

Cancer Research • December 1999

Unique strains of SV40
in commercial poliovaccines from 1955
not readily identifiable with current testing
for SV40 infection
Author information
Rizzo P1, Di Resta I, Powers A, Ratner H, Carbone M.
Loyola University Medical Center, Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
Department of Pathology, Maywood, Illinois 60153, USA
Abstract
SV40 was first identified as a contaminant of poliovaccines used from 1955
until 1963. Recently, SV40 has been detected in several human tumors. The
virus detected in human tumors often contained only one 72-bp enhancer
in the regulatory region, in contrast to the SV40 originally isolated from
poliovaccines, which contained two 72-bp enhancers. The origin of viruses
with one 72-bp enhancer in humans was unknown, because it was thought
that these viruses were not present in poliovaccines. It was also thought that
all poliovaccine vials produced from 1955 until 1963 had been discarded,
thus the possibility that one 72-bp virions contaminated those vials could
not be tested. We unexpectedly obtained what appear to be the last available vials of poliovaccine produced in 1955. In these vials, we detected and
sequenced SV40 containing only one 72-bp enhancer in the regulatory region. The tissue culture cytopathic test currently used in the United States to
screen oral poliovaccines was designed to detect rapidly proliferating SV40
virions containing two 72-bp enhancers. We found that this test is not sensitive enough to detect low amounts of the slow-replicating SV40 virions
containing one 72-bp enhancer. This virus was easily detected in the same
cells by immunostaining and PCR. Twelve current vials of poliovaccines
tested uniformly negative for SV40, suggesting that the precaution of preparing poliovaccines from kidneys obtained from monkeys bred in isolated
colonies prevented SV40 contamination. Our data demonstrate that humans
were exposed to SV40 viruses with both one 72-bp enhancer and two 72-bp
enhancers SV40 through contaminated vaccines. Our data also suggest that
instead of cytopathic tests, immunohistochemical and/or molecular studies
should be used to screen poliovaccines for SV40 to completely eliminate
the risk of occasional contamination.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10626798

“SV40 was first identified as a contaminant
of poliovaccines used from 1955 until 1963.
Recently, SV40 has been detected
in several human tumors.”

“... in litigation involving the Lederle oral polio vaccine,
the manufacturer’s internal documents failed to reveal such removal in all of the seeds.”
Anticancer Research • November 2000

Oral polio vaccine and human cancer:
a reassessment of SV40 as a contaminant based upon legal documents
Author information
Kops SP.
stankops@aol.com
Abstract
To date, the scientific literature and research examining SV40 and cancer-related diseases has been based upon
an assumption that SV40 was not present in any poliovirus vaccine administered in the United States and was
removed from the killed polio vaccine by 1963. The basis for this presumption has been that the regulations for
live oral polio vaccine required that SV40 be removed from the seeds and monovalent pools ultimately produced
in the manufacturing process. The Division of Biologic Standards permitted an additional two tissue culture passages--from three to five--in order to allow manufacturers the ability to remove this contaminant from the oral
poliovirus vaccines then awaiting licensure. The confirmation of the removal by one drug manufacturer, Lederle,
has been made public at an international symposium in January 1997, where its representatives stated that all of
Lederle’s seeds had been tested and screened to assure that it was free from SV40 virus. However, in litigation
involving the Lederle oral polio vaccine, the manufacturer’s internal documents failed to reveal such removal
in all of the seeds. The absence of confirmatory testing of the seeds, as well as testimony of a Lederle manager,
indicate that this claim of removal of SV40 and the testing for SV40 in all the seeds cannot be fully substantiated.
These legal documents and testimony indicate that the scientific community should not be content with prior assumptions that SV40 could not have been in the oral polio vaccine. Only further investigation by outside scientific
and independent researchers who can review the test results claimed in the January 1997 meeting and who can
conduct their own independent evaluations by testing all the seeds and individual mono-valent pools will assure
that SV40 has not been present in commercially sold oral poliovirus vaccine manufactured by Lederle.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11205211

Journal Of Veterinary Medical Science • July 2001

Genotypes of pestivirus RNA
detected in live virus vaccines for human use
Author information
Giangaspero M1, Vacirca G, Harasawa R, Büttner M, Panuccio A,
De Giuli Morghen C, Zanetti A, Belloli A, Verhulst A.
Institute of Special Pathology and Veterinary Medical Clinic
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Milan, Italy
Abstract
Live virus vaccines for human use, 29 monovalent vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella or polio, eight polyvalent vaccines against measlesmumps-rubella and one bacterial polyvalent vaccine against Streptococcus
pneumoniae, were tested by reverse transcriptase-nested PCR for the presence of petivirus or pestivirus RNA. Twenty-four samples were selected
from European manufacturers, ten were from U.S.A. and four from Japan. Five (13.1%) out of 38 tested samples were positive for pestivirus
RNA. Three vaccines (rubella and two measles) were from Europe and two
(mumps and rubella) from Japan. The 5’-untranslated genomic region of the
contaminant pestivirus RNA were amplified by reverse transcription-PCR
and sequenced. Analyses based on primary nucleotide sequence homology
and on secondary structures, characteristic to genotypes, revealed that the
cDNA sequences belonged to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). A cDNA
sequence, detected from one measles sample, belonged to BVDV-1b genotype. Pestiviral cDNA detected from the Japanese mumps and rubella vaccine samples, belonged to the BVDV genotypes 1a and 1c, respectively.
Analysis on two cDNA sequences detected from measles and rubella vaccine samples from Europe showed their appurtenance to a new genotype,
BVDV-1d. These findings indicate that contamination by animal pestivirus
may occur in biological products for human use.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11503899

“Twenty-four samples were selected from European
manufacturers, ten were from U.S.A. and four from Japan.
Five (13.1%) out of 38 tested samples were positive for
pestivirus RNA. Three vaccines (rubella and two measles)
were from Europe and two (mumps and rubella) from Japan.”

Vaccine • October 2001

What are the limits of adjuvanticity?
Author information
Del Giudice G1, Podda A, Rappuoli R.
IRIS Research Center, Chiron SpA, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100, Siena, Italy
Abstract
Vaccines developed traditionally following empirical approaches have often limited problems of immunogenicity,
probably due to the low level of purity of the active component(s) they contain. The application of new technologies to vaccine development is leading to the production of purer (e.g. recombinant) antigens which, however,
tend to have a poorer immunogenicity as compared to vaccines of the previous generation. The search for new
vaccine adjuvants involves issues related to their potential limits. Since the introduction of aluminium salts as
vaccine adjuvants more than 70 years ago, only one adjuvant has been licensed for human use. The development
of some of these new vaccine adjuvants has been hampered by their inacceptable reactogenicity. In addition, some
adjuvants work strongly with some antigens but not with others, thus, limiting their potentially widespread use.
The need to deliver vaccines via alternative routes of administration (e.g. the mucosal routes) in order to enhance
their efficacy and compliance has set new requirements in basic and applied research to evaluate their efficacy
and safety. Cholera toxin (CT) and labile enterotoxin (LT) mutants given along with intranasal or oral vaccines
are strong candidates as mucosal adjuvants. Their potential reactogenicity is still matter of discussions, although
available data support the notion that the effects due to their binding to the cells and those due to the enzymatic
activity can be kept separated. Finally, adjuvanticity is more often evaluated in terms of antigen-specific antibody
titers induced after parenteral immunization. It is known that, in many instances, antigen-specific antibody titers
do not correlate with protection. In addition, very little is known on parameters of cell-mediated immunity which
could be considered as surrogates of protection. Tailoring of new adjuvants for the development of vaccines with
improved immunogenicity/efficacy and reduced reactogenicity will represent one of the major challenges of the
ongoing vaccine-oriented research.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11587808

“Vaccines developed traditionally
following empirical approaches have
often limited problems of immunogenicity,
probably due to the low level of purity
of the active component(s) they contain.”

American Journal Of Health-System Pharmacy • February 2002

Implications of prion-induced diseases
for animal-derived pharmaceutical products
Author information
Erstad BL.
Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science
College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona
1703 E. Mabel Street, Tucson, AZ 85721-0207, USA
Abstract
The implications of prion-induced diseases for the use of medications that
theoretically could harbor the infectious pathogens are discussed. Prions
have been identified as protein particles that lack nucleic acids. There is
evidence that prions cause the transmissible neurodegenerative diseases
known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Of these diseases,
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and the human spongiform encephalopathy to which it has been linked, new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob
disease (CJD), have generated the most attention. The first cases of new
variant CJD appeared in Britain in the mid-1990s. Ingestion of prion-infected beef remains the only known cause of new variant CJD. No cases
of BSE or new variant CJD have been documented in the United States.
The time from exposure to the development of clinical sequelae appears
to be about 10 years. The median duration of illness is 14 months, and
the outcome is invariably death. There is no treatment; currently the only
available approach is prevention. There is no reliable method of predicting the number of new cases that might occur because of lack of definitive
information on the efficiency of transmission from animals to humans and
the number of people currently infected and at risk for infection. The infectivity of medications and plasma fractionation products containing material
from cattle with BSE is unknown, but the risk is believed to be very low.
No cases of such transmission have been identified. Guidelines to keep the
risk of transmission via medications low have been promulgated by FDA,
and further research is warranted. There have been no reports of medications or plasma fractionation products being contaminated with the prions
that cause new variant CJD. Ongoing vigilance and research are appropriate, however.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11862637

“The infectivity of medications
and plasma fractionation products
containing material from cattle
with BSE is unknown, but the risk
is believed to be very low.”

“This analysis confirmed higher concentrations of endotoxin
in whole-cell DTP vaccines compared with DTaP or DT vaccines.
As high concentrations of endotoxin may be correlated with a higher incidence of adverse events ...”
Annals Of Pharmacotherapeutics • May 2002

Clinical implications of endotoxin concentrations in vaccines
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
Genetic Centers of America, 14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD 20905-5726, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
A previous study suggested that high concentrations of endotoxin may be present in whole-cell diphtheria/tetanus/pertussis (DTP) vaccine, and the scientific literature contains many studies examining the reactivity of whole-cell DTP vaccine. The medical and scientific
communities have previously reported that the presence of endotoxin in commercial vaccines may have negative effects on vaccine
recipients.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the endotoxin concentrations in whole-cell DTP, acellular DTP(DTaP), and DT vaccines and determine the clinical experience with each vaccine.
METHODS
To study the endotoxin concentrations in vaccines, the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assay was used. The vaccines analyzed with the
LAL assay were whole-cell DTP vaccine lots manufactured by Connaught, Lederle, the Michigan and Massachusetts Departments of
Health, and Wyeth; DTaP vaccine lots manufactured by Merieux and Takeda; and DT vaccine lots manufactured by Wyeth and Lederle.
The incidence of adverse reactions following whole-cell DTP, DTaP, and DT vaccines were determined based on analysis of the Vaccine
Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS) database.
RESULTS
The results of the LAL assay showed that whole-cell DTP vaccines contained considerably more endotoxin than either DTaP or DT
vaccines. The VAERS showed that statistically significantly more adverse reactions were associated with whole-cell DTP vaccine than
DTaP or DT vaccines.
CONCLUSIONS
This analysis confirmed higher concentrations of endotoxin in whole-cell DTP vaccines compared with DTaP or DT vaccines. As high
concentrations of endotoxin may be correlated with a higher incidence of adverse events, the switch from whole-cell DTP to DTaP for
routine vaccinations in the US seems well justified.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11978151

Anticancer Research • November 2002

SV40 in human tumors:
new documents shed light
on the apparent controversy
Author information
MacLachlan DS.
MacLachlan Law Offices LLC
487 Goffle Road
Ridgewood, New Jersey 07450, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Presently there are over 61 reports from 49 different laboratories that have detected SV40 in human mesothelioma, lymphoma, brain and bone tumors, versus three reports (two from
Dr. Shah’s laboratory who performed his study under contract
from Dr. Strickler at the Viral Epidemiology Branch (VEB)
National Cancer Institute (USA) that have failed to detect
SV40 in some of these same tumor types. To address whether
the negative reports were caused by lack of sensitivity of the
technique used in Shah’s laboratory, or whether the positive
reports were caused by contamination within the greater number of laboratories reporting SV40 detection, two multi-center studies were conducted. The first study, Testa et al., 1998,
confirmed the presence of SV40 in mesothelioma. The second study, Strickler et al., produced irregular results indicating that: (a) though never reporting SV40 detection to date,
Dr. Shah’s laboratory reported the most sensitive technique of
all participating laboratories; (b) all participating laboratories
essentially agreed the DNA extracts provided under contract
to the VEB were negative; (c) all participating laboratories
agreed one-half of the negative controls prepared by the VEB
contract laboratory were positive due to contamination by the
contract laboratory. In addition, (d) the authors concluded the

laboratories previously detecting SV40 in human tissue specimens were not reporting contamination. Scientists in the field
have since debated how these seemingly contradictory results
were produced.
MATERIALS
During the course of litigation representing patients with
SV40-positive tumors, the author obtained correspondence
among members of the VEB multi-center study and sworn
testimony by Dr. Shah that address some of the incongruities
of the study.
RESULTS
Dr. Shah’s laboratory technique used in 1996 was apparently
not sufficiently sensitive to detect SV40 in human tumors.
When this became apparent, during unilateral pre-trial testing
of positive controls by Dr. Shah, the study coordinator of the
VEB, Dr. Strickler, apparently compromised the blinded nature of the study and allowed Dr. Shah to modify and improve
his technique. When one of the participating laboratories
questioned irregularities in the data from Dr. Shah’s laboratory and directly questioned Dr. Strickler, the study organizer,
about the potential irregularity, Dr. Strickler and Dr. Shah offered letters stating that such irregularities had not occurred
and re-confirmed that they had not deviated from the standard
protocol.
CONCLUSION
The facts indicating that Dr. Shah’s laboratory technique was
not sufficiently sensitive to detect SV40 were not made available to the other laboratories participating in the study and
were not published. Instead, according to Dr. Shah’s testimony, Dr. Strickler, the VEB multi-center study coordinator,
compromised the masked positive controls and knowingly
permitted Dr. Shah to re-test and adjust his technique during
pre-trial testing. The actual negative pre-trial test results were
never published alongside the published trial results indicating Dr. Shah’s laboratory had the most sensitive technique to
detect SV40 among the nine participating laboratories.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12552945

“When one of the participating
laboratories questioned irregularities
in the data from Dr. Shah’s laboratory
and directly questioned Dr. Strickler,
the study organizer, about the potential
irregularity, Dr. Strickler and Dr. Shah
offered letters stating that such
irregularities had not occurred and
re-confirmed that they had not deviated
from the standard protocol.”

[it was found that they had lied]

Biologicals • December 2002

Detection and characterization
of pestivirus contaminations
in human live viral vaccines
Author information
Studer E1, Bertoni G, Candrian U.
Official Medicines Control Laboratory Biologika and R&D Unit
Division of Biologicals, Swiss Federal Office of Public Health
P.O. Box 3003, Bern, Switzerland
Abstract
In view of the use of potentially contaminated foetal calf serum (FCS) in cell cultures pestiviruses may be present in live viral vaccines. Thirty-six lots of human
live viral vaccines produced by three manufacturers were tested for the presence
of pestiviruses. Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) RNA was detected in 33%
of the vaccine lots. All positive results were caused by the mumps component of a
single manufacturer. Partial sequences of the 5’ untranslated region of BVD viral
RNA were determined. The sequences were closely related to that of the NADL
strain of BVDV. The amount of BVDV RNA in the vaccines was determined by
real-time RT-PCR using the LightCycler. Between 3.3*10(2) and 6.2*10(5) RNA
copies per dose were found to be present in the vaccine samples.Additionally,
culture tests were done with FCS and human diploid cells used in the vaccine
production of the manufacturer whose vaccines were positive by PCR. All attempts to detect virus antigen in MRC-5 human diploid cells or to infect these
cells with BVDV failed. This suggests that BVDV RNA detected in human live
viral vaccines represents passive carry over of BVDV from contaminated FCS
rather than active virus replication in human diploid cells. Our results indicate
that contamination with BVDV of FCS used in vaccine production does not appear to be of immediate concern to human health. Furthermore, our results indicate that gamma-irradiation of FCS destroys BVDV particles and is also effective
in preventing the presence of BVDV RNA in the vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12421586

“This suggests that BVDV RNA detected in human live
viral vaccines represents passive carry over of BVDV from
contaminated foetal calf serum rather than active virus
replication in human diploid cells. Our results indicate that
contamination with BVDV of foetal calf serum used in
vaccine production does not appear to be of immediate
concern to human health.”

Institute of Medicine (US) Immunization Safety Review Committee • 2002

Immunization Safety Review:
SV40 Contamination of Polio Vaccine and Cancer
Washington, DC National Academies Press

Editors
Stratton K, Almario DA, McCormick MC.
Excerpt
Some of the polio vaccine administered from 1955–1963 was contaminated with a
virus, called simian virus 40 (SV40). The virus came from the monkey kidney cell
cultures used to produce the vaccine. Most, but not all, of the contamination was in
the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). Once the contamination was recognized, steps
were taken to eliminate it from future vaccines. Researchers have long wondered
about the effects of the contaminated vaccine on people who received it. Although
SV40 has biological properties consistent with a cancer-causing virus, it has not been
conclusively established whether it might have caused cancer in humans. Studies of
groups of people who received polio vaccine during 1955–1963 provide evidence
of no increased cancer risk. However, because these epidemiologic studies are sufficiently flawed, the Institute of Medicine’s Immunization Safety Review Committee
concluded that the evidence was inadequate to conclude whether or not the contaminated polio vaccine caused cancer. In light of the biological evidence supporting
the theory that SV40-contamination of polio vaccines could contribute to human
cancers, the committee recommends continued public health attention in the form of
policy analysis, communication, and targeted biological research.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25057632
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK221113/

“ In light of the biological evidence
supporting the theory that SV40-contamination
of polio vaccines could contribute to human cancers,
the committee recommends continued public health
attention in the form of policy analysis, communication,
and targeted biological research.”

Leukemia & Lymphoma • 2003

Association between SV40
and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Author information
Butel JS1, Vilchez RA, Jorgensen JL, Kozinetz CA.
Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology
Baylor College of Medicine, Mail Stop BCM385, One Baylor Plaza
Houston, TX 77030, USA
jbutel@bcm.tmc.edu
Abstract
Millions of people worldwide were inadvertently exposed to live simian virus
40 (SV40) between 1955 and 1963 through immunization with SV40-contaminated polio vaccines. Although the prevalence of SV40 infections in humans is
not known, numerous studies suggest that SV40 is a pathogen resident in the
human population today. SV40 is a potent DNA tumor virus that is known to
induce primary brain cancers, bone cancers, mesotheliomas, and lymphomas
in laboratory animals. SV40 oncogenesis is mediated by the viral large tumor
antigen (T-ag), which inactivates the tumor suppressor proteins p53 and pRb.
During the last decade, independent studies using different molecular biology
techniques have shown the presence of SV40 DNA, T-ag, or other viral markers in primary human brain and bone cancers and malignant mesotheliomas.
Evidence suggests that there may be geographic differences in the frequency of
these virus-positive tumors. Recent large independent controlled studies have
shown that SV40 T-ag DNA is significantly associated with human non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL). In our study, we analyzed systemic NHL from 76
HIV-1-positive and 78 HIV-1-negative patients, and nonmalignant lymphoid
samples from 79 HIV-1-positive and 107 HIV-1-negative patients without tumors; 54 colon and breast carcinoma samples served as cancer controls. We
used polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by Southern blot hybridization and DNA sequence analysis to detect DNAs of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses. SV40-specific DNA sequences were detected in 64 (42%) of 154
NHL, none of 186 nonmalignant lymphoid samples, and none of 54 control
cancers. For NHL from HIV-1-positive patients, 33% contained SV40 DNA
and 39% Epstein Barr virus (EBV) DNA, whereas NHLs from HIV-1-negative
patients were 50% positive for SV40 and 15% positive for EBV. Few tumors
were positive for both SV40 and EBV. Human herpesvirus type 8 was not detected. SV40 sequences were found most frequently in diffuse large B cell and
follicular-type lymphomas. We conclude that SV40 is significantly associated
with some types of NHL and that lymphomas should be added to the types of
human cancers associated with SV40.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15202523

“Millions of people worldwide
were inadvertently exposed to live
simian virus 40 (SV40) between 1955 and 1963
through immunization with
SV40-contaminated polio vaccines.
We conclude that SV40 is significantly
associated with some types of non-Hodgkins
Lymphoma and that lymphomas should
be added to the types of human cancers
associated with SV40.”

Cancer Epidemiological Biomarkers And Prevention • May 2003

Serum antibodies to JC virus, BK virus, simian virus 40,
and the risk of incident adult astrocytic brain tumors
Author information
Rollison DE1, Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ,
Hoffman S, Hou J, Daniel R, Shah KV, Major EO.
Department of Epidemiology
The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
Abstract
Genomic sequences of the human polyomaviruses, JC virus (JCV) and BK virus (BKV),
and simian virus 40 (SV40) have been reported from several types of human brain tumors,
but there have been no population-based seroepidemiologic studies to evaluate the association between polyomavirus infection and brain tumors. We conducted a case-control
study, nested within a prospective cohort, to investigate the association between antibodies
to JCV, BKV, and SV40, as measured in serum collected 1-22 years before diagnosis and
incident primary malignant brain tumors. Brain tumor cases (n = 44) and age-, gender-,
and race-matched controls (n = 88) were identified from participants of two specimen
banks in Washington County, Maryland. IgG antibodies to the capsid proteins of JCV and
BKV were assessed using ELISAs. SV40-neutralizing antibodies were measured using
plaque neutralization assays. Similar to the general population, the prevalence of JCV and
BKV infection was high in our study population (77 and 85%, respectively). Antibodies to
SV40 were less prevalent (11%). The odds ratio for subsequent brain tumor development
was 1.46 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.61-3.5] for JCV, 0.66 for BKV (95% CI, 0.221.95), and 1.00 for SV40 (95% CI, 0.30-3.32). Given the high prevalence of JCV and BKV
infections and the millions who were potentially exposed to SV40 through contaminated
polio vaccines, future studies should attempt to replicate these findings.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12750243

“Given the high prevalence
of JCV and BKV infections and the
millions who were potentially exposed to SV40
through contaminated polio vaccines, future studies
should attempt to replicate these findings.”

American Journal Of Medicine • June 2003

Simian virus 40
in human cancers
Author information
Vilchez RA1, Kozinetz CA, Arrington AS, Madden CR, Butel JS.
Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases
Baylor College of Medicine, BCM 286, Room N1319
One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
rvilchez@bcm.tmc.edu
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Many studies have reported the presence of simian virus 40 (SV40) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or protein in human brain tumors and bone cancers, malignant
mesothelioma, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. However, the small samples and lack
of control groups in some reports have made it difficult to assess their reliability.
METHODS
Studies were included in this analysis if they met the following criteria: original
studies of patients with primary brain tumors and bone cancers, malignant mesothelioma, or non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma; the investigation of SV40 was performed
on primary cancer specimens; the analysis included a control group; and the same
technique was used for cases and controls. Included reports were published from
1975 to 2002.
RESULTS
Thirteen studies fulfilled the criteria for the investigation of primary brain cancers
(661 tumors and 482 control samples). Specimens from patients with brain tumors
were almost four times more likely to have evidence of SV40 infection than were
those from controls (odds ratio [OR] = 3.9; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.6 to 5.8).
The association was even stronger for mesothelioma (OR = 17; 95% CI: 10 to 28;
based on 15 studies with 528 mesothelioma samples and 468 control samples) and
for bone cancer (OR = 25; 95% CI: 6.8 to 88; based on four studies with 303 cancers
and 121 control samples). SV40 DNA was also more frequent in samples from patients with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (OR = 5.4; 95% CI: 3.1 to 9.3; based on three
studies with 301 cases and 578 control samples) than from controls.
CONCLUSION
These results establish that SV40 is associated significantly with brain tumors, bone
cancers, malignant mesothelioma, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Studies are needed to assess current prevalence of SV40 infections.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12798456

“These results establish
that SV40 is associated significantly
with brain tumors, bone cancers,
malignant mesothelioma, and
non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.”

Oncogene • August 2003

New developments about the association of
SV40 with human mesothelioma
Author information
Carbone M1, Pass HI, Miele L, Bocchetta M.
Department of Pathology, Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
Cancer Immunology Program, Loyola University Chicago
Maywood, IL 60153, USA
mcarbon@orion.it.luc.edu
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) has been detected in human tumors in over 40 different laboratories. Many of these reports linked SV40 to human mesotheliomas. The Vaccine Safety
Committee of the Institute of Medicine (IOM), National Academy of Sciences, USA,
recently reviewed the evidence associating polio vaccines and/or SV40 with human
tumors. The IOM conclusions about polio vaccines and human cancer were: (1) ‘the
evidence is inadequate to accept or reject a causal relation between SV40-containing
polio vaccines and cancer’ because the ‘epidemiological studies are sufficiently flawed’;
(2) ‘the biological evidence is of moderate strength that SV40 exposure from the polio
vaccines is related to SV40 infection in humans’. The epidemiological studies were
considered flawed because it was not possible to distinguish reliably among exposed
and nonexposed cohorts. Concerning SV40, the IOM concluded that (1) ‘the evidence
is strong that SV40 is a transforming virus; (2) the evidence is of moderate strength that
SV40 exposure could lead to cancer in humans under natural conditions’ (IOM, 2002).
Similar conclusions were reached at an International consensus meeting on SV40 and
human tumors held at the University of Chicago in 2001. G Klein and C Croce, who
chaired the final panel that reviewed all the published evidence linking SV40 to human tumors, stated that ‘the presence of SV40 in human tumors has been convincingly
demonstrated’ (Klein et al., 2002). In addition, a workshop organized by the Biological
Carcinogenesis Branch of the National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, chaired by J Pagano, has reached similar conclusions (Wong et al., 2002). Therefore, three independent
scientific panels have all agreed that there is compelling evidence that SV40 is present
in some human cancers and that SV40 could contribute to the pathogenesis of some
of them. It should be noted that the presence of SV40 in mesothelioma and other human tumor types has been challenged by a research team that has consistently reported
negative findings (Strickler et al., 2001). However, a member of this research team
has recently acknowledged - in sworn testimony -sensitivity problems and possible irregularities that raise concerns about these negative reports (MacLachlan, 2002). These
revelations, together with the conclusions of the three independent panels mentioned
above, appear to bring to an end the apparent controversy about the presence of SV40
in human mesotheliomas and brain tumors.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12910254

“Therefore, three independent scientific panels have
all agreed that there is compelling evidence that SV40 is
present in some human cancers and that SV40
could contribute to the pathogenesis of some of them.”

[foetal calf serum is used in vaccine production]

Biologicals • September 2003

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus antigen
in foetal calf serum batches and consequences
of such contamination for vaccine production
Author information
Makoschey B1, van Gelder PT,
Keijsers V, Goovaerts D.
Virological R&D Department
Intervet International b.v., Wim de Körverstraat 35
NL-5831 AN, Boxmeer, The Netherlands
Birgit.Makoschey@Intervet.com
Abstract
A protocol to test foetal calf serum (FCS) for contamination with bovine
viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is described. Following this protocol, which
combines cell culture methods and detection of pestivirus RNA, seven
batches of FCS were tested. Infectious BVDV was detected in four of those
batches. One of the remaining batches contained a relatively high number
of non-infectious BVDV particles. A sample of this batch was formulated
with aluminium hydroxide and aluminium phosphate as adjuvant into an
experimental vaccine preparation. This product was injected twice into
BVDV seronegative cattle with a 4 week interval. Blood samples taken 4
weeks after the second application were negative for BVDV specific antibodies. Our data stress that detection of BVDV RNA is not sufficient for a
complete risk assessment on FCS. Discrimination between infectious and
non-infectious BVDV is essential. This can only be achieved by cell culture methods.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12935809

“Our data stress that detection
of BVDV RNA is not sufficient for a
complete risk assessment on Foetal Calf
Serum. Discrimination between
infectious and non-infectious BVDV is
essential. This can only be achieved
by cell culture methods.”

Veterinaria Italiana • January 2004

Genotypes of Pestivirus RNA
detected in anti-influenza virus vaccines
for human use
Author information
Giangaspero M1, Vacirca G, Harasawa R, Buttner M,
Panuccio A, De Giuli Morghen C, Zanetti A, Belloli A, Verhulst A.
Dipartimento di Scienze Cliniche Veterinarie
Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi
Milan, Italy
Abstract
Nine polyvalent human influenza virus vaccines were tested by reverse
transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the presence of pestivirus RNA. Samples were selected from manufacturers in Europe and the
USA. Three samples of the nine vaccines tested (33.3%) gave positive results for pestivirus RNA. The 5’-untranslated genomic region sequence of
the contaminant pestivirus RNA was analysed based on primary nucleotide
sequence homology and on secondary sequence structures characteristic to
genotypes. Two sequences belonged to Pestivirus type-1 (bovine viral diarrhoea virus [BVDV]) species, genotypes BVDV-1b and BVDV-1e. These
findings confirm previous reports, suggesting an improvement in preventive measures against contamination of biological products for human use.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20437384
Full Report (In Italian)
http://www.izs.it/vet_italiana/2004/40_1/7.pdf

“Samples were selected
from manufacturers in Europe and the USA.
Three samples of the nine vaccines tested (33.3%)
gave positive results for pestivirus RNA.”

Virology • January 2004

Simian virus 40 infection in humans
and association with human diseases:
results and hypotheses
Author information
Barbanti-Brodano G1, Sabbioni S, Martini F,
Negrini M, Corallini A, Tognon M.
Department of Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine
Section of Microbiology, Center of Biotechnology
University of Ferrara, I-44100, Ferrara, Italy
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a monkey virus that was introduced in the human population by contaminated poliovaccines, produced in SV40-infected monkey cells, between 1955 and 1963.
Epidemiological evidence now suggests that SV40 may be contagiously transmitted in humans
by horizontal infection, independent of the earlier administration of SV40-contaminated poliovaccines. This evidence includes detection of SV40 DNA sequences in human tissues and
of SV40 antibodies in human sera, as well as rescue of infectious SV40 from a human tumor.
Detection of SV40 DNA sequences in blood and sperm and of SV40 virions in sewage points
to the hematic, sexual, and orofecal routes as means of virus transmission in humans. The site
of latent infection in humans is not known, but the presence of SV40 in urine suggests the
kidney as a possible site of latency, as it occurs in the natural monkey host. SV40 in humans
is associated with inflammatory kidney diseases and with specific tumor types: mesothelioma,
lymphoma, brain, and bone. These human tumors correspond to the neoplasms that are induced
by SV40 experimental inoculation in rodents and by generation of transgenic mice with the
SV40 early region gene directed by its own early promoter-enhancer. The mechanisms of SV40
tumorigenesis in humans are related to the properties of the two viral oncoproteins, the large T
antigen (Tag) and the small t antigen (tag). Tag acts mainly by blocking the functions of p53 and
RB tumor suppressor proteins, as well as by inducing chromosomal aberrations in the host cell.
These chromosome alterations may hit genes important in oncogenesis and generate genetic
instability in tumor cells. The clastogenic activity of Tag, which fixes the chromosome damage
in the infected cells, may explain the low viral load in SV40-positive human tumors and the
observation that Tag is expressed only in a fraction of tumor cells. “Hit and run” seems the most
plausible mechanism to support this situation. The small tag, like large Tag, displays several
functions, but its principal role in transformation is to bind the protein phosphatase PP2A. This
leads to constitutive activation of the Wnt pathway, resulting in continuous cell proliferation.
The possibility that SV40 is implicated as a cofactor in the etiology of some human tumors has
stimulated the preparation of a vaccine against the large Tag. Such a vaccine may represent in
the future a useful immunoprophylactic and immunotherapeutic intervention against human
tumors associated with SV40.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15015494

“Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a
monkey virus that was introduced
in the human population by contaminated poliovaccines,
produced in SV40-infected monkey cells, between 1955 and
1963. Epidemiological evidence now suggests that SV40 may
be contagiously transmitted in humans by horizontal
infection, independent of the earlier administration
of SV40-contaminated poliovaccines.”

Medical Hypotheses • 2005

Multiple sclerosis and hepatitis B vaccination:
could minute contamination of the vaccine by
partial hepatitis B virus polymerase
play a role through molecular mimicry?
Author information
Faure E.
E.R. Biodiversity and Environment, case 5
University of Provence, Place Victor Hugo
13331 Marseilles cedex 3, France
eric.faure@up.univ-mrs.fr
Abstract
Reports of multiple sclerosis developing after hepatitis B vaccination
have led to the concern that this vaccine might be a cause of multiple
sclerosis in previously healthy subjects. Some articles evidenced that
minor Hepatitis B virus (HBV) polymerase proteins could be produced
by alternative transcriptional or translational strategies. Their detection
is very difficult because they are in minute concentration and probably
enzymatically inactive, however, it was shown that they could be exposed on the outside of the virus particles and also be immunogenic.
In addition, HBV polymerase shares significant amino acid similarities with the human myelin basic protein. We hypothesise that some of
the apparent adverse reactions to the vaccine could be due to a process
called of molecular mimicry, the HBV polymerase, which could be a
contaminant in the recombinant or plasma-derived vaccines, could act
as autoantigens and induce autoimmune demyelinating diseases such as
multiple sclerosis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15908138

“We hypothesise that some of the
apparent adverse reactions to the
vaccine could be due to a process
called of molecular mimicry, the
Hepatitus B Virus polymerase, which
could be a contaminant in the recombinant
or plasma-derived vaccines, could act
as autoantigens and induce autoimmune
demyelinating diseases such as
multiple sclerosis.”

Cancer Research • November 2005

Some oral poliovirus vaccines were contaminated
with infectious SV40 after 1961
Author information
Cutrone R1, Lednicky J, Dunn G, Rizzo P,
Bocchetta M, Chumakov K, Minor P, Carbone M.
Thoracic Oncology Program, Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois, USA

“It has been assumed
that all polio vaccines were SV40 free in the United States
after 1961 and in other countries after 1962.

Abstract
Some polio vaccines prepared from 1954 to 1961 were contaminated with infectious
SV40. It has been assumed that all polio vaccines were SV40 free in the United States
after 1961 and in other countries after 1962. Following a WHO requirement that was
prompted by the detection of SV40 in some human tumors, we conducted a multilaboratory study to test for SV40 polio vaccines prepared after 1961. Vaccine samples from
13 countries and the WHO seed were initially tested by PCR. The possible presence
of intact and/or infectious SV40 DNA in PCR-positive samples was tested by transfection and infection of permissive CV-1 cells. All results were verified by immunohistochemistry, cloning, and sequencing. All the vaccines were SV40 free, except for
vaccines from a major eastern European manufacturer that contained infectious SV40.
We determined that the procedure used by this manufacturer to inactivate SV40 in oral
poliovirus vaccine seed stocks based on heat inactivation in the presence of MgCl2 did
not completely inactivate SV40. These SV40-contaminated vaccines were produced
from early 1960s to about 1978 and were used throughout the world. Our findings
underscore the potential risks of using primary monkey cells for preparing poliovirus
vaccines, because of the possible contamination with SV40 or other monkey viruses,
and emphasize the importance of using well-characterized cell substrates that are free
from adventitious agents. Moreover, our results indicate possible geographic differences in SV40 exposure and offer a possible explanation for the different percentage
of SV40-positive tumors detected in some laboratories.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16288015

These SV40-contaminated vaccines were produced
from early 1960s to about 1978 and were used throughout
the world. Our findings underscore the potential risks of
using primary monkey cells for preparing poliovirus
vaccines, because of the possible contamination with SV40
or other monkey viruses, and emphasize the importance
of using well-characterized cell substrates that are
free from adventitious agents.”

Brain Research Reviews • December 2005

Human polyomaviruses
and brain tumors
Author information
White MK1, Gordon J, Reiss K, Del Valle L,
Croul S, Giordano A, Darbinyan A, Khalili K.
Center for Neurovirology and Cancer Biology
College of Science and Technology, Temple University
1900 North 12th Street, 015-96, Room 203
Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
Abstract
Polyomaviruses are DNA tumor viruses with small circular genomes. Three
polyomaviruses have captured attention with regard to their potential role in the
development of human brain tumors: JC virus (JCV), BK virus (BKV), and simian vacuolating virus 40 (SV40). JCV is a neurotropic polyomavirus that is the
etiologic agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a fatal
demyelinating disease of the central nervous system occurring mainly in AIDS
patients. BKV is the causative agent of polyomavirus-associated nephropathy
(PVN) which occurs after renal transplantation when BKV reactivates from a
latent state during immunosuppressive therapy to cause allograft failure. SV40,
originating in rhesus monkeys, gained notoriety when it entered the human population via contaminated polio vaccines. All three viruses are highly oncogenic
when injected into the brain of experimental animals. Reports indicate that these
viruses, especially JCV, are associated with brain tumors and other cancers in
humans as evidenced from the analysis of clinical samples for the presence of
viral DNA sequences and expression of viral proteins. Human polyomaviruses
encode three non-capsid regulatory proteins: large T-antigen, small t-antigen, and
agnoprotein. These proteins interact with a number of cellular target proteins to
exert effects that dysregulate pathways involved in the control of various host
cell functions including the cell cycle, DNA repair, and others. In this review, we
describe the three polyomaviruses, their abilities to cause brain and other tumors
in experimental animals, the evidence for an association with human brain tumors, and the latest findings on the molecular mechanisms of their actions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15982744

“In this review,
we describe the three polyomaviruses,
[SV40, JC virus (JCV) and BK virus (BKV)]
their abilities to cause brain and other
tumors in experimental animals, the
evidence for an association with human
brain tumors, and the latest findings on the
molecular mechanisms of their actions.”

Developments In Biologicals (Basel) • 2006

Vaccine cell substrates:
bovine and porcine virus considerations

“The use of materials of animal origin

Author information

to supplement cell cultures used in

Wessman SJ

vaccine production, viral diagnostic

USDA, APHIS, VS
Center for Veterinary Biologics
Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
stephen.j.wessman@aphis.usda.gov
Abstract
The use of materials of animal origin to supplement cell cultures used in vaccine production, viral diagnostic testing, or materials testing may lead to contamination of the vaccines, with seroconversion or disease in the vaccinated
animals, and possible misdiagnosis of diagnostic samples or incorrect test results. The methods used by the Center for Veterinary Biologics to monitor serum and cell cultures are described. Considerations for the use of animal origin
materials, especially bovine and porcine, as substrates or additives, plus the
possibility of crossovers to humans are discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16566453

testing, or materials testing may lead
to contamination of the vaccines, with
seroconversion or disease in the
vaccinated animals, and possible
misdiagnosis of diagnostic samples
or incorrect test results.”

Archives de Pediatrie • February 2006

Pharmacovigilance of vaccines
Author information
Autret-Leca E1, Bensouda-Grimaldi L,
Jonville-Béra AP, Beau-Salinas F.
Service de Pharmacologie, Hôpital Bretonneau
Université François-Rabelais de Tours
Centre Régional de Pharmacovigilance et d’Information sur le Médicament
CHRU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours, cedex 09, France
autret-leca@med.univ-tours.fr
Abstract
Safety of vaccines must be excellent to make vaccine’s strategy acceptable,
since it usually has a deferred individual benefit but immediate adverse drug
reactions (ADRs). Pharmacovigilance of vaccines after their marketing is crucial because, prior to its availability on the market, the size of clinical trials
is insufficient to identify rare or deferred adverse effects. The Pharmacovigilance is based on “spontaneous reporting” of ADRs to the Pharmacovigilance
Regional Centre (PVRC) which establishes a relationship between each drug
taken by the patient and the ADRs occurrence (imputability). This method is
crucial to generate alerts, but under-estimates the real frequency of ADRs (1
to 10% of severe ADRs are reported). Thus pharmacoepidemiology studies are
necessary to confirm the alerts identified by spontaneous reporting. ADRs can
be specific, related to the antigen of an attenuated alive virus vaccine (lymphocyte meningitis after anti-mumps vaccine) or non-specific, related to a
component different from the antigen (aluminium hydroxide involved in the
“macrophagic myofasciitis”, allergic reactions to neomycin, latex, egg or gelatine). Importance of Pharmacovigilance of vaccines is illustrated. Data, especially case-control studies, about the relationship between multiple sclerosis
and hepatitis B vaccine are summarised. Data about the relationship between
Crohn’s disease or autism and MMR vaccine are analysed. As vaccines are
used in healthy people, their safety must be excellent to be accepted. To monitor them after their marketing is the unique way to detect rare ADRs. This surveillance is made through reporting of ADRs to the PVRC. However, an active
and intensive surveillance of ADRs as the one set up from the marketing of
Prevenar should be systematic.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16343870

“Pharmacovigilance
of vaccines after their marketing
is crucial because, prior to its availability on the market,
the size of clinical trials is insufficient to identify
rare or deferred adverse effects.”

Developments In Biology, Basel • March 2006

Polio vaccines, SV40 and human tumours,
an update on false positive and false negative results
Author information
Elmishad AG1, Bocchetta M, Pass HI, Carbone M.
Loyola University Medical Center
Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
Department of Pathology, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) has been detected in different human tumours in numerous laboratories. The detection of SV40 in human tumours has been linked to the administration of SV40-contaminated polio vaccines from 1954 until 1963. Many of these reports
linked SV40 to human mesothelioma. Some studies have failed to detect SV40 in human
tumours and this has caused a controversy. Here we review the current literature. Moreover, we present evidence showing how differences in the sensitivities of methodologies
can lead to a very different interpretation of the same study. The same 20 mesothelioma
specimens all tested negative, 2/20 tested positive or 7/20 tested positive for SV40 Tag
by simply changing the detection method on the same immuno-precipitation/western
blot membranes. These results provide a simple explanation for some of the apparent
discordant results reported in the literature.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16566440

“we present evidence showing how
differences in the sensitivities of methodologies
can lead to a very different interpretation
of the same study.”

Cancer Investigation • April 2006

High prevalence of SV40 infection
in patients with nodal non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
but not acute leukemia independent of
contaminated polio vaccines in Taiwan
Author information
Chen PM1, Yen CC, Yang MH, Poh SB, Hsiao LT, Wang WS,
Lin PC, Lee MY, Teng HW, Bai LY, Chu CJ, Chao SC,
Yang AH, Chiou TJ, Liu JH, Chao TC.
Division of Medical Oncology
Department of Medicine, Taipei Veteran General Hospital
Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
Abstract
Recent studies have linked simian virus 40 (SV40) to non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
(NHL), especially in countries in which people were exposed to contaminated
polio vaccines prior to 1963. In Taiwan, nearly all children were not exposed to
contaminated polio vaccine during this period; the relationship between SV40
infection and hematological malignancies is unclear and deserves to be studied.
Using PCR amplification of SV40 large T antigen DNA, confirmed by Southern blot hybridization and sequence analysis, 91 frozen lymph nodes from NHL
patients were examined. Thirteen (14.3 percent) showed positive for SV40. All
other test samples, including diagnostic bone marrow from patients with acute
leukemia, peripheral blood from 10 relatives of SV40 positive-patients and 91
age-matched normal volunteers, and 5 reactive hyperplastic lymphoid tissues,
showed negative. These results may reflect that human-to-human transmission of
SV40 is independent of contaminated polio vaccines; and SV40 is possibly associated with the development of NHL in Taiwan (p = 0.0001). Prospective studies
are needed to determine the prevalence of SV40 infections in our and other human populations and to explore the means of transmission of the virus.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16809147

“These results may reflect
that human-to-human transmission
of SV40 is independent of contaminated
polio vaccines; and SV40 is possibly
associated with the development of
non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in Taiwan ...”

Journal of Public Health Management & Practice • July 2006

The Legal Environment Underlying
Influenza Vaccine Allocation and Distribution Strategies
Hodge, James G. Jr JD, LLM; O’Connell, Jessica P. JD/MPH
Abstract
In the fall of 2004, the United States faced a national shortage of influenza vaccine after
a major vaccine manufacturer was unable to produce millions of doses of the vaccine due
to potential contamination. Many public and private sector entities had far fewer doses
of influenza vaccine to allocate than they had anticipated. In response, federal, state, and
local public health officials, private vaccine distributors, and healthcare providers collaborated to distribute available doses of influenza vaccine. However, the existing legal
framework through which allocations were made is murky. This article examines major
legal issues regarding allocation strategies involving limited supplies of influenza vaccines, addressing in particular (1) existing legal requirements for allocating and distributing influenza vaccines among public health authorities and healthcare providers at the
federal, state, and local levels; (2) the legal capacity of public health authorities to acquire
existing vaccine supplies from healthcare providers; and (3) specific legal responses implemented by states in response to the 2004–2005 influenza vaccine shortage.

“In the fall of 2004, the United
States faced a national shortage
of influenza vaccine after a major
vaccine manufacturer was
unable to produce millions of
doses of the vaccine due to
potential contamination.”

http://journals.lww.com/jphmp/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2006&issue=07000&article=00007&type=abstract

Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Science USA • September 2006

Crocidolite asbestos and SV40
are co-carcinogens in human mesothelial cells
and in causing mesothelioma in hamsters
Barbara Kroczynska,* Rochelle Cutrone,* Maurizio Bocchetta,*
Haining Yang,* Amira G. Elmishad,* Pamela Vacek,† Maria Ramos-Nino,‡
Brooke T. Mossman,‡ Harvey I. Pass,§ and Michele Carbone*

	
Thoracic Oncology Program

Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153
Departments of †Medical Biostatistics and
‡Pathology, College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05404
and §Department of Thoracic Surgery, New York University, New York, NY 10016
ABSTRACT
Only a fraction of subjects exposed to asbestos develop malignant mesothelioma (MM),
suggesting that additional factors may render some individuals more susceptible. We tested the hypothesis that asbestos and Simian virus (SV40) are cocarcinogens. Asbestos and
SV40 in combination had a costimulatory effect in inducing ERK1/2 phosphorylation
and activator protein-1 (AP-1) activity in both primary Syrian hamster mesothelial cells
(SHM) and primary human mesothelial cells (HM). Ap-1 activity caused the expression
and activation of matrix metalloprotease (MMP)-1 and MMP-9, which in turn led to cell
invasion. Experiments using siRNA and chemical inhibitors confirmed the specificity of
these results. The same effects were observed in HM and SHM. Experiments in hamsters
showed strong cocarcinogenesis between asbestos and SV40: SV40 did not cause MM,
asbestos caused MM in 20% of hamsters, and asbestos and SV40 together caused MM in
90% of hamsters. Significantly lower amounts of asbestos were sufficient to cause MM
in animals infected with SV40. Our results indicate that mineral fibers and viruses can be
cocarcinogens and suggest that lower amounts of asbestos may be sufficient to cause MM
in individuals infected with SV40.
Full Report: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1599923/

“Our results indicate
that mineral fibers and viruses
can be cocarcinogens and suggest that
lower amounts of asbestos may be sufficient
to cause malignant mesothelioma in
individuals infected with SV40.”

Inhalation Toxicology • November 2006

The role of SV40
in malignant mesothelioma
and other human malignancies
Author information
Pershouse MA1, Heivly S, Girtsman T.
Center for Environmental Health Sciences
Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, USA
mark.pershouse@umontana.edu
Abstract
SV40 is a DNA tumor virus thrust upon human populations primarily as
a contaminant in various vaccine preparations. Some estimates suggest
that millions of people are currently infected with the virus. The virus
causes primary brain tumors, bone tumors, lymphomas, and mesotheliomas when injected into some rodent models. It has also been detected in
a similar spectrum of human tumors. However, epidemiological studies
have failed to conclusively demonstrate a higher incidence of disease in
affected populations. To date, over 60 reports from 49 different laboratories have shown SV40 sequences in tissues from human cancer patients.
Six studies, however, have failed to detect evidence of virus in similar
tissues. Some have suggested that SV40 may act as a cocarcinogen with
asbestos to cause mesothelioma formation, or that it may be responsible
for the 10-20% of mesotheliomas with no reported history of asbestos
exposure. This report briefly covers the historical evidence for SV40 carcinogenesis and then covers experiments now underway to better understand the role of SV40 in human mesotheliomas.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16920674

“Some have suggested that SV40
may act as a co-carcinogen with asbestos ‘to
cause mesothelioma formation, or that it may be
responsible for the 10-20% of mesotheliomas with
no reported history of asbestos exposure.”

“The use of materials of animal origin to supplement cell cultures used in vaccine production,
viral diagnostic testing, or materials testing may lead to contamination of the vaccines ...”
Developments In Biologicals (Basel) • 2006

Vaccine cell substrates: bovine and porcine virus considerations
Author information
Wessman SJ.
USDA, APHIS, VS, Center for Veterinary Biologics, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
stephen.j.wessman@aphis.usda.gov
Abstract
The use of materials of animal origin to supplement cell cultures used in vaccine production, viral diagnostic
testing, or materials testing may lead to contamination of the vaccines, with seroconversion or disease in the vaccinated animals, and possible misdiagnosis of diagnostic samples or incorrect test results. The methods used by
the Center for Veterinary Biologics to monitor serum and cell cultures are described. Considerations for the use
of animal origin materials, especially bovine and porcine, as substrates or additives, plus the possibility of crossovers to humans are discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16566453

Cellular And Molecular Life Sciences • April 2007

SV40 association with human malignancies
and mechanisms of tumor immunity by large tumor antigen
Author information
Lowe DB1, Shearer MH, Jumper CA, Kennedy RC.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology
Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center
Lubbock, TX 79430-6591, USA
Abstract
SV40 was discovered as a contaminate of poliovirus vaccine lots distributed to millions of
individuals in the United States between 1955 and 1963 while contaminated vaccine batches
were later circulated worldwide. After SV40 was observed to cause in vitro animal and human
cell transformations and in vivo tumor formations in animals, the search for a connection between the virus and human malignancies has continued to the present day. Different molecular
methods have been used to detect SV40 gene products in a variety of human cancers, though
SV40 causality in these tumor types has yet to be established. These data, however, are not
without controversial issues related to inconclusive SV40 serological and epidemiological
evidence alongside tools and methodologies that may contribute to false-positive results in
human specimens. This review will also explore how vaccination against SV40 protein products may be used to help prevent and treat individuals with SV40-expressing cancers.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17260087

“SV40 was discovered
as a contaminate of poliovirus vaccine lots
distributed to millions of individuals in the
United States between 1955 and 1963 while
contaminated vaccine batches were
later circulated worldwide.”

Immunology Letters • June 2007

Mycoplasma contamination
and viral immunomodulatory activity:
dendritic cells open Pandora’s box
Author information
Alves MP1, Carrasco CP, Balmelli C,
Ruggli N, McCullough KC, Summerfield A.
Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis
Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147
Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
Abstract
During in vitro investigations on the interaction of classical swine fever virus (CSFV)-an immunosuppressive viral pathogen--with monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDC)
a soluble factor with a strong anti-proliferative activity for T lymphocytes was found.
This activity, with an inhibitory dilution 50% (ID(50)) of 10(3)-10(7), was induced after virus infection of monocytes differentiating into DC. UV--inactivation of the supernatants and blocking experiments with a monoclonal antibody against the E2 envelope
protein of CSFV initially indicated a virus-dependency. However, further investigations
including filtration and centrifugation experiments as well as antibiotic treatment demonstrated the involvement of mycoplasma. This was confirmed by a Hoechst 33258
staining, PCR and mycoplasma cultures--Mycoplasma hyorhinis was identified as the
contaminant. Elucidation of a mycoplasma presence occurred under conditions in which
the original virus stocks prepared in SK6 cells were negative for mycoplasma using the
above tests. Moreover, conventional passage of the virus on the SK6 cells used for this
purpose did not reveal any mycoplasma. It was the passage of virus in MoDC rather
than SK6 cells that was required to expose the contamination. Three passages of the
anti-proliferative supernatants on MoDC cultures increased the ID(50) 10(3)-fold; only
when these MoDC-derived supernatants were employed was the mycoplasma contaminant also detectable on SK6 cells. In conclusion, these data demonstrate that regular
testing of cell lines and virus stocks for mycoplasma does not necessarily identify their
presence, and that application of passage in MoDC cultures could prove an aid for identifying initially undetectable levels of mycoplasma contamination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17532055

“... these data demonstrate
that regular testing of cell lines
and virus stocks for mycoplasma
does not necessarily identify their presence ...”

Cellular And Molecular Life Sciences • July 2007

Oncogenic potentials of the
human polyomavirus regulatory proteins
Author information
Moens U1, Van Ghelue M, Johannessen M.
Department of Microbiology and Virology
Faculty of Medicine, University of Tromsø
N-9037, Tromsø, Norway
ugom@fagmed.uit.no
Abstract
The polyomaviruses BK, JC and SV40 are common in the human population.
Their DNA genomes encode large T-antigen, small t-antigen, agnoprotein, and
the capsid proteins VP1-3. Studies with these viruses have contributed extensively to the understanding of processes such as replication, transcriptional and
posttranscriptional regulation, and cell cycle control. All three viruses can transform human cells in vitro, can induce tumours in animal models, and are strongly
association with certain human cancers. It is generally assumed that large T-antigen is the major protein involved in neoplastic processes and that large T-antigen
predominantly exerts its effect through deregulation of the tumour suppressors
p53 and the retinoblastoma family members. However, additional properties of
large T-antigen as well as the other viral proteins contribute to oncogenic processes. This review presents the different mechanisms by which the polyomavirus proteins can induce transformation and discusses which mechanisms may be
operational in polyomavirus-positive cancers.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17483871

“This review presents the
different mechanisms by which the
polyomavirus proteins can induce
transformation and discusses which
mechanisms may be operational
in polyomavirus-positive cancers.”

“... determining the origin of the SV40 sequences detected in human tumors might be difficult.”
Virology • January 2008

Recovery of strains of the polyomavirus SV40 from rhesus monkey kidney cells
dating from the 1950s to the early 1960s
Keith Pedena, Li Shenga, Romelda Omeira, Maureen Yacobuccia,
Michael Klutchb, †, Majid Laassric, Konstantin Chumakovc, Achintya Palb, 1,
Haruhiko Murataa, b, Andrew M. Lewis Jr.b
a. Laboratory of Retrovirus Research, Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research
Food and Drug Administration, 29 Lincoln Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
b. Laboratory of DNA Viruses, Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research
Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
c. Laboratory of Methods Development, Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research
Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
Abstract
From stocks of adenovirus and poliovirus prepared in primary rhesus macaque kidney cells and dating from 1956
to 1961, the time when SV40 contaminated some poliovirus vaccine lots, we have recovered ten isolates of SV40.
Of these ten isolates, based on the C-terminal region of T antigen, five novel strains of SV40 have been identified.
Additionally, three pairs of isolates were found to be the same strain: one pair was strain 777, one pair was strain
776 archetype, and the third pair represented a novel strain. All strains had identical protein sequences for VP2
and VP3. There were two variants of agnoprotein and the small t antigen and three variants of VP1. These results,
and those of others, suggest that a limited number of SV40 strains might exist in rhesus macaques in the United
States, and thus determining the origin of the SV40 sequences detected in human tumors might be difficult.
Full Report: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042682207004321

Journal Of Pharmaceutical And Biomedical Analysis • February 2008

Strategy for identification of leachables
in packaged pharmaceutical liquid formulations
Author information
Pan C1, Harmon F, Toscano K, Liu F, Vivilecchia R.
Pharmaceutical and Analytical Development
Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, One Health Plaza
East Hanover, NJ 07936, USA
charles.pan@novartis.com
Abstract
Drug stability is one of the key properties to be monitored in pharmaceutical drug
development. Drug degradation products, impurities and/or leachables from the drug
product and packages may have significant impacts on drug efficacy, safety profile
and storage conditions. In the registration stability samples of an ophthalmic pharmaceutical drug product, an unknown compound was found at a level of 0.19% by
HPLC analysis. Subsequent liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS)
analysis with electrospray ionization (ESI) indicated that the unknown was not related to the drug substance and was most likely a leachable. Identification of this unknown leachable was needed to evaluate the impact on drug safety. Through systematic extraction of various components or component combination of the packaging
materials, and subsequently LC/MS analysis, the unknown was found to be a leachable coming from the varnish applied to the label. In general, using LC/MS alone is
not sufficient to elucidate the structure of a complete unknown. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was then conducted with a chemical ionization (CI)
source to determine the retention time and mass of the compound of interest. Both
CI and ESI sources generated the same protonated molecular ion [M+H] and similar
fragmentation ions, which provides a good correlation of the unknown eluted in the
liquid chromatogram and in the gas chromatogram. GC/MS with electron impact (EI)
was then conducted to obtain the EI mass spectrum of this unknown. It was identified as monomethyl derivative of mephenesin through the NIST library search. The
identification strategy utilized electrospray LC/MS and GC/MS with chemical and
electron ionization sources which provided complimentary information for structure
elucidation of this unknown compound. This combination approach in conjunction
with systematic extraction was necessary for the determination of the source of this
unknown in the pharmaceutical drug stability studies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18180126

“Drug degradation products,
impurities and/or leachables
from the drug product and packages
may have significant impacts on drug efficacy,
safety profile and storage conditions.”

International Journal Of Nanomedicine • June 2008

Drug delivery and nanoparticles:
Applications and hazards
Wim H De Jong1 and Paul JA Borm2,3
1. Laboratory for Toxicology, Pathology and Genetics,
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM)
Bilthoven, The Netherlands
2. Zuyd University, Centre of Expertise in Life Sciences
Heerlen, The Netherlands
3. Magnamedics GmbH, Aachen, Germany
Abstract
The use of nanotechnology in medicine and more specifically drug delivery is set to spread
rapidly. Currently many substances are under investigation for drug delivery and more specifically for cancer therapy. Interestingly pharmaceutical sciences are using nanoparticles to
reduce toxicity and side effects of drugs and up to recently did not realize that carrier systems
themselves may impose risks to the patient. The kind of hazards that are introduced by using
nanoparticles for drug delivery are beyond that posed by conventional hazards imposed by
chemicals in classical delivery matrices. For nanoparticles the knowledge on particle toxicity
as obtained in inhalation toxicity shows the way how to investigate the potential hazards of
nanoparticles. The toxicology of particulate matter differs from toxicology of substances as
the composing chemical(s) may or may not be soluble in biological matrices, thus influencing
greatly the potential exposure of various internal organs. This may vary from a rather high
local exposure in the lungs and a low or neglectable exposure for other organ systems after
inhalation. However, absorbed species may also influence the potential toxicity of the inhaled
particles. For nanoparticles the situation is different as their size opens the potential for crossing the various biological barriers within the body. From a positive viewpoint, especially the
potential to cross the blood brain barrier may open new ways for drug delivery into the brain.
In addition, the nanosize also allows for access into the cell and various cellular compartments including the nucleus. A multitude of substances are currently under investigation for
the preparation of nanoparticles for drug delivery, varying from biological substances like
albumin, gelatine and phospholipids for liposomes, and more substances of a chemical nature
like various polymers and solid metal containing nanoparticles. It is obvious that the potential interaction with tissues and cells, and the potential toxicity, greatly depends on the actual
composition of the nanoparticle formulation. This paper provides an overview on some of the
currently used systems for drug delivery. Besides the potential beneficial use also attention is
drawn to the questions how we should proceed with the safety evaluation of the nanoparticle
formulations for drug delivery. For such testing the lessons learned from particle toxicity as
applied in inhalation toxicology may be of use. Although for pharmaceutical use the current
requirements seem to be adequate to detect most of the adverse effects of nanoparticle formulations, it can not be expected that all aspects of nanoparticle toxicology will be detected. So,
probably additional more specific testing would be needed.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2527668/

“for pharmaceutical use
the current requirements
seem to be adequate to detect
most of the adverse effects
of nanoparticle formulations,
it can not be expected that all
aspects of nanoparticle toxicology
will be detected.”

Collegium Antropologicum • June 2008

The role of polio-vaccine
in pleural mesothelioma—
an epidemiological observation
Author information
Sarin M1, Curin K, Varnai VM.
Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health
Zagreb, Croatia
marko@imi.hr
Abstract
From the Croatian Cancer Registry (period 1991-1997) 194 malignant pleural
mesothelioma patients were collected. According to participation in polio vaccination mass campaign in 1961 that covered the entire Croatian population
aged 3 months to 20 years, mesothelioma patients were divided in vaccinated
(N=58), and non-vaccinated (N=136) subjects. Significantly higher percentage of those with a history of occupational exposure to asbestos was found in
vaccinated (79%) compared to non-vaccinated group (63%). This is the opposite to what would be expected if potential SV40 contamination of polio vaccine used had a causative role in the development of the tumour. On the other
hand, shorter latency period reflected by very high percentage of 45-year-old
or younger mesothelioma patients in vaccinated group (15 out of 58), with all
of them having a history of occupational asbestos exposure, raises a question
for a possible enhancing effect of the vaccine used to asbestos exposure, if it
was contaminated with SV40.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18756898

“... raises a question
for a possible enhancing effect
of the vaccine used to asbestos exposure ...”

Vaccine • June 2008

A quantitative risk assessment
of exposure to adventitious agents
in a cell culture-derived subunit influenza vaccine
Author information
Gregersen JP.
Novartis Behring, Marburg, Germany
jens-peter.gregersen@novartis.com
Abstract
A risk-assessment model has demonstrated the ability of a new cell culture-based
vaccine manufacturing process to reduce the level of any adventitious agent to a
million-fold below infectious levels. The cell culture-derived subunit influenza
vaccine (OPTAFLU), Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics) is produced using Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells to propagate seasonal viral strains, as an
alternative to embryonated chicken-eggs. As only a limited range of mammalian
viruses can grow in MDCK cells, similar to embryonated eggs, MDCK cells can
act as an effective filter for a wide range of adventitious agents that might be introduced during vaccine production. However, the introduction of an alternative
cell substrate (for example, MDCK cells) into a vaccine manufacturing process
requires thorough investigations to assess the potential for adventitious agent risk
in the final product, in the unlikely event that contamination should occur. The
risk assessment takes into account the entire manufacturing process, from initial
influenza virus isolation, through to blending of the trivalent subunit vaccine and
worst-case residual titres for the final vaccine formulation have been calculated
for >20 viruses or virus families. Maximum residual titres for all viruses tested
were in the range of 10(-6) to 10(-16) infectious units per vaccine dose. Thus, the
new cell culture-based vaccine manufacturing process can reduce any adventitious agent to a level that is unable to cause infection.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18485545

“... the ability of a new
cell culture-based vaccine manufacturing process
to reduce the level of any adventitious agent
to a million-fold below infectious levels.”

“Two tetanus outbreaks in 1901 — from contaminated diphtheria antitoxin in St. Louis, Missouri,
and contaminated smallpox vaccine in Camden, New Jersey — raised public concern about pharmaceutical safety.”
Perspectives In Biology And Medicine • Spring 2008

The first pharmacoepidemiologic investigations:
national drug safety policy in the United States, 1901-1902
Author information
Lilienfeld DE.
lilienfeld@comcast.net
Abstract
The pharmaceutical industry developed in the late 19th century as a consequence of both scientific and commercial innovations, such as the development of diphtheria antitoxin and the commercialization of smallpox vaccine.
Two tetanus outbreaks in 1901 — from contaminated diphtheria antitoxin in St. Louis, Missouri, and contaminated smallpox vaccine in Camden, New Jersey — raised public concern about pharmaceutical safety. In St. Louis,
errant manufacturing processes were found to be the source of the outbreak. In Camden, investigation identified
contaminated vaccine from one manufacturer as the cause. These investigations, the first known pharmacoepidemiologic studies, were widely reported. They formed the basis for the 1902 Biologics Control Act, which focused
on the safety of biologics produced and sold by the pharmaceutical industry and established a precedent of federal
regulation of this industry. That power, welcomed by manufacturers to restore the public’s trust in their products,
was enhanced in the 1906 Food and Drug Act, which created the Food and Drug Administration.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18453724

Virology • December 2008

SV40 DNA replication:
From the A gene to a nanomachine
Author Information
Ellen Fanning* and Kun Zhao
Department of Biological Sciences and Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235-1634
Abstract
Duplication of the simian virus 40 (SV40) genome is the best understood eukaryotic DNA replication process to date. Like most prokaryotic genomes, the SV40
genome is a circular duplex DNA organized in a single replicon. This small viral
genome, its association with host histones in nucleosomes, and its dependence
on the host cell milieu for replication factors and precursors led to its adoption
as a simple and powerful model. The steps in replication, the viral initiator, the
host proteins, and their mechanisms of action were initially defined using a cellfree SV40 replication reaction. Although our understanding of the vastly more
complex host replication fork is advancing, no eukaryotic replisome has yet been
reconstituted and the SV40 paradigm remains a point of reference. This article
reviews some of the milestones in the development of this paradigm and speculates on its potential utility to address unsolved questions in eukaryotic genome
maintenance.
Full Report: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2718763/

“Duplication of the
simian virus 40 genome
is the best understood
eukaryotic DNA replication
process to date.”

BMJ • March 2009

Suspected contamination leads to recall of meningitis C vaccine
Caroline White
Two batches of meningitis C vaccine distributed to general practices across England have been recalled by the
medicines watchdog amid fears that they may have been contaminated. The manufacturer, Novartis Vaccines,
raised the alarm last week after routine sampling of a shipment of doses from the same two batches air freighted
to the United States showed contamination with Staphylococcus aureus. The sterility of the solvent, aluminium
hydroxide, which is used to mix the vaccine, had been compromised.
Purchase the full report for $23
http://www.bmj.com/content/338/bmj.b896.long

“The sterility of the solvent, aluminium hydroxide, which is
used to mix the vaccine, had been compromised.”

Pharmacoepidemiological Drug Safety • March 2010

Safety assessment
of recalled Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccines
United States, 2007-2008
Author information
Huang WT1, Chang S, Miller ER, Woo EJ, Hoffmaster AR,
Gee JE, Clark TA, Iskander JK, Ball R, Broder KR.
Epidemic Intelligence Service, Career Development Division
Office of the Workforce and Career Development
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
Abstract
PURPOSE
On 13 December 2007, Merck & Co., Inc. voluntarily recalled 1.2 million doses of Haemophilus influenzae type
b (Hib) vaccines that had been distributed since April 2007 for concerns regarding potential Bacillus cereus contamination. Enhanced postrecall surveillance was conducted to detect vaccine-associated B. cereus infections.

“On 13 December 2007, Merck & Co., Inc.

METHODS
We reviewed reports involving recalled Hib vaccines received by the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
(VAERS) during 1 April 2007-29 February 2008. For each reported death, autopsy review sought evidence of B.
cereus infections. For each specified outcome, the proportional reporting ratios (PRRs) were calculated to compare the recalled Hib vaccines with the manufacturer’s nonrecalled Hib vaccines in the VAERS databases. On 20
December 2007, we used the Epidemic Information Exchange (Epi-X) to solicit nongastrointestinal vaccine-associated B. cereus infections, and requested B. cereus isolates for genotyping to compare with the manufacturing
facility isolate.

Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccines

RESULTS
VAERS received 75 reports involving recalled Hib vaccines; none described a confirmed B. cereus infection.
Comparative analyses did not reveal disproportionate reporting of specified outcomes for recalled Hib vaccines.
The Epi-X posting triggered one report of vaccine-associated B. cereus bacteremia from a child who received a
nonrecalled Hib vaccine manufactured by Merck; the genotypes of isolates from the patient and the manufacturing facility differed.
CONCLUSIONS
No evidence of vaccine-associated B. cereus infection had been found in recipients of recalled Hib vaccines. Conducting laboratory surveillance through Epi-X was feasible and may enhance public health response capacities for
future vaccine safety emergencies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20084617

voluntarily recalled 1.2 million doses of

that had been distributed since April 2007 ...”

Journal Of Virology • April 2010

Isolation of an Infectious Endogenous Retrovirus
in a Proportion of Live Attenuated Vaccines for Pets
Takayuki Miyazawa,1,‡* Rokusuke Yoshikawa,1,‡
Matthew Golder,2 Masaya Okada,1
Hazel Stewart,2 and Massimo Palmarini2,*
1. Laboratory of Signal Transduction
Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University
53 Shogoin-Kawaracho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
2. Institute of Comparative Medicine
University of Glasgow Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland2
Abstract
The genomes of all animal species are colonized by endogenous retroviruses
(ERVs). Although most ERVs have accumulated defects that render them incapable
of replication, fully infectious ERVs have been identified in various mammals. In
this study, we isolated a feline infectious ERV (RD-114) in a proportion of live
attenuated vaccines for pets. Isolation of RD-114 was made in two independent
laboratories using different detection strategies and using vaccines for both cats and
dogs commercially available in Japan or the United Kingdom. This study shows
that the methods currently employed to screen veterinary vaccines for retroviruses
should be reevaluated.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2838105/?tool=pubmed

“ In this study, we isolated a feline
infectious ERV (RD-114) in a proportion of
live attenuated vaccines for pets. Isolation
of RD-114 was made in two independent
laboratories using different detection
strategies and using vaccines for both cats
and dogs commercially available in Japan
or the United Kingdom. This study shows
that the methods currently employed to
screen veterinary vaccines for retroviruses
should be reevaluated.”

Veterinary Microbiology • April 2010

Atypical ‘HoBi’-like pestiviruses—
recent findings and implications thereof
Author information
Ståhl K1, Beer M, Schirrmeier H, Hoffmann B, Belák S, Alenius S.
The Joint R&D Division in Virology
the National Veterinary Institute (SVA) and
The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU)
Uppsala, Sweden
karl.stahl@bvf.slu.se
Abstract
In 2004, an atypical pestivirus named D32/00_’HoBi’, isolated from foetal
calf serum (FCS) originating from Brazil, was described (Schirrmeier et al.,
2004). A few years later, a closely related virus (Th/04_KhonKaen) was detected in serum from a calf in Thailand, indicating that this group of atypical
pestiviruses already is spread in cattle populations in various regions of the
world. At the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Insel Riems, Germany, FCS batches
are regularly tested for pestivirus contamination, in general with positive PCR
results, and in some cases the contaminants have been typed as ‘HoBi’-like.
At the National Veterinary Institute (SVA) in Uppsala, Sweden, a recent event
with contaminated FCS ruined much of the ongoing cell culture work. From
the FCS and the contaminated cells we were able to amplify and sequence
nucleic acid from three different pestivirus strains, including BVDV-1, -2 and
‘HoBi’-like; this in a commercial FCS that had been tested free from pestivirus by the manufacturer. In this short communication we review the current
status of atypical ‘HoBi’-like pestiviruses, describe recent findings and discuss the implications thereof.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19857934

“From the Fetal Calf Serum and the contaminated cells
we were able to amplify and sequence nucleic acid from
three different pestivirus strains, including BVDV-1, -2
and ‘HoBi’-like; this in a commercial FCS that had been
tested free from pestivirus by the manufacturer.”

Biologicals • May 2010

Endogenous retroviruses
as potential hazards for vaccines
Author information
Miyazawa T1.
Laboratory of Signal Transduction
Department of Cell Biology
Institute for Virus Research
Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin-Kawaracho
Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
takavet@gmail.com
Abstract
Retroviruses are classified as exogenous or endogenous according to their mode of transmission. Generally, endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are not pathogenic in their original hosts; however,
some ERVs induce diseases. In humans, a novel gammaretrovirus
was discovered in patients with prostate cancer or chronic fatigue
syndrome. This virus was closely related to xenotropic murine leukemia virus (X-MLV) and designated as xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV). The origin and transmission route
of XMRV are still unknown at present; however, XMRV may be
derived from ERVs of rodents because X-MLVs are ERVs of inbred and wild mice. Many live attenuated vaccines for animals are
manufactured by using cell lines from animals, which are known to
produce infectious ERVs; however, the risks of infection by ERVs
from xenospecies through vaccination have been ignored. This brief
review gives an overview of ERVs in cats, the potential risks of
ERV infection by vaccination, the biological characteristics of RD114 virus (a feline ERV), which possibly contaminates vaccines for
companion animals, and the methods for detection of infectious RD114 virus.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20378372

“Many live attenuated vaccines for animals are
manufactured by using cell lines from animals,
which are known to produce infectious ERVs;
however, the risks of infection by ERVs from
xenospecies through vaccination have been ignored.
This brief review gives an overview of ERVs in cats,
the potential risks of ERV infection by vaccination,
the biological characteristics of RD-114 virus (a feline
ERV), which possibly contaminates vaccines for
companion animals, and the methods for detection
of infectious RD-114 virus.”

BMJ • May 2010

Australia suspends
seasonal flu vaccination of young children
by Melissa Sweet
Australia has extended a suspension of vaccination of children aged 5 years and under
against seasonal flu, pending further investigations into an apparent spike in febrile convulsions associated with the vaccine.
A temporary suspension was first announced on 23 April, after concerns emerged in Western Australia about an increase in the number of young children presenting to hospitals
with febrile convulsion after receiving the trivalent seasonal flu vaccine.
The federal government’s chief medical officer, Jim Bishop, announced on 30 April that
more time was needed to complete epidemiological and scientific investigations.
“Given the ongoing and incomplete scientific and clinical case review, the moratorium on
the use of seasonal influenza vaccine in children 5 years and less will continue,” he said.
Figures released by the national Department of Health and Ageing show that 77 cases of
febrile convulsion in children aged 5 or under and associated with the vaccination have
recently been reported to the Therapeutic Goods Administration.
Of these, 57 were in Western Australia, the only Australian state to provide free seasonal
flu vaccination for all children aged 6 months to 4 years. It introduced the vaccination
programme in 2008 after the highly publicised deaths of three young children with flu and
because of concerns that this age group has the highest hospitalisation rates for flu. About
35% of children under 5 in Western Australia are estimated to have received at least one
dose of flu vaccine in 2008 and 2009, but it is not yet known how many have been vaccinated this season, Paul Armstrong of the state’s health department told the BMJ.
A range of experts have said that it is unclear whether the cases of fever relate to a specific batch or product or to inclusion of the pandemic vaccine in a trivalent vaccine. Three
companies market seasonal flu vaccines in Australia. They contain the components recommended by the Australian Influenza Vaccine Committee for the 2010 season (A/H1N1,
A/H3N2, and B) (www.tga.gov.au/committee/aivc.htm).
The TGA is continuing to recommend the pandemic vaccine (active only against H1N1)
for adults and children (www.tga.gov.au/alerts/medicines/fluvaccine.htm).
Other possibilities being investigated are whether febrile illness has increased more broadly this winter or whether the Western Australian programme has uncovered an increased
risk among young children in particular.

Peter Richmond, a paediatrician in Perth, told ABC television this week that the association
of fevers with the vaccination was striking (www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2010/s2885203.
htm). “This year has been something that I’ve never seen in 20 years as a paediatrician,”
he said. “We have had a large number of children presenting to their doctors who were
previously well who received the flu vaccine, and they had a very sudden onset of this high
fever. And obviously for parents of young children it was very scary, and unfortunately
some of these children actually had febrile convulsions.”
Professor Bishop told the BMJ he had an “open mind” about whether there was a real
increase in side effects. “In the meantime it is prudent and safe to proceed cautiously,” he
said.
An industry funded group, the Influenza Specialist Group, has said that Queensland’s government is also working closely with a local coroner regarding the death of a 2 year old
girl who was found dead in her cot several hours after receiving a seasonal flu vaccine in
early April (www.influenzaspecialistgroup.org.au/news-recent/143-seasonal-flu-vaccination-and-in-children-5-years-and-under-). Professor Bishop said that this case had not been
reported to the Therapeutic Goods Administration.
A statement from the Department of Health and Ageing said that batch testing of the vaccine
by the Therapeutic Goods Administration and other independent experts had so far shown
the vaccine to be satisfactory, while testing by the major flu vaccine manufacturer CSL had
found no abnormalities in its product. Further testing and experiments are planned.
Meanwhile, Julie Leask, a senior research fellow at the National Centre for Immunisation
Research & Surveillance, said that public confidence in flu vaccination is likely to suffer,
resulting in reduced vaccination coverage across all ages.
Peter Collignon, an infectious diseases specialist at the Australian National University,
Canberra, said that the situation showed the need for better surveillance and evaluation of
flu vaccination. “We’re in a situation now where the government can’t tell us how many
doses of the vaccine have been given out or how many people have side effects,” he said.
Dr Armstrong said that the vaccination programme would resume in Western Australia
only when it was clear that it was safe to do so. He said, “The first thing we need to do is
to work out [whether there] is a problem and what the magnitude is, and then to work out
what the problem is; we don’t know that at the moment.”
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20442237

BMJ • May 2010
Australia suspends seasonal flu vaccination of young children

Adverse events
following influenza vaccination in Australia—
should we be surprised?
There have been large numbers of major adverse reactions to this year’s seasonal
influenza vaccine in Australia, and the vaccine has been suspended for use in children aged five and under [1,2]. These reactions have occurred across the country
and involved multiple batches of vaccine [2]. In the state of Western Australia
where the problem was first detected, reports suggest that of the 20,000 to 30,000
children vaccinated, more than 250 had adverse reactions and 55 had febrile convulsions before vaccination was suspended in young children [2]. Assuming all
convulsions were in children, about one child in every 500 vaccinated had a febrile
convulsion. Across Australia, media accounts indicate that more than 400 adverse
reactions [3] including 77 cases of febrile convulsion [1] have been reported by
regulators. While attention remains focused on reactions in very young children,
reports suggest only one-third of the reactions may have occurred in children under
five [4].
Although this situation has triggered considerable controversy in Australia, the
story has attracted little to no media attention in the US and Europe. Similarly,
the media has paid little attention to a US H1N1 federal vaccine safety advisory
committee which recently reported detecting signals for Guillain-Barre syndrome
(GBS), Bell’s palsy, and thrombocytopenia in the monovalent H1N1 (swine flu)
vaccine [5]. The same monovalent H1N1 antigen component under review in the
US is scheduled to be added to the US trivalent seasonal vaccine and is contained
in the Australian trivalent seasonal vaccine and will be given to children, pregnant
women and adults [6].
Data from a previous Australian study of H1N1 vaccine show that a large percentage of children developed fevers following vaccination — in children less than 3
years, between three and six in every ten vaccinated, depending on dose [7,8]. The
data also show a dose response effect — the larger the vaccine dose, the more severe the harms. There was also an age relationship: children under the age of three
developed fevers at more than twice the rate of older children [7,8]. The study was
however underpowered to detect febrile convulsions at the current rates in Australia, with only 162 children below the age of three. The size problem was further
aggravated by stratification by age group and antigen dose.
Presumably the vaccine manufacturer CSL, which sponsored the trial, and Australia’s regulatory body, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA), which used
this data in approving the vaccine for children, were aware of these important findings. But authors of the study published earlier this year did not discuss the high
incidence of fever associated with vaccination [7]; data were instead only reported
in online-only supplementary tables [8].

Overall, the percentages of children under three who developed a fever after vaccination appear very high; thirty five per cent with the 15 ug dose and 62% after a 30
ug dose [7,8]. Of those that received a 7.5 ug dose in the seasonal influenza vaccine,
23% develop a fever of >38 degrees Celsius [6].

“The large number of children

The large number of children suffering harms — and subsequent suspension of the
vaccine — challenges the assumption that regulators are ensuring the safety and
efficacy of all marketed therapeutics. Should we be surprised that these problems
have occurred with influenza vaccine, a vaccine used for over 60 years, said to have
“an established record of safety in all age groups”? [9]

challenges the assumption that

There are actually relatively little data on the effects of vaccinating young children
against influenza [10]. Some manufacturers have even withheld data from public
scrutiny amidst general indifference [10,11]. Evidence from all comparative influenza vaccine studies shows that harms, when they are investigated, are not reported
consistently and systematically [10,11].

surprised that these problems have

As pandemic vaccines are provided to governments and not individuals and manufacturers are indemnified for damages caused to users [12-14], there seem to be few
incentives for investigation of harms.
Last winter, the likelihood that a child without risk factors would die from swine
flu was less than one in a million [15]. When such a high proportion of children
develop moderate to severe febrile reactions to the influenza vaccine, it’s likely that
more harm than good will occur by vaccinating the entire population.
If such a large proportion of children develop high fevers, it is also likely that a
substantial number will develop febrile convulsions as a result of vaccination. It
is thus surprising the vaccine was approved for this age group. It is also surprising
that more explicit warnings about the high risk of adverse reactions were not given
to parents when their children were being vaccinated. Passive surveillance (as in
Australia and elsewhere) is a relatively weak mechanism to detect and evaluate
post-vaccination adverse events [16].
Unlike most drugs, vaccines are used on a population basis triggered by public
health policy. As such, evidence of their safety and efficacy needs to be extraordinarily rigorous and evaluation methods and data should be open to independent
scrutiny. We need much better and larger studies on both safety and efficacy before
we roll out influenza vaccine programs to all populations, especially to children
who appear to have much higher rates of adverse reactions. Finally, decisions to
use a vaccine in a population must consider its safety profile, but principally its
effectiveness. There is poor evidence on how well influenza vaccines prevent any
influenza complications in children [10] and other age groups. There is good evidence that influenza vaccines study reports cherry pick results and achieve spurious
notoriety [17]. Exposing human beings to uncertain effects is a risky business.
Report available for purchase
Try a 14-day free trial at BMJ.com
or Google the title of the report for more information

suffering harms — and subsequent
suspension of the vaccine —
regulators are ensuring the
safety and efficacy of all marketed
therapeutics. Should we be
occurred with influenza vaccine, a
vaccine used for over 60 years, said
to have “an established record of
safety in all age groups”?
There are actually relatively little
data on the effects of vaccinating
young children against influenza.
Some manufacturers have even
withheld data from public scrutiny
amidst general indifference.
Evidence from all comparative
influenza vaccine studies shows
that harms, when they are
investigated, are not reported
consistently and systematically.
As pandemic vaccines are provided
to governments and not individuals
and manufacturers are indemnified
for damages caused to users, there
seem to be few incentives for
investigation of harms.”

Journal Of Virology • June 2010

Viral Nucleic Acids in Live-Attenuated Vaccines:
Detection of Minority Variants and an Adventitious Virus †
Author Information
Joseph G. Victoria,1,2 Chunlin Wang,3 Morris S. Jones,4
Crystal Jaing,5 Kevin McLoughlin,5 Shea Gardner,5 and Eric L. Delwart1,2*
1. Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California 94118
2. Dept. of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California 94118
3. Stanford Genome Technology Center, Stanford, California 94304
4. Clinical Investigation Facility, David Grant USAF Medical Center, Travis AFB, California 94535
5. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94551
Highly effective, safe, and relatively inexpensive, live-attenuated viruses protect against numerous human and
animal viral infections. Attenuation is achieved by genetically adapting viruses for replication in a different host
species or under nonphysiological conditions, such that viruses lose their pathogenic potential in their original
host species while remaining sufficiently antigenic to induce lasting protective immunity. Live-attenuated vaccines are highly efficacious due to the physiologic presentation of native antigen to the host’s immune system and
include the earliest human vaccine developed by serial passages of rabies virus in rabbits. In very rare instances,
one attenuated viral vaccine, the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV), can accumulate mutations as well as recombine
with other coinfecting enteroviruses and revert to a pathogenic state (18, 24). Attenuated live vaccines also carry
a potential risk of contamination with adventitious viruses introduced during the attenuation process, from the cell
lines used, and/or from the animal sera or other biologics often used in cell cultures. Very early Theiler’s yellow
fever attenuated virus was once “stabi- lized” with human plasma thought to contain hepatitis B virus, resulting
in many cases of hepatitis (5, 28). Some early Sabin poliovirus vaccines were contaminated with the simian virus
40 (SV40) polyomavirus from the monkey cells used to amplify polioviruses. While carcinogenic in rodents,
SV40 has no epidemiologic association with human cancers (10). Avian leuko- sis virus (ALV) and endogenous
avian virus (AEV) have been reported in attenuated vaccines grown in chicken embryo fi- broblasts (CEF), but
extensive testing has also ruled out hu- man infections (14, 15). Vaccine-associated ALV and AEV are thought to
originate from endogenous retroviruses in the chicken germ line (14, 15, 17).
Because the chemical inactivation used in the manufacture of killed-virus vaccines is also likely to inactivate
adventitious viruses, we focused on eight live-attenuated viruses, OPV (Biopolio), rubella (Meruvax-II), measles
(Attenuvax), yellow fever (YF-Vax), human herpesvirus 3 (HHV-3) (Varivax), rotavirus (Rotarix and Rotateq),
and multivalent measles/ mumps/rubella (MMR-II), to resequence the attenuated viruses and test for the presence
of adventitious viruses after viral particle purification, massively parallel pyrosequencing, and viral sequence
similarity searches. Vaccine nucleic acids were also analyzed using a panmicrobial microarray.
Published ahead of print on 7 April 2010
† The authors have paid a fee to allow immediate free access to this article.
Full Report: http://jvi.asm.org/content/84/12/6033.full.pdf

“In very rare instances, one attenuated
viral vaccine, the oral poliovirus vaccine
(OPV), can accumulate mutations as well as
recombine with other coinfecting
enteroviruses and revert to
a pathogenic state.”

“Recently discovered contamination of 2 rotavirus vaccines
by pig viruses is unlikely to pose a human health threat,
according to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).”
Journal Of The American Medical Association (JAMA) • July 2010
Medical News and Perspectives

FDA:
Benefits of Rotavirus Vaccination
Outweigh Potential Contamination Risk
by Bridget M. Kuehn
Recently discovered contamination of 2 rotavirus vaccines by pig viruses is
unlikely to pose a human health threat, according to the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA). The agency recommended in May that physicians
resume use of one vaccine, Rotarix, and continue use of the other vaccine,
RotaTeq.
On March 22, the FDA had recommended that physicians suspend the use
of Rotarix after the agency learned that academic researchers made the unexpected finding that the vaccine contained DNA from porcine circovirus 1
(PCV1), a virus that is common in US swine but not associated with illness
in pigs or humans (Victoria JG et al. J Virol. 2010;84[12]:6033-6040). This
finding was confirmed by scientists from the FDA and the vaccine’s maker,
GlaxoSmithKline.
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=186166

Expert Review Of Vaccines • October 2010

MF59; as a vaccine adjuvant:
a review of safety and immunogenicity
Author information
El Sahly H.
Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology
Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
hanae@bcm.edu
Abstract
Approximately 70 years passed between the licensing of alum salts as
vaccine adjuvants and that of MF59, an oil-in-water emulsion, is currently licensed for use in the elderly as an adjuvant in seasonal influenza vaccines. Its mechanism of action is not fully understood, but enhancement
of the interaction between the antigen and the dendritic cell seems to be
involved. When used with seasonal influenza vaccines, an increase occurs in the hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers against some, but
not all, seasonal vaccine influenza strains. The adjuvant effect is more
pronounced when MF59 is combined with novel influenza antigens such
as H9 and H5. The use of the adjuvant is associated with an increase in
the frequency of local and systemic early post-vaccine adverse events
(3-7 days), but no increase in adverse events was observed thereafter.
Currently, MF59 is under evaluation as an adjuvant with other antigens
such as pandemic influenza antigens and cytomegalovirus antigens.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20923265

“Currently, MF59 [squalene]
is under evaluation as an adjuvant
with other antigens such as pandemic influenza antigens
and cytomegalovirus antigens.”

Toxicology • December 2010

Interindividual variations
in the efficacy and toxicity of vaccines
Author information
Thomas C1, Moridani M.
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
School of Pharmacy, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine
Bradenton, FL 34211, USA
Abstract
A number of currently available vaccines have shown significant differences
in the magnitude of immune responses and toxicity in individuals undergoing
vaccination. A number of factors may be involved in the variations in immune
responses, which include age, gender, race, amount and quality of the antigen,
the dose administered and to some extent the route of administration, and genetics of immune system. Hence, it becomes imperative that researchers have
tools such as genomics and proteomics at their disposal to predict which set of
population is more likely to be non-responsive or develop toxicity to vaccines.
In this article, we briefly review the influence of pharmacogenomics biomarkers on the efficacy and toxicity of some of the most frequently reported vaccines that showed a high rate of variability in response and toxicity towards
hepatitis B, measles, mumps, rubella, influenza, and AIDS/HIV.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19837123

“A number of currently available vaccines
have shown significant differences in the
magnitude of immune responses and toxicity
in individuals undergoing vaccination.”

“When Eric Delwart couldn’t find the right email addresses online to contact GlaxoSmithKline ...”
Nature Medicine • 2010

Vaccine contamination prompts safety review
Megan Scudellari
When Eric Delwart couldn’t find the right email addresses online to contact GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) in early
February, he posted a good old-fashioned letter to the Belgian headquarters of the pharma giant to inform the
company that one of its vaccines was contaminated with a pig virus. Months earlier, Delwart, a viral…
Purchase this report full text PDF: $18
http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v16/n5/full/nm0510-493.html

Vaccine • April 2011

Plaque purification as a method
to mitigate the risk of adventitious-agent contamination
in influenza vaccine virus seeds
Author information
Murata H1, Macauley J, Lewis AM Jr, Peden K.
Laboratory of DNA Viruses
Division of Viral Products
CBER, FDA, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
haruhiko.murata@fda.hhs.gov
Abstract
At present, the seed viruses for the manufacture of licensed seasonal inactivated influenza
vaccines in the United States are derived from primary egg isolates as a result of concerns
associated with adventitious agents. According to the prevailing view, the passage of influenza viruses through eggs serves as a filtering step to remove potential contaminating viruses. We have investigated the feasibility of addressing adventitious-agent risk by
subjecting influenza virus to a plaque-purification procedure using MDCK cells. SV40
and canine adenovirus-1 (representing viruses for which MDCK cells are non-permissive
and permissive, respectively) were used as challenge viruses to model agents of concern
that might be co-isolated along with the influenza virus. By mixing influenza virus strain
A/PR/8/34 with varying amounts of each challenge virus and then performing a plaque assay for influenza virus using MDCK cells, we have attempted to determine the efficiency
by which the challenge virus is removed. Our data suggest that substantial removal can
be achieved even after a single round of plaque purification. If cell-derived isolates were
deemed to be acceptable following a plaque-purification procedure, the manufacture of
seasonal influenza vaccine would be facilitated by: (1) the expansion of the repertoire
of viruses from which seed virus candidates could be generated for licensed egg-derived
vaccines as well as for vaccines manufactured in mammalian cells; and (2) the mitigation
of adventitious-agent risk associated with the seed virus, and hence the elimination of the
need to passage seed viruses in eggs for vaccines manufactured in mammalian cells.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21354480

“At present, the seed viruses for
the manufacture of licensed seasonal
inactivated influenza vaccines in the
United States are derived from primary
egg isolates as a result of concerns associated
with adventitious agents. According to the
prevailing view, the passage of influenza viruses
through eggs serves as a filtering step to remove
potential contaminating viruses.”

Vaccine • October 2011

Investigations of porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1)
in vaccine-related and other cell lines
Hailun Ma, Syed Shaheduzzaman,
Dhanya K. Willliams, Yamei Gao, Arifa S. Khan
Division of Viral Products
Office of Vaccines Research and Review
Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research
US Food and Drug Administration
Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
Abstract
Porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1) is highly prevalent in swine and was recently reported
in some rotavirus vaccines. Since animal-derived raw materials, such as cells, trypsin,
and serum, can be a major source of introducing virus contamination in biological products, we have investigated PCV1 in several cell lines obtained from ATCC that have
broad use in research, diagnostics, or vaccine development. It is expected that these cell
lines have been exposed to bovine and porcine viruses during their establishment and
passage history due to the use of serum and trypsin that was not qualified according to
current testing guidances or processed using new virus-inactivation methods. This study
showed that Vero, MRC-5, and CEFs, which represent cell substrates used in some U.S.
licensed vaccines, and other cell lines used in investigational vaccines, such as MDCK,
HEK-293, HeLa, and A549, were negative for PCV1 using a nested PCR assay; some
were also confirmed negative by infectivity analysis. However, MDBK cells, which are
used for some animal vaccines, contained PCV1 sequences, although no virus was isolated. Although the results showed that PCV infection may not have occurred under previous culture conditions, the recent cases of vaccine contamination emphasizes the need
for continued efforts to reduce the likelihood of introducing viruses from animal-derived
materials used in product manufacture.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X1101173X
[click Science Direct]

“Although the results showed that Porcine Circovirus
infection may not have occurred under previous culture
conditions, the recent cases of vaccine contamination
emphasizes the need for continued efforts to reduce the
likelihood of introducing viruses from animal-derived
materials used in product manufacture.”

Expert Review Of Respiratory Medicine • October 2011

Simian virus 40 transformation,
malignant mesothelioma and brain tumors
Author information
Qi F1, Carbone M, Yang H, Gaudino G.
University of Hawaii Cancer Center
Honolulu, HI, USA
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a DNA virus isolated in 1960 from contaminated
polio vaccines, that induces mesotheliomas, lymphomas, brain and bone
tumors, and sarcomas, including osteosarcomas, in hamsters. These same
tumor types have been found to contain SV40 DNA and proteins in humans.
Mesotheliomas and brain tumors are the two tumor types that have been
most consistently associated with SV40, and the range of positivity has varied about from 6 to 60%, although a few reported 100% of positivity and a
few reported 0%. It appears unlikely that SV40 infection alone is sufficient
to cause human malignancy, as we did not observe an epidemic of cancers
following the administration of SV40-contaminated vaccines. However, it
seems possible that SV40 may act as a cofactor in the pathogenesis of some
tumors. In vitro and animal experiments showing cocarcinogenicity between
SV40 and asbestos support this hypothesis.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3241931/

“it seems possible that SV40
may act as a cofactor in the pathogenesis
of some tumors. In vitro and animal
experiments showing cocarcinogenicity
between SV40 and asbestos support
this hypothesis.”

Journal of Public Health Management & Practice • November 2011

Using an Immunization Information System
to Facilitate a Vaccine Recall in New York City
2007
Papadouka, Vikki PhD, MPH; Metroka,
Amy MSW, MPH; Zucker, Jane R. MD, MSc
Abstract
Background
In December 2007, Merck & Co, Inc, initiated a voluntary recall of 10 lots of PedvaxHIB,
and 2 lots of COMVAX when the potential of contamination was identified during routine
testing of the manufacturing equipment. Merck recommended that providers stop vaccinating
children using these vaccine lots.

“In December 2007, Merck & Co, Inc, initiated

Objective
To describe how the New York City (NYC) Immunization Information System was used in
the effort to recall vaccines.

of COMVAX when the potential of contamination was

Methods
Immediately following Merck’s announcement, NYC’s Bureau of Immunization used the
New York Citywide Immunization Registry (CIR) to (a) fax and e-mail all pediatric facilities a letter informing them of the recall and asking that they immediately remove recalled
vaccines from their refrigerators; (b) identify facilities that had used the recalled lots, on the
basis of data reported to the CIR, and contact them individually by phone; and (c) monitor the
success of the recall by examining the number of recalled doses administered and reported to
the CIR before and after the recall.

a voluntary recall of 10 lots of PedvaxHIB, and 2 lots

identified during routine testing of the manufacturing
equipment. Merck recommended that providers stop
vaccinating children using these vaccine lots.”

Results
The alert was faxed and e-mailed to 1928 pediatric facilities informing them of the recall.
In addition, the Bureau of Immunization identified 105 facilities that had reported doses of
vaccine from the recalled lots to the CIR and called to ask them to check their refrigerators
for remaining supplies and discontinue use of this vaccine. The number of doses with the affected lot numbers reported to the CIR decreased sharply following CIR recall notification.
Furthermore, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Merck reported the return
of nearly 50% of publicly and privately purchased vaccines from the recalled lots that had
been distributed to NYC providers.
Conclusion
Immunization Information Systems can be effective tools for quickly identifying providers in
possession of recalled vaccine lots, particularly when lot numbers are well reported, and for
facilitating rapid vaccine recall in support of vaccine safety.

http://journals.lww.com/jphmp/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2011&issue=11010&article=00014&type=abstract

“Because the product is itself a virus,
traditional viral clearance steps are generally not included in the manufacturing process ...”
PDA Journal Of Pharmaceutical Science And Technology • November 2011

Application of Risk Assessments
in the Design of the Overall Viral Control Strategy Used
during the Manufacture and Testing of Live Virus Vaccines
Author information
Pennathur S.
MedImmune, LLC, One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878
Abstract
CONFERENCE PROCEEDING
Proceedings of the PDA/FDA Adventitious Viruses in Biologics: Detection and Mitigation Strategies Workshop in
Bethesda, MD, USA; December 1-3, 2010 Guest Editors: Arifa Khan (Bethesda, MD), Patricia Hughes (Bethesda,
MD) and Michael Wiebe (San Francisco, CA) It is important to include a risk assessment process in the overall
viral control strategy used during the manufacture and testing of live virus vaccines. Because the product is itself a virus, traditional viral clearance steps are generally not included in the manufacturing process, and there is
normally no inactivation step in the manufacturing process either. The risk assessment is therefore necessary to
identify potential sources for entry of adventitious agents into the vaccine, and to develop a strategy to minimize
or eliminate the sources through which adventitious agents can enter the vaccine. The risk assessment can also be
used to tailor the biosafety testing that is performed on raw materials, vaccine seeds, vaccine bulk materials, and
final product. Biosafety testing is normally designed to ensure the detection of both known and unknown adventitious agents, but the results of the risk assessment can be used to put in place a biosafety testing strategy designed
to maximize the detection of an adventitious agent that is potentially likely to be present in the vaccine. The risk
assessment therefore enables the development of a comprehensive viral control strategy and provides a higher
level of assurance that the vaccine will be free from contamination by adventitious agents.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22294607

J Neurology, Neurosurgery And Psychiatry • 2012

Contamination with gangliosides
in brain-derived rabies vaccine
may trigger Guillain–Barré syndrome
Author Information
Hiromichi Sakai1, Faqeehah Mohamed Harun1,
Naoki Yamamoto1,2, Nobuhiro Yuki1,2
1. Department of Microbiology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
2. Department of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Abstract
Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) is an autoimmune-mediated peripheral neuropathy typically occurring after microbial infections such as Campylobacter jejuni
enteritis. It can also occur following vaccinations such as the 1976 swine flu vaccine in the USA.1 GBS is divided into demyelinating and axonal subtypes. There
is now good evidence that gangliosides or similar components trigger the development of axonal GBS.2 Axonal GBS associated with IgG anti-GM1 or anti-GD1a
antibodies after bovine brain ganglioside administration have been recorded in
several patients. Sensitisation of rabbits with bovine brain gangliosides or isolated GM1 produced a replica of axonal GBS. Based on these findings, it has
been suggested that C jejuni components mimic human gangliosides GM1 and
GD1a, and C jejuni infection induces the production of autoantibodies against
the gangliosides that are expressed in the peripheral nerves, resulting in the limb
weakness seen in GBS. By contrast, the mechanism by which certain vaccines
elicit the development of GBS remains unresolved, although there have been studies to suggest that the 1976 swine flu vaccine could elicit anti-GM1 antibodies in
mice and that the GM1 epitope was present in the influenza haemagglutinin.3 It is
important to understand the pathogenesis of postvaccination GBS to allow safer
vaccines to be developed.
http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/83/4/467.extract

“There is now good evidence that
gangliosides or similar components
trigger the development of axonal
Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS).”

Biologicals • January 2012

A need for careful evaluation
of endotoxin contents in acellular pertussis-based
combination vaccines
Michiyo Kataoka, Masaki Ochiai, Akihiko Yamamoto, Yoshinobu Horiuchi
Department of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Infection Control
National Institute of Infectious Diseases
4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashimurayama-shi
Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
Abstract
Two batches each of diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis vaccine (DTaP) and
that combined with inactivated polio vaccine purchased from foreign markets
were tested by mouse body weight decreasing (BWD) toxicity test and Limulus
amaebocyte lysate (LAL) test. Three out of the four imported vaccine batches
showed the levels of BWD toxicity even comparable to that of DT-whole cell pertussis vaccine. BWD toxicity test is based on endotoxin dose-dependent weight
loss of mice and has been used for controlling endotoxin in DTaP. Although of the
strong BWD toxicity of the imported vaccines, there was no marked difference
in LAL test results between the imported vaccines and Japanese DTaP. However,
one imported DTaP batch showed very strong interference with LAL activity of
spiked lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The batch interfered not only with LAL activity
but also with pyrogenicity and prostaglandin E2 induction activity. However, the
pyrogenicity of the spiked LPS could be recovered from the precipitated fraction
of the batch by treating with phosphate buffer to suggest the possibility of recovering in vivo toxicity. As an adequate in vitro test method could not be identified for
controlling the safety of the interfering batch, an appropriate in vivo test would be
required for testing such vaccines.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045105611001977

“However, the pyrogenicity of the spiked LPS
could be recovered from the precipitated
fraction of the batch by treating with
phosphate buffer to suggest the possibility of
recovering in vivo toxicity. As an adequate
in vitro test method could not be identified
for controlling the safety of the interfering
batch, an appropriate in vivo test would be
required for testing such vaccines.”

Pharmacoepidemiology And Drug Safety • April 2012

Vaccine discontinuation and switching
following regulatory interventions in response
to rotavirus vaccine contamination with
porcine circovirus DNA fragments
Author information
Dore DD1, Turnbull BR, Seeger JD.
Departments of Health Services
Policy and Practice and Epidemiology
Program in Public Health
The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University
Providence, RI, USA
david_dore@brown.edu
Abstract
PURPOSE
The Food and Drug Administration temporarily suspended monovalent rotavirus vaccine (RV1) use following
discovery of contamination with porcine circovirus fragments and subsequently announced similar contamination of the pentavalent rotavirus vaccine (RV5) but recommended continued use of the product. We assessed the
utilization of these vaccines in relation to the announcements.
METHODS
Using claims submitted to a commercial health insurer for administration of RV1 and RV5, we estimated the
number of administrations of the vaccines and the extent of switching between RV1 and RV5. Procedure codes
on submitted claims identified vaccine administrations among infants ≤ 1 year old through 16 June 2010. Among
infants who received a first dose of vaccine before the corresponding announcement, and whose second dose was
anticipated following the announcement, we estimated the number who received no second dose of rotavirus vaccine.
RESULTS
There were 31 178 RV1 initiators and 514 357 RV5 initiators. We observed a 93% reduction in RV1 doses in the
month following the recommended suspension of use, coupled with extensive switching to RV5 (90% of subsequent doses) and a reduction in second RV1 doses (from 35.5% incomplete to 40.9%). There was a 15% increase
in number of RV5 administrations following announcement of its contamination, with little switching to RV1 but
with a possible decrease in completion.
CONCLUSIONS
Recommended suspension of RV1 use led to a substantial decrease in use and extensive switching to RV5. The
announcement that RV5 was similarly contaminated, but without a corresponding recommendation to suspend
use, had little effect on use.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22290786

“The Food and Drug Administration
temporarily suspended monovalent rotavirus
vaccine (RV1) use following discovery of
contamination with porcine circovirus
fragments and subsequently announced
similar contamination of the pentavalent
rotavirus vaccine (RV5) but recommended
continued use of the product.”

Biologicals • July 2012

Investigation of porcine circovirus
contamination in human vaccines
Author Information
Sarah M. Gillilanda, Lindsay Forresta,
Heather Carrea, Adrian Jenkinsb, Neil Berryb,
Javier Martina, Philip Minora, Silke Schepelmanna,
Abstract
DNA from porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1) and 2 (PCV2) has recently
been detected in two vaccines against rotaviral gastroenteritis from manufacturers A and B. We investigated if PCV1 sequences are present in
other viral vaccines. We screened seeds, bulks and final vaccine preparations from ten manufacturers using qRT-PCR. We detected 3.8 × 103
to 1.9 × 107 PCV1 DNA copies/milliliter in live poliovirus seeds for inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) from manufacturer A, however, following
inactivation and purification, the finished IPV was PCV1-negative. PCV1
DNA was not detectable in live polio preparations from other vaccine
producers. There was no detectable PCV1 DNA in the measles, mumps,
rubella and influenza vaccines analysed including material supplied by
manufacturer A. We confirmed that the PCV1 genome in the rotavirus
vaccine from manufacturer A is near full-length. It contains two mutations in the PCV cap gene, which may result from viral adaptation to Vero
cells. Bulks of this vaccine contained 9.8 × 1010 to 1.8 × 1011 PCV1
DNA copies/millilitre and between 4.1 × 107 and 5.5 × 108 DNA copies
were in the final doses. We found traces of PCV1 and PCV2 DNA in the
rotavirus vaccine from manufacturer B. This highlights the issue of vaccine contamination and may impact on vaccine quality control.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045105612000267

“We found traces of PCV1 and PCV2 DNA
in the rotavirus vaccine from
manufacturer B. This highlights the
issue of vaccine contamination and may
impact on vaccine quality control.”

Voprosy Virusologii • September 2012

Analysis of the cell tissue culture contamination
with the bovine viral diarrhea virus
and mycoplasmas
Author Information
Uryvaevaev LV, Ionova KS, Dedova AV,
Dedova LV, Selivanova TK, Parasiuk NA, Mezentseva MV, Kostina LV,
Gushchina EA, Podcherniaeva RIa, Grebennikova TV.
Abstract
Different cell tissue cultures and commercial fetal calf sera (FTS) used in biological and virological research were screened for the bovine viral diarrhea
virus (BVDV, Pestivirus genus, Flaviviridae family) and mycoplasma contamination. BVDV was detected using RT-PCR and Indirect immunofluorescence (with monoclonal antibodies) methods in 33% cases of the studied cell
lines and in > 60% cases of FCS. BVDV was shown to present and reproduce
in high spectra of human cell lines, as well as in monkey, pig, rabbit, goat,
dog, and cat cells at high levels (up to 100-1000 genome-equivalent copies
per cell) and reached up to 10(3)-10(7) genome-equivalent copies per serum
ml. The molecular mechanisms of the long virus persistence without definite
signs of destruction should be studied.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23248854

“Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus
was detected using RT-PCR and
Indirect immunofluorescence
(with monoclonal antibodies) methods
in 33% cases of the studied cell lines
and in > 60% cases of Fetal Calf Serum.”

PLoS Pathogens • November 2012

A Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing:
SV40 Co-opts Host Genome Maintenance Proteins
to Replicate Viral DNA
Gregory A. Sowd and Ellen Fanning*
Richard C. Condit, Editor
Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee, USA
University of Florida, USA
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) was discovered in 1960 as a contaminant in early polio vaccines. Its discovery coincided with an explosion of knowledge in the new field of
molecular biology, and SV40 was quickly adopted as a model to study eukaryotic
genome structure, expression, replication, and cell growth regulation in cultured cells
[1]. With a genome of only 5.2 kbp, SV40 relies heavily on host cell machinery to
propagate, affording investigators a powerful tool to discover key host proteins that
the virus manipulates. Indeed, a single multifunctional viral protein, the large tumor
(T) antigen (Tag) (Figure 1A), is sufficient to orchestrate the replication of the viral
mini-chromosome in infected monkey cells [2], [3]. The origin DNA binding domain
of Tag binds specifically to the viral origin of DNA replication, and the C-terminal
helicase domain of Tag unwinds parental DNA at SV40 replication forks. The development of a cell-free reaction containing purified Tag and primate cell extract enabled
the identification of ten evolutionarily conserved host proteins that are necessary and
sufficient, together with Tag, to replicate SV40 DNA in vitro [3], [4]. Thus, much remains to be learned about how SV40 infection activates DNA damage signaling and
uses it to facilitate viral propagation.
Full Report: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3493471/

“Simian virus 40 (SV40)
was discovered in 1960 as a contaminant
in early polio vaccines ... much remains to be learned
about how SV40 infection activates DNA damage
signaling and uses it to facilitate viral propagation.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • December 2012

“Medical practitioners in nine countries submitted samples of

Detection of human papillomavirus (HPV) L1 gene DNA
possibly bound to particulate aluminum adjuvant
in the HPV vaccine Gardasil

Gardasil (Merck & Co.) to be tested for the presence of human

Author information
Lee SH.
Milford Hospital and Milford Molecular Laboratory
2044 Bridgeport Avenue, Milford, CT 06460, USA
shlee01@snet.net
Abstract
Medical practitioners in nine countries submitted samples of Gardasil (Merck & Co.) to be
tested for the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA because they suspected that
residual recombinant HPV DNA left in the vaccine might have been a contributing factor
leading to some of the unexplained post-vaccination side effects. A total of 16 packages
of Gardasil were received from Australia, Bulgaria, France, India, New Zealand, Poland,
Russia, Spain and the United States. A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method
using the MY09/MY11 degenerate primers for initial amplification and the GP5/GP6based nested PCR primers for the second amplification were used to prepare the template
for direct automated cycle DNA sequencing of a hypervariable segment of the HPV L1
gene which is used for manufacturing of the HPV L1 capsid protein by a DNA recombinant technology in vaccine production. Detection of HPV DNA and HPV genotyping
of all positive samples were finally validated by BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search
Tool) analysis of a 45-60 bases sequence of the computer-generated electropherogram.
The results showed that all 16 Gardasil samples, each with a different lot number, contained fragments of HPV-11 DNA, or HPV-18 DNA, or a DNA fragment mixture from
both genotypes. The detected HPV DNA was found to be firmly bound to the insoluble,
proteinase-resistant fraction, presumably of amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate (AAHS) nanoparticles used as adjuvant. The clinical significance of these residual
HPV DNA fragments bound to a particulate mineral-based adjuvant is uncertain after
intramuscular injection, and requires further investigation for vaccination safety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23078778

papillomavirus (HPV) DNA because they suspected that residual
recombinant HPV DNA left in the vaccine might have been a contributing
factor leading to some of the unexplained post-vaccination side effects.
A total of 16 packages of Gardasil were received from Australia, Bulgaria,
France, India, New Zealand, Poland, Russia, Spain and the United States.

The results showed that all 16 Gardasil samples, each with a different
lot number, contained fragments of HPV-11 DNA, or HPV-18 DNA, or a DNA
fragment mixture from both genotypes. The detected HPV DNA was found
to be firmly bound to the insoluble, proteinase-resistant fraction,
presumably of amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate
(AAHS) nanoparticles used as adjuvant. The clinical significance
of these residual HPV DNA fragments bound to a particulate
mineral-based adjuvant is uncertain after intramuscular injection ...”

“This enables quick, safe, and cost-effective vaccine production
that would be required in case of a pandemic.”
Journal of Laboratory Automation • December 2012

Automated production of plant-based vaccines and pharmaceuticals
Author information
Wirz H1, Sauer-Budge AF, Briggs J, Sharpe A, Shu S, Sharon A.
Fraunhofer CMI, Brookline, MA 02446, USA
Abstract
A fully automated “factory” was developed that uses tobacco plants to produce large quantities of vaccines and
other therapeutic biologics within weeks. This first-of-a-kind factory takes advantage of a plant viral vector technology to produce specific proteins within the leaves of rapidly growing plant biomass. The factory’s customdesigned robotic machines plant seeds, nurture the growing plants, introduce a viral vector that directs the plant
to produce a target protein, and harvest the biomass once the target protein has accumulated in the plants-all in
compliance with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines (e.g., current Good Manufacturing Practices).
The factory was designed to be time, cost, and space efficient. The plants are grown in custom multiplant trays.
Robots ride up and down a track, servicing the plants and delivering the trays from the lighted, irrigated growth
modules to each processing station as needed. Using preprogrammed robots and processing equipment eliminates
the need for human contact, preventing potential contamination of the process and economizing the operation. To
quickly produce large quantities of protein-based medicines, we transformed a laboratory-based biological process and scaled it into an industrial process. This enables quick, safe, and cost-effective vaccine production that
would be required in case of a pandemic.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23015521

Archives Of Virology • January 2013

Genetic characterization of bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) viruses:
confirmation of the presence of BVD genotype 2 in Africa
Author information
Ularamu HG1, Sibeko KP, Bosman AB, Venter EH, van Vuuren M.
Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases
Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria
Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
ularamuhussaini@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) has emerged as one of the economically important pathogens in cattle populations, with a worldwide distribution and causing a complex of disease syndromes. Two genotypes, BVDV 1 and
2, exist and are discriminated on the basis of the sequence of the 5’ non-coding region (5’ NCR) using real-time
PCR. Real-time PCR is more sensitive, specific, and less time-consuming than conventional PCR, and it has less
risk of cross-contamination of samples. Limited information exists on BVDV genetic subtypes in South Africa.
The aim of this study was to determine the genotypes of BVDV currently circulating in South African feedlots. A
total of 279 specimens (219 tissue samples, 59 trans-tracheal aspirates and 1 blood sample) were collected from
dead and living cattle with lesions or clinical signs compatible with BVDV infection. Pooled homogenates from
the same animals were prepared, and total RNA was extracted. A screening test was performed on the pooled samples, and positive pools were investigated individually. A Cador BVDV Type 1/2 RT-PCR Kit (QIAGEN, Hilden,
Germany) was used for the real-time PCR assay on a LightCycler(®) V2.0 real-time PCR machine (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany). The results were read at 530 and 640 nm for BVDV 1 and 2, respectively. Bovine
viral diarrhoea virus was detected in a total of 103 samples that included 91 tissue samples, 1 blood sample and
11 trans-tracheal aspirates. Eighty-five (82.5 %) of the strains were genotype 1 and 18 (17.5 %) were genotype
2. Comparing the sequencing data, genotypes 1 and 2 from the field strains did not cluster with vaccine strains
currently used in feedlots in South Africa. The present study revealed the presence of BVDV genotype 2 in cattle
in South Africa based on the high sequence similarity between genotype 2 field strains and strain 890 from North
America. The presence of genotype 2 viruses that phylogenetically belong to different clusters and coexist in
feedlots is consistent with the possibility of multiple virus introductions. These results represent the first documented evidence for the presence of BVDV genotype 2 in African cattle.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23011308

“These results represent the first
documented evidence for the presence
of BVDV genotype 2 in African cattle.”

Journal Of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation • January 2013

HoBi-like viruses: an emerging group of pestiviruses
Author information
Bauermann FV1, Ridpath JF, Weiblen R, Flores EF.
Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Virus Section
Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Abstract
The genus Pestivirus is composed of 4 important pathogens of livestock: Bovine
viral diarrhea virus 1 and 2 (BVDV-1 and BVDV-2), Classical swine fever virus
(CSFV), and Border disease virus of sheep (BDV). BVDV are major pathogens of
cattle, and infection results in significant economic loss worldwide. A new putative
pestivirus species, tentatively called “HoBi-like,” “BVDV-3,” or “atypical pestiviruses,” was first identified in Europe in fetal bovine serum (FBS) imported from
Brazil. HoBi-like viruses are related to BVDV at the genetic and antigenic levels.
Further, the disease caused by these new viruses resembles clinical presentations
historically associated with BVDV infection, including growth retardation, reduced
milk production, respiratory disease, reduced reproductive performance, and increased mortality among young stock. Current BVDV diagnostic tests may fail to
detect HoBi-like viruses or to differentiate between BVDV and HoBi-like viruses.
Further, commercial tests for BVDV exposure, based on serological response, do
not reliably detect HoBi-like virus exposure, and cross protection against HoBi-like
viruses conferred by current BVDV vaccines is likely limited. As many HoBi-like
viruses, characterized to date, were isolated from FBS originating from Brazil, it
is assumed that the agent is probably widespread in Brazilian herds. Nevertheless,
reports of natural infection in Southeast Asia and Europe demonstrate that these
viruses are not restricted to South America. Increased demand for FBS has led to
widespread distribution of FBS originating in HoBi-like virus endemic regions.
The contamination of such FBS with HoBi-like viruses may lead to spread of this
virus to other regions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23345268
Full Report
http://vdi.sagepub.com/content/25/1/6.long

“Increased demand for fetal bovine serum
has led to widespread distribution of fetal bovine serum
originating in HoBi-like virus endemic regions. The
contamination of such fetal bovine serum with HoBi-like
viruses may lead to spread of this virus to other regions.”

[fetal bovine serum is an important element of cell
research and cell culture applications, especially in vaccine
research. Estimated sales of fetal bovine serum in 2008
reached 700,000 liters globally]

ISRN Biochemistry • May 2013

Nanoparticles for Brain Drug Delivery
Massimo Masserini
Department of Health Sciences
University of Milano-Bicocca
Via Cadore 48, 20900 Monza, Italy
Abstract
The central nervous system, one of the most delicate microenvironments of the
body, is protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) regulating its homeostasis.
BBB is a highly complex structure that tightly regulates the movement of ions
of a limited number of small molecules and of an even more restricted number
of macromolecules from the blood to the brain, protecting it from injuries and
diseases. However, the BBB also significantly precludes the delivery of drugs to
the brain, thus, preventing the therapy of a number of neurological disorders. As
a consequence, several strategies are currently being sought after to enhance the
delivery of drugs across the BBB. Within this review, the recently born strategy
of brain drug delivery based on the use of nanoparticles, multifunctional drug delivery systems with size in the order of one-billionth of meters, is described. The
review also includes a brief description of the structural and physiological features
of the barrier and of the most utilized nanoparticles for medical use. Finally, the
potential neurotoxicity of nanoparticles is discussed, and future technological approaches are described. The strong efforts to allow the translation from preclinical
to concrete clinical applications are worth the economic investments.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4392984/

“several strategies
are currently being sought after to enhance the
delivery of drugs across the Blood Brain Barrier ...
based on the use of nanoparticles ... the potential
neurotoxicity of nanoparticles is discussed”

Vaccine • July 2013

Transposon leads to contamination
of clinical pDNA vaccine
Author information
van der Heijden I1, Gomez-Eerland R,
van den Berg JH, Oosterhuis K, Schumacher TN,
Haanen JB, Beijnen JH, Nuijen B.
Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology
Slotervaart Hospital/The Netherlands Cancer Institute
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Iris.vanderHeijden@slz.nl
Abstract
We report an unexpected contamination during clinical manufacture of a Human Papilomavirus (HPV) 16 E6 encoding plasmid DNA (pDNA) vaccine, with a transposon
originating from the Escherichia coli DH5 host cell genome. During processing, presence of this transposable element, insertion sequence 2 (IS2) in the plasmid vector was
not noticed until quality control of the bulk pDNA vaccine when results of restriction
digestion, sequencing, and CGE analysis were clearly indicative for the presence of a
contaminant. Due to the very low level of contamination, only an insert-specific PCR
method was capable of tracing back the presence of the transposon in the source pDNA
and master cell bank (MCB). Based on the presence of an uncontrolled contamination
with unknown clinical relevance, the product was rejected for clinical use. In order
to prevent costly rejection of clinical material, both in-process controls and quality
control methods must be sensitive enough to detect such a contamination as early as
possible, i.e. preferably during plasmid DNA source generation, MCB production and
ultimately during upstream processing. However, as we have shown that contamination early in the process development pipeline (source pDNA, MCB) can be present
below limits of detection of generally applied analytical methods, the introduction of
“engineered” or transposon-free host cells seems the only 100% effective solution to
avoid contamination with movable elements and should be considered when searching
for a suitable host cell-vector combination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23707695

“We report an unexpected contamination during clinical
manufacture of a Human Papilomavirus (HPV) 16 E6 encoding
plasmid DNA (pDNA) vaccine, with a transposon originating
from the Escherichia coli DH5 host cell genome. During
processing, presence of this transposable element, insertion
sequence 2 (IS2) in the plasmid vector was not noticed until quality
control of the bulk pDNA vaccine when results of restriction
digestion, sequencing, and CGE analysis were clearly indicative for
the presence of a contaminant. Due to the very low level of
contamination, only an insert-specific PCR method was capable of
tracing back the presence of the transposon in the source pDNA
and master cell bank (MCB).”

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapy • November 2013

Investigation of a regulatory agency enquiry
into potential porcine circovirus type 1 contamination
of the human rotavirus vaccine, Rotarix:
approach and outcome
Author information
Dubin G1, Toussaint JF, Cassart JP, Howe B,
Boyce D, Friedland L, Abu-Elyazeed R, Poncelet S, Han HH, Debrus S.
GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines; King of Prussia, PA USA
Abstract
In January 2010, porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1) DNA was unexpectedly detected in the oral live-attenuated human rotavirus vaccine, Rotarix (GlaxoSmithKline
[GSK] Vaccines) by an academic research team investigating a novel, highly sensitive analysis not routinely used for adventitious agent screening. GSK rapidly initiated an investigation to confirm the source, nature and amount of PCV1 in the
vaccine manufacturing process and to assess potential clinical implications of this
finding. The investigation also considered the manufacturer’s inactivated poliovirus
(IPV)-containing vaccines, since poliovirus vaccine strains are propagated using the
same cell line as the rotavirus vaccine strain. Results confirmed the presence of
PCV1 DNA and low levels of PCV1 viral particles at all stages of the Rotarix manufacturing process. PCV type 2 DNA was not detected at any stage. When tested in
human cell lines, productive PCV1 infection was not observed. There was no immunological or clinical evidence of PCV1 infection in infants who had received Rotarix
in clinical trials. PCV1 DNA was not detected in the IPV-containing vaccine manufacturing process beyond the purification stage. Retrospective testing confirmed the
presence of PCV1 DNA in Rotarix since the initial stages of its development and in
vaccine lots used in clinical studies conducted pre- and post-licensure. The acceptable safety profile observed in clinical trials of Rotarix therefore reflects exposure to
PCV1 DNA. The investigation into the presence of PCV1 in Rotarix could serve as a
model for risk assessment in the event of new technologies identifying adventitious
agents in the manufacturing of other vaccines and biological products.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24056737

“In January 2010,
porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1) DNA was
unexpectedly detected in the oral live-attenuated
human rotavirus vaccine, Rotarix (GlaxoSmithKline [GSK] Vaccines) by an academic research
team investigating a novel, highly sensitive
analysis not routinely used for adventitious
agent screening.”

Biologicals • November 2013

Detection of contaminants
in cell cultures, sera and trypsin
Author information
Pinheiro de Oliveira TF1, Fonseca AA Jr, Camargos MF,
de Oliveira AM, Pinto Cottorello AC, Souza Ados R, de Almeida IG, Heinemann MB.
Laboratório de Biologia Molecular/Laboratório de Diagnóstico de Doenças Virais
Laboratório Nacional Agropecuário de Minas Gerais
Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais, Brazil
oliveiratfp@yahoo.com.br
Abstract
The aim of this study was standardization and application of polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) for the detection of contaminants in cell cultures, sera and trypsin. Five PCR protocols were standardized to assess the presence of genetic material from mycoplasma,
porcine circovirus 1 (PCV1), bovine leukemia virus (BLV) or bovine viral diarrhea virus
(BVDV) in cell culture samples. PCR reactions for the genes GAPDH and beta-actin
were used to evaluate the efficiency of nucleic acid extraction. The PCR protocols were
applied to 88 cell culture samples from eight laboratories. The tests were also used to
assess potential contamination in 10 trypsin samples and 13 fetal calf serum samples
from different lots from five of the laboratories. The results showed the occurrence of the
following as DNA cell culture contaminants: 34.1% for mycoplasma, 35.2% for PCV1,
23.9% for BVDV RNA and 2.3% for BLV. In fetal calf sera and trypsin samples BVDV
RNA and PCV1 DNA was detected. The results demonstrated that cell culture, sera and
trypsin used by different laboratories show a high rate of contaminants. The results highlight the need for monitoring cell cultures and controlling for biological contaminants in
laboratories and cell banks working with these materials.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24071554

“The results showed the
occurrence of the following
as DNA cell culture contaminants:
34.1% for mycoplasma,
35.2% for porcine circovirus 1,
23.9% for bovine viral diarrhea virus RNA
and 2.3% for bovine leukemia virus. The results
demonstrated that cell culture, sera and trypsin
used by different laboratories show a high rate
of contaminants. ”

Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences • March 2014

Mechanism of a decrease in potency
for the recombinant influenza A virus hemagglutinin H3
antigen during storage
Author information
Hickey JM1, Holtz KM, Manikwar P, Joshi SB, McPherson CE, Buckland B,
Srivastava IK, Middaugh CR, Volkin DB.
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, 66047
Abstract
The recombinant hemagglutinin (rHA)-based influenza vaccine Flublok® has recently been approved
in the United States as an alternative to the traditional egg-derived flu vaccines. Flublok is a purified vaccine with a hemagglutinin content that is threefold higher than standard inactivated influenza
vaccines. When rHA derived from an H3N2 influenza virus was expressed, purified, and stored for 1
month, a rapid loss of in vitro potency (∼50%) was observed as measured by the single radial immunodiffusion (SRID) assay. A comprehensive characterization of the rHA protein antigen was pursued
to identify the potential causes and mechanisms of this potency loss. In addition, the biophysical and
chemical stability of the rHA in different formulations and storage conditions was evaluated over
time. Results demonstrate that the potency loss over time did not correlate with trends in changes to
the higher order structure or hydrodynamic size of the rHA. The most likely mechanism for the early
loss of potency was disulfide-mediated cross-linking of rHA, as the formation of non-native disulfidelinked multimers over time correlated well with the observed potency loss. Furthermore, a loss of free
thiol content, particularly in specific cysteine residues in the antigen’s C-terminus, was correlated
with potency loss measured by SRID.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24425059

“When rHA derived from an H3N2 influenza virus was
expressed, purified, and stored for 1 month, a rapid loss of
in vitro potency (<50%) was observed as measured by the
single radial immunodiffusion (SRID) assay.”

Currents In Medical Chemistry • March 2014

Melting profiles
may affect detection of residual HPV L1
gene DNA fragments in Gardasil
Author information
Lee SH.
Milford Hospital and Milford Molecular Laboratory
2044 Bridgeport Avenue, Milford, CT 06460, USA
shlee01@snet.net
Abstract
Gardasil® is a quadrivalent human papillomavirus (HPV) protein-based
vaccine containing genotype-specific L1 capsid proteins of HPV-16,
HPV-18, HPV-6 and HPV-11 in the form of virus-like-particles (VLPs)
as the active ingredient. The VLPs are produced by a DNA recombinant
technology. It is uncertain if the residual HPV L1 gene DNA fragments
in the vaccine products are considered contaminants or excipients of the
Gardasil® vaccine. Because naked viral DNA fragments, if present in
the vaccine, may bind to the insoluble amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate (AAHS) adjuvant which may help deliver the foreign
DNA into macrophages, causing unintended pathophysiologic effects,
experiments were undertaken to develop tests for HPV L1 gene DNA
fragments in the final products of Gardasil® by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and direct DNA sequencing. The results showed that while
the HPV-11 and HPV-18 L1 gene DNA fragments in Gardasil® were
readily amplified by the common GP6/MY11 degenerate consensus
primers, the HPV-16 L1 gene DNA may need specially designed nondegenerate PCR primers for amplification at different regions of the L1
gene and different stringency conditions for detection. These variable
melting profiles of HPV DNA in the insoluble fraction of the Gardasil® vaccine suggest that the HPV DNA fragments are firmly bound
to the aluminum AAHS adjuvant. All methods developed for detecting
residual HPV DNA in the vaccine Gardasil® for quality assurance must
take into consideration the variable melting profiles of the DNA to avoid
false negative results.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24083601

“All methods developed
for detecting residual HPV DNA in the vaccine
Gardasil® for quality assurance must take into
consideration the variable melting profiles of
the DNA to avoid false negative results.”

Journal Of Adolescent Health • March 2014

The role of media and the Internet
on vaccine adverse event reporting:
a case study of human papillomavirus vaccination
Author information
Eberth JM1, Kline KN2, Moskowitz DA3, Montealegre JR4, Scheurer ME5.
1. South Carolina Cancer Prevention and Control Program, University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina; Department of Communication, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio TX
2. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina
Department of Communication, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
3. Department of Epidemiology and Community Health, New York Medical College, NY, New York
4. Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas School of
Public Health, Houston, Texas; Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
5. Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, Department of Pediatrics
Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
Abstract

“We demonstrate
that media coverage
and Internet search activity, in particular,
may promote increased adverse event reporting.
Public health officials who have long recognized

PURPOSE
This study aimed to determine the temporal association of print media coverage and Internet search activity with
adverse events reports associated with the human papillomavirus vaccine Gardasil (HPV4) and the meningitis vaccine Menactra (MNQ) among United States adolescents.

the importance of proactive engagement with

METHODS
We used moderated linear regression to test the relationships between print media reports in top circulating newspapers, Internet search activity, and reports to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) for HPV4 and
MNQ during the first 2.5 years after Food and Drug Administration approval.

meaningful participation in Internet discussions.”

RESULTS
Compared with MNQ, HPV4 had more coverage in the print media and Internet search activity, which corresponded with the frequency of VAERS reports. In February 2007, we observed a spike in print media for HPV4. Although
media coverage waned, Internet search activity remained stable and predicted the rise in HPV4-associated VAERS
reports.
CONCLUSIONS
We demonstrate that media coverage and Internet search activity, in particular, may promote increased adverse
event reporting. Public health officials who have long recognized the importance of proactive engagement with
news media must now consider strategies for meaningful participation in Internet discussions.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3943880/

news media must now consider strategies for

“Porcine circovirus-1 (PCV1) was recently identified as a contaminant in live Rotavirus vaccines ...”
Vaccine • April 2014

Reduction of spiked porcine circovirus
during the manufacture of a Vero cell-derived vaccine
Author information
Lackner C, Leydold SM, Modrof J, Farcet MR, Grillberger L, Schäfer B, Anderle H, Kreil TR.
Global Pathogen Safety, Baxter BioScience, Vienna, Austria
Cell Culture Fermentation, Baxter BioScience, Orth/Donau, Austria
Vaccine R&D, Baxter BioScience, Orth/Donau, Austria
Biologicals R&D, Baxter BioScience, Vienna, Austria
Global Pathogen Safety, Baxter BioScience, Vienna, Austria
Abstract
Porcine circovirus-1 (PCV1) was recently identified as a contaminant in live Rotavirus vaccines, which was likely
caused by contaminated porcine trypsin. The event triggered the development of new regulatory guidance on the
use of porcine trypsin which shall ensure that cell lines and porcine trypsin in use are free from PCV1. In addition,
manufacturing processes of biologicals other than live vaccines include virus clearance steps that may prevent and
mitigate any potential virus contamination of product. In this work, artificial spiking of down-scaled models for
the manufacturing process of an inactivated pandemic influenza virus vaccine were used to investigate inactivation of PCV1 and the physico-chemically related porcine parvovirus (PPV) by formalin and ultraviolet-C (UV-C)
treatment as well as removal by the purification step sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation. A PCV1 infectivity assay, using a real-time PCR infectivity readout was established. The formalin treatment (0.05% for 48h) showed
substantial inactivation for both PCV1 and PPV with reduction factors of 3.0log10 and 6.8log10, respectively,
whereas UV-C treatment resulted in complete PPV (≥5.9log10) inactivation already at a dose of 13mJ/cm but
merely 1.7log10 at 24mJ/cm(2) for PCV1. The UV-C inactivation results with PPV were confirmed using minute
virus of mice (MVM), indicating that parvoviruses are far more sensitive to UV-C than PCV1. The sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation also contributed to PCV1 clearance with a reduction factor of 2log10. The low
pH treatment during the production of procine trypsin was investigated and showed effective inactivation for both
PCV1 (4.5log10) and PPV (6.4log10). In conclusion, PCV1 in general appears to be more resistant to virus inactivation than PPV. Still, the inactivated pandemic influenza vaccine manufacturing process provides for robust
virus reduction, in addition to the already implemented testing for PCV1 to avoid any contaminations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24560672

Vaccine • May 2014

Systematic evaluation
of in vitro and in vivo adventitious virus assays
for the detection of viral contamination of
cell banks and biological products
Author Information
James Gombolda, Stephen Karakasidisa, Paula Niksab,
John Podczasya, Kitti Neumanna, James Richardsonc, Nandini Sanec,
Renita Johnson-Levac, Valerie Randolphd, Jerald Sadoffe, Phillip Minorf,
Alexander Schmidtg, Paul Duncanh, Rebecca L. Sheetsi
a .Charles River Laboratories, 358 Technology Drive, Malvern, PA 19355, United States
b. Charles River Laboratories, 251 Ballardvale St. Wilmington, MA 01887, United States
c. Advanced BioScience Laboratories, 9800 Medical Center Dr. Bldg. D, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
d. Wyeth, 401N Middletown Rd., Pearl River, NY 10965, United States
e. Crucell, Newtonweg 1, 2333 CP Leiden, PO Box 2048, 2301 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
f. National Institute for Biologics Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, UK
g. GSK Vaccines, Rue de l’Insitut 89, 1330 Rixensart, Belgium (formerly NIH/NIAID)
h. Merck and Co., Inc., WP17-101, 770 Sumneytown Pike, P.O. Box 4, West Point, PA 19486, United States
i. NIH/NIAID Division of AIDS, 6700B Rockledge Dr., Rm. 5145, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
Abstract
Viral vaccines and the cell substrates used to manufacture them are subjected to tests for adventitious agents,
including viruses, contaminate. Some of the compendial methods (in vivo and in vitro in cell culture) were established in the mid-20th century. These methods have not been subjected to current assay validation, as new methods would need to be. This study was undertaken to provide insight into the breadth (selectivity) and sensitivity
(limit of detection) of the routine methods, two such validation parameters. Sixteen viral stocks were prepared
and characterized. These stocks were tested in serial dilutions by the routine methods to establish which viruses
were detected by which methods and above what limit of detection. Sixteen out of sixteen viruses were detected
in vitro, though one (bovine viral diarrhea virus) required special conditions to detect and another (rubella virus)
was detected with low sensitivity. Many were detected at levels below 1 TCID50 or PFU (titers were established
on the production cell line in most cases). In contrast, in vivo, only 6/11 viruses were detected, and 4 of these were
detected only at amounts one or more logs above 1 TCID50 or PFU. Only influenza virus and vesicular stomatitis
virus were detected at lower amounts in vivo than in vitro. Given the call to reduce, refine, or replace (3Rs) the
use of animals in product safety testing and the emergence of new technologies for the detection of viruses, a
re-examination of the current adventitious virus testing strategies seems warranted. Suggested pathways forward
are offered.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X14001947

“Given the call to reduce, refine, or replace (3Rs)
the use of animals in product safety testing and the
emergence of new technologies for the detection
of viruses, a re-examination of the current
adventitious virus testing strategies seems warranted.
Suggested pathways forward are offered.”

“The biopharmaceutical industry continues to face enormous pressure
to accelerate time to market, improve productivity and efficiency, and reduce costs.”
PDA Journal Of Pharmaceutical Science And Technology • July 2014

Advantages of single-use technology for vaccine fill-finish operations
Author information
Jenness E, Walker S.
Process Solutions, Mobius Product Manager
EMD Millipore Corporation, 80 Ashby Road, Bedford, MA
sue.walker@emdmillipore.com
Abstract
The biopharmaceutical industry continues to face enormous pressure to accelerate time to market, improve productivity and efficiency, and reduce costs. Vaccine manufacturers face additional challenges, including small
batch sizes, varied product portfolios, pandemic outbreaks that require rapid responses and highly potent ingredients that place large demands on cleaning processes. Given these pressures, single-use fill-finish assemblies can
represent an attractive option for vaccine manufacturing facilities. This article describes the implementation of a
single-use fill-finish system at a large vaccine manufacturer. The new assembly enabled flexibility while reducing
set-up time, capital investment, cross-contamination risk, and cleaning requirements.
LAY ABSTRACT
Overall the biopharmaceutical industry is constantly being challenged to bring new products more quickly and efficiently to market while keeping costs as low as possible. One specific segment of this industry is the companies
that manufacture vaccines. Vaccines present unique challenges because they tend to be made in smaller amounts
for a larger number of individual products. The products can also be very potent, which can require special handling methods. Another challenge is the potential outbreak of a disease that may affect a large area or a large part
of the population and would require immediate action. Single-use assemblies for filling the product into its final
container are an attractive option for vaccine manufacturing facilities. This article describes the implementation
of a single-use filling system at a large vaccine manufacturer. The new assembly was flexible enough to meet the
demands of the manufacturer while allowing quick and efficient implementation with low upfront investment.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25035260

Biologicals • September 2014

Adventitious agents in viral vaccines:
Lessons learned from 4 case studies
Author Information
John Petricciania, Rebecca Sheetsb, Elwyn Griffiths, Ivana Knezevicd
IABS, POB 1925, Palm Springs, CA 92263, USA
Grimalkin Partners, 13401 Norden Drive, Silver Spring, MD 20906, USA
The Farthings, Kingston Upon Thames, Surrey KT2 7PT, UK
Group Lead, Norms and Standards for Biologicals
Department of Essential Medicines and Health Products (EMP)
Health Systems and Innovation (HIS) Cluster
WHO L276, Avenue Appia 20, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
Abstract
Since the earliest days of biological product manufacture, there have been a number
of instances where laboratory studies provided evidence for the presence of adventitious agents in a marketed product. Lessons learned from such events can be used to
strengthen regulatory preparedness for the future. We have therefore selected four instances where an adventitious agent, or a signal suggesting the presence of an agent,
was found in a viral vaccine, and have developed a case study for each. The four
cases are: a) SV40 in polio vaccines; b) bacteriophage in measles and polio vaccines;
c) reverse transcriptase in measles and mumps vaccines; and d) porcine circovirus
and porcine circovirus DNA sequences in rotavirus vaccines. The lessons learned
from each event are discussed. Based in part on those experiences, certain scientific
principles have been identified by WHO that should be considered in regulatory risk
evaluation if an adventitious agent is found in a marketed vaccine in the future.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045105614000748

“We have therefore selected four
instances where an adventitious agent,
or a signal suggesting the presence of an
agent, was found in a viral vaccine, and have
developed a case study for each.
The four cases are: a) SV40 in polio vaccines;
b) bacteriophage in measles and polio vaccines; c) reverse transcriptase in measles
and mumps vaccines; and d) porcine
circovirus and porcine circovirus DNA
sequences in rotavirus vaccines.”

Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz • October 2014

Viral safety
of biological medicinal products
Author information
Stühler A1, Blümel J.
Paul-Ehrlich-Institut
Paul-Ehrlich-Straße 51-59
63225, Langen, Deutschland
Abstract
Viral safety of blood donations, plasma products, viral vaccines and gene therapy medicinal products, biotechnical-derived products and tissue and cell therapy products is
a particular challenge. These products are manufactured using a variety of human or
animal-derived starting materials and reagents; therefore, extensive testing of donors
and of cell banks established for production is required. Furthermore, the viral safety
of reagents, such as bovine sera, porcine trypsin and human transferrin or albumin
needs to be considered. Whenever possible, manufacturing steps for inactivation or
removal of viruses should be introduced; however, sometimes it is not possible to
introduce such steps for tissues or cell-based medicinal products as the activity and
viability of cells will be compromised. It might be possible to implement steps for
inactivation or removal of potential contaminating enveloped viruses only for production of small and stable non-enveloped viral gene vectors.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25123140

“Viral safety of blood donations,
plasma products, viral vaccines
and gene therapy medicinal products,
biotechnical-derived products and tissue
and cell therapy products is a
particular challenge.”

Journal Of Pharmaceutical Science • November 2014

Historical Data Analyses
and Scientific Knowledge Suggest
Complete Removal of the
Abnormal Toxicity Test
as a Quality Control Test
Joerg H O Garbe,1 Susanne Ausborn,1 Claire Beggs,2
Martin Bopst,3 Angelika Joos,4 Alexandra A Kitashova,5
OLga Kovbasenco,6 Claus-Dieter Schiller,1 Martina Schwinger,7
Natalia Semenova,8 Lilia Smirnova,9 Fraser Stodart,10
Thomas Visalli,11 and Lisette Vromans4
1. F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Global Technical Operations, Basel, Switzerland
2. AbbVie Ltd., Maidenhead, England
3. F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Roche Pharma and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
4. MSD Europe Inc., Brussels, Belgium
5. GlaxoSmithKline, Moscow, Russian Federation
6. Genzyme, Moscow, Russian Federation
7. Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
8. Bristol-Myers Squibb, Moscow, Russian Federation
9. MSD Pharmaceuticals, Moscow, Russian Federation
10. Eisai Ltd, Hatfield, England
11. Eisai Inc, Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey

Abstract
In the early 1900s, the abnormal toxicity test (ATT) was developed as an auxiliary means to ensure safe
and consistent antiserum production. Today, the ATT is utilized as a quality control (QC) release test
according to pharmacopoeial or other regulatory requirements. The study design has not been changed
since around 1940. The evidence of abnormal toxicity testing as a prediction for harmful batches is
highly questionable and lacks a scientific rationale. Numerous reviews of historical ATT results have
revealed that no reliable conclusions can be drawn from this QC measure. Modern pharmaceutical
manufacturers have thorough control of the manufacturing process and comply with good manufacturing practice rules. Contaminants are appropriately controlled by complying with the validated manufacturing processes and strict QC batch release confirming batch-to-batch consistency. Recognizing
that product safety, efficacy, and stability can be ensured with strict QC measures, nowadays most
regulatory authorities do not require the ATT for most product classes. In line with the replacement,
reduction, and refinement (3Rs) initiative, the test requirement has been deleted from approximately
80 monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia and for the majority of product classes in the United
States. For these reasons, it is recommended that the ATT should be consistently omitted world-wide
and be removed from pharmacopoeias and other regulatory requirements.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4278562/

[Here, several divisions of F. Hoffman-La Roche Ltd.,
AbbVie Ltd., divisions of MSD Europe inc.,
GlaxoSmithKline, Genzyme, Novartis Pharma AG,
Bristol-Myers-Squibb and divisions of Eisai Ltd.,
write a report justifying the removal of the
“Abnormal Toxicity Test” as a quality control
element of vaccine production]

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Annual World Vaccine Congress 2014:
a re-evaluation of the value proposition
for increasing vaccine thermostability
Author information
Derwand R.
Leukocare AG; Martinsried
Munich, Germany
Abstract
The 14th Annual World Vaccine Congress was held in Washington
DC, March 24-26, 2014 (http://www.terrapinn.com/vaccine2014).
More than 400 experts from different regions participated in this
scientific event for vaccine professionals from industry, academia,
non-profit organizations and government to discuss challenges and
successes from all the major vaccine stakeholders. In more than 70
presentations, round tables, and plenary discussions major topics like
emerging and re-emerging infectious disease, vaccine production,
and innovative technologies were debated. While most contributions
focused on specific questions in vaccine research development, some
like the one by a representative of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) reported about supply chain, logistics topics, and
challenges in vaccine implementation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483655

“While most contributions
focused on specific questions in vaccine
research development, some like the one by a
representative of the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation (BMGF) reported about
supply chain, logistics topics, and
challenges in vaccine implementation.”

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Adjuvants and myeloid-derived suppressor cells:
enemies or allies in therapeutic cancer vaccination
Author information
Fernández A1, Oliver L, Alvarez R, Fernández LE, Lee KP, Mesa C.
Immunobiology Division
Center of Molecular Immunology; Havana, Cuba
Abstract
Adjuvants are a critical but largely overlooked and poorly understood component
included in vaccine formulations to stimulate and modulate the desired immune
responses to an antigen. However, unlike in the protective infectious disease vaccines, adjuvants for cancer vaccines also need to overcome the effect of tumor-induced suppressive immune populations circulating in tumor-bearing individuals.
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are considered to be one of the key immunosuppressive populations that inhibit tumor-specific T cell responses in cancer
patients. This review focuses on the different signals for the activation of the immune system induced by adjuvants, and the close relationship to the mechanisms
of recruitment and activation of MDSC. This work explores the possibility that
a cancer vaccine adjuvant may either strengthen or weaken the effect of tumorinduced MDSC, and the crucial need to address this in present and future cancer
vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483674

“This work explores the possibility
that a cancer vaccine adjuvant may
either strengthen or weaken the effect
of tumor-induced Myeloid-derived suppressor cells ...”

“This may affect the integrity of the adjuvant, alter its interaction with the drug substance
or change the physical characteristics of the drug product.”
Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences • February 2015

Shear effects on aluminum phosphate adjuvant particle properties
in vaccine drug products
Author information
Kolade OO1, Jin W, Tengroth C, Green KD, Bracewell DG.
The Advanced Centre for Biochemical Engineering
Department of Biochemical Engineering
University College London, Gordon Street, London
WC1H 0AH, UK
Abstract
Adjuvant-containing drug products can be exposed to high levels of interfacial shear during manufacture. This
may affect the integrity of the adjuvant, alter its interaction with the drug substance or change the physical characteristics of the drug product. In this study, a solid-liquid interfacial shear device was used to investigate the
shear response of aluminum phosphate adjuvant alone and two adjuvant containing vaccine drug products (DP1
and DP2). The relationship between the shear sensitivity of each and its resuspension properties was determined.
Changes in the particle dimensions of the bulk adjuvant were minimal at shear strain rates of 10,900 s(-1) . However, at 25,500 s(-1) , the median particle diameter was reduced from 6.2 to 3.5 μm and was marked by the presence of sub-micron fines. A formulation without drug substance and DP2 produced similar shear responses but
with less impact on particle diameter. The behavior of DP1 was less predictable. Sheared DP1 was characterized
by prolonged sedimentation because of the presence of fine particulates and required in excess of 300 rotations to
resuspend after extended storage. The study confirms that the solid-liquid interfacial shear device may be applied
to understand product shear sensitivity associated with vaccine manufacturing.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25175154

“The ability to accurately measure and report trace amounts of residual formaldehyde impurity
in a vaccine product is not only critical in the product release but also a regulatory requirement.”
Journal Of Pharmaceutical And Biomedical Analysis • March 2015

Determining trace amounts and the origin of formaldehyde impurity
in Neisseria meningitidis A/C/Y/W-135-DT conjugate vaccine
formulated in isotonic aqueous 1× PBS by improved C18-UPLC method
Author information
Gudlavalleti SK, Crawford EN, Tran NN, Orten DJ, Harder JD, Reddy JR.
JN International Medical Corporation, 2720 N 84th Street, Omaha, NE 68134 USA
Abstract
The ability to accurately measure and report trace amounts of residual formaldehyde impurity in a vaccine product
is not only critical in the product release but also a regulatory requirement. In many bacterial or viral vaccine manufacturing procedures, formaldehyde is used either at a live culture inactivation step or at a protein de-toxification
step or at both. Reported here is a validated and improved C18-UPLC method (developed based on previously
published C-8 HPLC method) to determine the traces of formaldehyde process impurity in a liquid form Neisseria
meningitidis A/C/Y/W-135-DT conjugate vaccine formulated in isotonic aqueous 1× PBS. UPLC C-18 column
and the conditions described distinctly resolved the 2,4-DNPH-HCHO adduct from the un-reacted 2,4-DNPH
as detected by TUV detector at 360 nm. This method was shown to be compatible with PBS formulation and
extremely sensitive (with a quantitation limit of 0.05 ppm) and aided to determine formaldehyde contamination
sources by evaluating the in-process materials as a track-down analysis. Final nanogram levels of formaldehyde
in the formulated single dose vialed vaccine mainly originated from the diphtheria toxoid carrier protein used in
the production of the conjugate vaccine, whereas relative contribution from polysaccharide API was minimal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25668795

Biologicals • June 2015

Genetic detection and characterization
of emerging HoBi-like viruses in
archival foetal bovine serum batches
Author Information
M. Giammariolia, J.F. Ridpathb, E. Rossia, M. Bazzucchia, C. Casciaria, G.M. De Miaa
a. Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche, via Salvemini 1, 06126 Perugia, Italy
b. Ruminant Diseases and Immunology Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1920 Dayton Avenue, Ames, IA 50010, USA
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea viruses (BVDV) are members of the Pestivirus genus within the family Flaviviridae. Based
on antigenic and nucleotide differences, BVDV are classified into two recognized species, BVDV-1 and BVDV-2.
More recently, a new putative pestivirus species, tentatively called “HoBi-like”, has been associated with bovine
viral diarrhea. HoBi-like viruses were first identified in fetal bovine serum (FBS) imported from Brazil. Subsequently, a number of HoBi-like viruses have been detected as contaminants in FBS or cell culture and in live ruminants. To further investigate the possible pestivirus contamination in commercially available FBS batches, 26
batches of FBS with various countries of origin, were tested in this study for the presence of bovine pestiviruses.
All the 26 batches were positive by RT-PCR for at least one species of bovine pestiviruses. HoBi-like viruses
were detected in 15 batches. Analysis of the 5’UTR and Npro sequences of 15 newly identified HoBi-like viruses
combined with analysis of additional sequences from GenBank, identified 4 genetic groups tentatively named
3a–3d. The current study confirmed the presence of the emerging HoBi-like viruses in FBS products labeled with
different geographic origins. This finding has obvious implications for the safety of biological products, such as
cell lines and vaccines.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045105615000536

“... a new putative pestivirus species,
tentatively called “HoBi-like”, has been
associated with bovine viral diarrhea.
To further investigate the possible pestivirus
contamination in commercially available Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)
batches, 26 batches of FBS with various countries of origin, were
tested in this study for the presence of bovine pestiviruses. All the
26 batches were positive by RT-PCR for at least one species of bovine
pestiviruses. HoBi-like viruses were detected in 15 batches.”

Animal Health Research Reviews • June 2015

Pestivirus control programs:
how far have we come and where are we going?
Author information
Moennig V1, Becher P1.
Department of Infectious Diseases,Institute for Virology
University of Veterinary Medicine
Bünteweg 17,D-30559
Hannover,Germany
Abstract
Classical swine fever (CSF) is endemic in large parts of the world and it is
a major threat to the pig industry in general. Vaccination and stamping out
have been the most successful tools for the control and elimination of the
disease. The systematic use of modified live vaccines (MLV), which are very
efficacious and safe, has often preceded the elimination of CSF from regions
or countries. Oral vaccination using MLV is a powerful tool for the elimination of CSF from wild boar populations. Bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) is
endemic in bovine populations worldwide and programs for its control are
only slowly gaining ground. With two genotypes BVD virus (BVDV) is genetically more diverse than CSF virus (CSFV). BVDV crosses the placenta
of pregnant cattle resulting in the birth of persistently infected (PI) calves.
PI animals shed enormous amounts of virus for the rest of their lives and
they are the reservoir for the spread of BVDV in cattle populations. They
are the main reason for the failure of conventional control strategies based
on vaccination only. In Europe two different approaches for the successful
control of BVD are being used: Elimination of PI animals without or with
the optional use of vaccines, respectively.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26050577

“They are the main reason
for the failure of conventional
control strategies based on
vaccination only. In Europe two
different approaches for the
successful control of Bovine
virus diarrhea are being used:
Elimination of persistently infected
animals without or with the optional
use of vaccines, respectively.”

International Journal Of Nanomedicine • July 2015

Central nervous system toxicity
of metallic nanoparticles
Xiaoli Feng,1 Aijie Chen,1 Yanli Zhang,1
Jianfeng Wang,2 Longquan Shao,1 and Limin Wei2
1. Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University
Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
2. School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wenzhou Medical University
Wenzhou, People’s Republic of China
Abstract
Nanomaterials (NMs) are increasingly used for the therapy, diagnosis, and monitoring of disease- or
drug-induced mechanisms in the human biological system. In view of their small size, after certain
modifications, NMs have the capacity to bypass or cross the blood–brain barrier. Nanotechnology is
particularly advantageous in the field of neurology. Examples may include the utilization of nanoparticle
(NP)-based drug carriers to readily cross the blood–brain barrier to treat central nervous system (CNS)
diseases, nanoscaffolds for axonal regeneration, nanoelectromechanical systems in neurological operations, and NPs in molecular imaging and CNS imaging. However, NPs can also be potentially hazardous
to the CNS in terms of nano-neurotoxicity via several possible mechanisms, such as oxidative stress,
autophagy, and lysosome dysfunction, and the activation of certain signaling pathways. In this review,
we discuss the dual effect of NMs on the CNS and the mechanisms involved. The limitations of the current research are also discussed.
Summary
There are still many unanswered questions concerning nanoneurotoxicity. For instance, after bypassing
the BBB, where do NPs go? How do they leave the brain? The degradation of NP coatings and NP cores
inside the cell environment is an important issue that deserves serious consideration when designing safe
and functional NMs. No results have been reported on this issue to date.
When NPs enter the body, the surface properties of NPs may change by adsorbing proteins from biological fluids (such as blood, plasma, or interstitial fluid), leading to a distinct new epitope, for example,
protein corona exposure in the biological microenvironment. Furthermore, serum protein binding to the
NPs can alter the surface charge and accelerate the cellular uptake of NPs through receptor-regulated
endocytosis. However, so far, studies addressing the cell surface protein corona interactions with NPs
remain limited.
Data regarding the distribution of metal-based NPs in the brain parenchyma are scarce, including data
regarding the disruption of the BBB and adverse brain alterations caused by metal-based NPs. The effects of the persistence of poorly soluble metal-based NPs are of particular concern, and few studies
have considered the effect of NPs on the CNS.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4498719/

“The effects of the persistence
of poorly soluble metal-based nano-particles
are of particular concern, and few
studies have considered the effect
of nano-particles on the Central Nervous System.”

“Endotoxin was present in all tested samples and the final product.”
PDA Journal Of Pharmaceutical Science And Technology • July 2015

Quality Control Testing for Tracking Endotoxin-Producing Gram-Negative Bacteria
during the Preparation of Polyvalent Snake Antivenom Immunoglobulin
Author information
Sheraba NS1, Diab MR1, Yassin AS2, Amin MA3, Zedan HH3.
Vacsera, The Holding Company for Biological Products and Vaccines, Giza, Egypt
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
Abstract
Snake bites represent a serious public health problem, particularly in rural
areas worldwide. Antitoxic sera preparations are antibodies from immunized animals and are considered to be the only treatment option. The purification of antivenom antibodies should aim at obtaining products of consistent quality, safety, efficacy, and adherence to good manufacturing practice
principles. Endotoxins are an integral component of the outer cell surface of
Gram-negative bacteria. They are common contaminates of the raw materials and processing equipment used in the manufacturing of antivenoms. In
this work, and as a part of quality control testing, we establish and examine
an environmental monitoring program for identification of potential sources
of endotoxin-producing Gram-negative bacteria throughout the whole steps
of antivenom preparation. In addition, we follow all the steps of preparation
starting from crude plasma till finished product using a validated sterility
and endotoxin testing.Samples from air, surface, and personnel were collected and examined through various stages of manufacturing for the potential presence of Gram-negative bacteria. A validated sterility and endotoxin
test was carried out in parallel at the different production steps. The results
showed that air contributed to the majority of bacterial isolates detected
(48.43%), followed by surfaces (37.5%) and then personnel (14%). The
most common bacterial isolates detected were Achromobacter xylosoxidans, Ochrobactrum anthropi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which together with Burkholderia cepacia were both also detected in cleaning water and
certain equipment parts. A heavy bacterial growth with no fungal contamination was observed in all stages of antivenom manufacturing excluding the
formulation stage. All samples were positive for endotoxin including the

finished product.Implementation and continued evaluation of quality assurance and quality improvement programs in aseptic preparation is essential
in ensuring the safety and quality of these products.
LAY ABSTRACT
Antitoxic sera preparations are the only treatment option for snake bites
worldwide. They are prepared by immunizing animals, usually horses, with
snake venom and collecting horse plasma, which is then subjected to several
purification steps in order to finally prepare the purified immunoglobulins.
Components of the bacterial cell wall known as endotoxins can constitute
a potential hazardous contamination known as pyrogen in antisera, which
can lead to fever and many other adverse reactions to the person subjected
to it.In this work, we monitored the environment associated with the different steps of production and purification of snake antivenom prepared from
immunized horses. We examined the air quality, surface, and personnel for
possible sources of contamination, particularly the presence of Gram-negative bacteria, which is the major source of endotoxin presence. We also
monitored all stages of preparation by sterility and endotoxin testing. Our
results showed that air contributed to the majority of bacterial isolates. Sterility testing revealed the presence of bacterial contamination in all the intermediate steps, as only the final preparation after filtration was sterile.
Endotoxin was present in all tested samples and the final product. Good
manufacturing practice procedures are essential in any facility involved in
antisera production.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26242786

“A possible disadvantage of using human cell lines
is the potential for human-specific viral contamination ...”
Critical Reviews In Biotechnology • September 2015

Human cell lines for biopharmaceutical manufacturing:
history, status, and future perspectives
Author information
Dumont J1, Euwart D1, Mei B1, Estes S1, Kshirsagar R1.
1. Biogen, Cambridge, MA, USA
Abstract
Biotherapeutic proteins represent a mainstay of treatment for a multitude of conditions, for example, autoimmune disorders, hematologic disorders, hormonal dysregulation, cancers, infectious diseases and genetic disorders. The technologies behind their production have changed substantially since biotherapeutic proteins were first approved in the 1980s.
Although most biotherapeutic proteins developed to date have been produced using the mammalian Chinese hamster
ovary and murine myeloma (NS0, Sp2/0) cell lines, there has been a recent shift toward the use of human cell lines.
One of the most important advantages of using human cell lines for protein production is the greater likelihood that the
resulting recombinant protein will bear post-translational modifications (PTMs) that are consistent with those seen on
endogenous human proteins. Although other mammalian cell lines can produce PTMs similar to human cells, they also
produce non-human PTMs, such as galactose-a 1,3-galactose and N-glycolylneuraminic acid, which are potentially immunogenic. In addition, human cell lines are grown easily in a serum-free suspension culture, reproduce rapidly and have
efficient protein production. A possible disadvantage of using human cell lines is the potential for human-specific viral
contamination, although this risk can be mitigated with multiple viral inactivation or clearance steps. In addition, while
human cell lines are currently widely used for biopharmaceutical research, vaccine production and production of some
licensed protein therapeutics, there is a relative paucity of clinical experience with human cell lines because they have
only recently begun to be used for the manufacture of proteins (compared with other types of cell lines). With additional
research investment, human cell lines may be further optimized for routine commercial production of a broader range of
biotherapeutic proteins.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26383226

Transplant Infectious Disease • November 2015

High rate of vaccine failure after administration of acellular pertussis vaccine
pre- and post-liver transplantation in children at a children’s hospital in Japan
Author information
Ito K1,2, Kasahara M3, Saitoh A1,4, Honda H5, Miyairi I1.
1. Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Specialties, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
2. Department of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo Metropolitan Children’s Medical Center, Tokyo, Japan
3. Division of Transplant Surgery, Department of Surgical Subspecialties, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
4. Department of Pediatrics, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Science, Niigata, Japan
5. Division of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo Metropolitan Tama General Medical Center, Tokyo, Japan

Abstract
We assessed the serological response to pertussis vaccines administered pre- and post-liver transplantation in 58 pediatric patients at a children’s hospital in Japan. A high rate of pertussis vaccine failure was observed, 44.8% against the pertussis toxin
and 69.0% against filamentous hemagglutinin, with no difference in the seropositivity rate with respect to the timing of the vaccination during the peritransplant period.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26565897

“A high rate of pertussis vaccine failure
was observed, 44.8% against the pertussis toxin
and 69.0% against filamentous hemagglutinin ...”

Chapter Two
Thimerosal • Ethyl Mercury
1972 - 2015
Environmental Sources Of Mercury
Mercury Concentration

Form

Biological Significance

0.4ppb

MetHg

Median chronic intake of contaminated fish (0.4ug/kg body weight)
causes delayed speech and autistic-like symptoms in male children
(Corbett & Poor, 2008)

1.6ppb

MetHg

Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) based on body weight for
infants and pregnant women (1.6ug/kg; Food & Agricultural Association/World Health Organization 2006)

2.0ppb

Inorganic
Mercury

US EPA limit for drinking water (US EPA, 2011)

200ppb

Various

Level in liquid that the US EPA classifies as hazardous waste based on
toxocity characteristics (US EPA, 2010)

600ppb

EtHg

Concentration of mercury in vaccines containing trace amounts of
thimerosal (0.3ug/0.5 ml. dose, or 600ug/L;Halsey, 1999)

25,000-50,000ppb

EtHg

Concentration in Thimerosal containing multi-dose influenza, meningococcal pneumococcal polysaccharide and diphtheria-tetanus vaccines
(Offit & Jew, 2003)

“The ubiquitous and largely unchecked place of Thimerosal
in pharmaceuticals, therefore, represents a medical crisis.”
Quoted from:

“A review of Thimerosal (Merthiolate) and its ethyl mercury breakdown product:
specific historical considerations regarding safety and effectiveness”
by DA Geier, LK Sykes and MR Geier

Postgraduate Medical Journal • July 1972

Six cases of poisoning after a parenteral organic mercurial compound (Merthiolate)
J. H. M. Axton
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2495252/?page=5

Bulletin Of The World Health Organization • May 1976

An outbreak of organomercury poisoning
among Iraqi farmers
Al-Tikriti K, Al-Mufti AW.
Abstract
An outbreak of organomercury poisoning due to the consumption of
treated grain by farmers and their families occurred in Iraq in 1971-72.
A total of 6530 cases were admitted to hospital and of these 459 died.
However, there were many more with minor symptoms of poisoning
who consulted outpatient departments. This outbreak constituted the
largest poisoning epidemic ever recorded. No age was exempt and no
pronounced sex difference was apparent. The latent period of up to
60 days between dosage and the onset of symptoms was probably the
major factor contributing to the size of the epidemic. Measures taken
to limit the outbreak are outlined.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2366398/

“A total of 6530 cases
were admitted to hospital
and of these 459 died.”

American Journal Of Obstetrics And Gynecology • October 1976

Mercury toxicity in the pregnant woman,
fetus, and newborn infant
A review
Koos BJ, Longo LD.
Abstract
This paper reviews the reported cases of mercury poisoning in pregnancy
and the data based on sources of contamination, maternal uptake, and distribution. It analyzes current knowledge of placental transfer of various
mercury compounds, fetal uptake, and distribution. It identifies the embryopathic and fetal toxic effects of mercury in general while emphasizing
the greater toxicity of methylmercury compounds. Since maternal exposure
to methylmercury is primarily through fish consumption, it recommends
that women of childbearing age should not consume more than 350 Gm. of
fish per week. In addition, they should not be occupationally exposed to air
concentrations of mercury vapor greater than 0.01 mg. per cubic meter, of
inorganic and phenylmercuric compounds greater than 0.02 mg. per cubic
meter, or any detectable concentration of methylmercury.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/786026

“This paper reviews the reported cases
of mercury poisoning in pregnancy and
the data based on sources of contamination,
maternal uptake, and distribution. It analyzes
current knowledge of placental transfer of various
mercury compounds, fetal uptake, and distribution.”

British Journal Of Industrial Medicine • May 1982

Elemental mercury exposure:
peripheral neurotoxicity
Levine SP, Cavender GD,
Langolf GD, Albers JW.
Abstract
Nerve conduction tests were performed on the right ulnar nerve of factory
workers exposed to elemental mercury vapour. Time integrated urine mercury
indices were used to measure the degree of exposure. Workers with prolonged
distal latencies had significantly higher urine mercury concentrations when
compared with those with normal latencies. Significant correlations between
increasing urine mercury concentrations and prolonged motor and sensory
distal latencies were established. Elemental mercury can affect both motor
and sensory peripheral nerve conduction and the degree of involvement may
be related to time-integrated urine mercury concentrations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6279139

“Significant correlations between
increasing urine mercury concentrations
and prolonged motor and sensory distal latencies
were established. Elemental mercury can affect
both motor and sensory peripheral nerve
conduction and the degree of involvement
may be related to time-integrated urine
mercury concentrations.”

Annals Of Neurology • November 1988

Neurological abnormalities
associated with remote occupational
elemental mercury exposure
Author information
Albers JW1, Kallenbach LR, Fine LJ, Langolf GD,
Wolfe RA, Donofrio PD, Alessi AG, Stolp-Smith KA, Bromberg MB.
Department of Neurology
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Abstract
We examined 502 subjects, 247 of whom had occupational elemental mercury
exposures 20 to 35 years previously, to identify potential exposure-related neurological abnormalities. Few significant (p less than 0.05) differences existed
between exposed and unexposed subjects. However, multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated several significant correlations between declining
neurological function and increasing exposure as determined by urine mercury measurements from the exposure interval. Subjects with urine mercury
peak levels above 0.6 mg/L demonstrated significantly decreased strength,
decreased coordination, increased tremor, decreased sensation, and increased
prevalence of Babinski and snout reflexes when compared with the remaining
subjects. Furthermore, subjects with clinical polyneuropathy had significantly
higher peak levels than normal subjects (0.85 vs 0.61 mg/L; p = 0.04), but not
increased exposure duration (20.1 vs 20.8 quarters; p = 0.34), and 28% of subjects with peak levels above 0.85 mg/L had clinical evidence of polyneuropathy, compared with 10% of remaining subjects (p = 0.005). Although exposure
was not age dependent, several neurological measures showed significant agemercury interaction, suggesting that natural neuronal attrition may unmask
prior exposure-related subclinical abnormalities.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2849369

“... multiple linear regression analysis
demonstrated several significant correlations
between declining neurological function and increasing
exposure as determined by urine mercury measurements
from the exposure interval. Subjects with urine mercury
peak levels above 0.6 mg/L demonstrated significantly
decreased strength, decreased coordination, increased
tremor, decreased sensation, and increased prevalence
of Babinski and snout reflexes when compared
with the remaining subjects.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health. • 1989

Brain and tissue levels of mercury
after chronic methylmercury exposure
in the monkey
Author information
Rice DC1.
Toxicology Research Division
Health Protection Branch
Health and Welfare
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Abstract
Estimated half-lives of mercury following methylmercury exposure in humans are 52-93 d for whole body and 49-164 d for
blood. In its most recent 1980 review, the World Health Organization concluded that there was no evidence to suggest that
brain half-life differed from whole-body half-life. In the present
study, female monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were dosed for at
least 1.7 yr with 10, 25, or 50 micrograms/kg.d of mercury as
methylmercuric chloride. Dosing was discontinued, and blood
half-life was determined to be about 14 d. Approximately 230
d after cessation of dosing, monkeys were sacrificed and organ
and regional brain total mercury levels determined. One monkey that died while still being dosed had brain mercury levels
three times higher than levels in blood. Theoretical calculations
were performed assuming steady-state brain:blood ratios of 3,
5, or 10. Brain mercury levels were at least three orders of magnitude higher than those predicted by assuming the half-life in
brain to be the same as that in blood. Estimated half-lives in
brain were between 56 (brain:blood ratio of 3) and 38 (brain:
blood ratio of 10) d. In addition, there was a dose-dependent difference in half-lives for some brain regions. These data clearly
indicate that brain half-life is considerably longer than blood
half-life in the monkey under conditions of chronic dosing.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2499694

“These data
clearly indicate
that brain half-life
is considerably longer
than blood half-life
in the monkey under
conditions of chronic dosing.”

“This review gives an up-to-date account of mercury’s physical and chemical properties
and its interaction with biologically active sites pertinent to transport across the blood-brain barrier ...”
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews • Summer 1990

Mercury neurotoxicity: Mechanisms of blood-brain barrier transport
Michael Aschner *, 1, Judy Lynn Aschner

	
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology and the Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program

Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA
†Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatal Medicine Albany Medical College
Albany, NY 12208, USA
Abstract
Mercury exists in a wide variety of physical and chemical states, each of which has unique characteristics of target
organ toxicity. The classic symptoms associated with exposure to elemental mercury vapor (Hg0) and methylmercury (Ch3Hg+; MeHg) involve the central nervous system (CNS), while the kidney is the target organ for
the mono- and divalent salts of mercury (Hg+ and Hg++, respectively). Physical properties and redox potentials
determine the qualitative and quantitative differences in toxicity among inorganic mercury compounds, while the
ability of MeHg to cross the blood-brain barrier accounts for its accumulation in the CNS and a clinical picture
that is dominated by neurological disturbances. This review gives an up-to-date account of mercury’s physical and
chemical properties and its interaction with biologically active sites pertinent to transport across the blood-brain
barrier, a major regulator of the CNS millieu.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763405802179

Contact Dermatitis • March 1991

A probable role for vaccines containing thimerosal
in thimerosal hypersensitivity
Author information
Osawa J1, Kitamura K, Ikezawa Z, Nakajima H.
Department of Dermatology
Yokohama City University School of Medicine
Kanagawa, Japan
Abstract
We patch tested 141 patients with 0.05% aq. thimerosal and 222 patients with
0.05% aq. mercuric chloride, including 63 children. The frequency of positive
patch test reactions to thimerosal was 16.3%. There was a marked preponderance
in the young age groups after vaccination, while none of 36 infants (aged 3-48
months) reacted to thimerosal. Positive reactions to mercuric chloride were found
in 23 (10.4%) of 222 patients. We also sensitized guinea pigs with diphtheriapertussis-tetanus (DPT) vaccine containing 0.01% thimerosal and succeeded in
inducing hypersensitivity to thimerosal. From patch testing in humans and animal
experiments, it is suggested that 0.01% thimerosal in vaccines can sensitize children, and that hypersensitivity to thimerosal is due to the thiosalicylic part of the
molecule and correlates with photosensitivity to piroxicam.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1868700?dopt=Abstract

“... it is suggested that 0.01% thimerosal
in vaccines can sensitize children ...”

Environmental Research • February 1993

Psychological effects
of low exposure to mercury vapor:
application of a computer-administered
neurobehavioral evaluation system
Author information
Liang YX1, Sun RK, Sun Y, Chen ZQ, Li LH.
Department of Occupational Health
Shanghai Medical University
People’s Republic of China
Abstract
A computer-administered neurobehavioral evaluation system in a
Chinese language version (NES-C) and a mood inventory of the
profile of mood states (POMS) were applied to assess the psychological effects of low-level exposure to mercury vapor in a group
of 88 workers (19 males and 69 females, with mean age of 34.2
years) exposed to mercury vapor (average duration of exposure 10.4
years). The well-matched group of 97 nonexposed workers was
treated as the control. The intensity of current mercury vapor was
relatively mild as reflected by the average level of mercury in the air
of the workplace (0.033 mg/m3) and in urine (0.025 mg/liter). The
results indicated that the profile of mood states posed was moving
to the negative side in Hg-exposed group and most of the NES-C
performances, in particular, the mental arithmetic, two-digit search,
switching attention, visual choice reaction time, and finger tapping,
were also significantly affected compared with those obtained from
controls (P < 0.05-0.01). The present study and the previous study
on the validation of the system suggest that the NES-C we developed is valid for the neurotoxicity screening among the working
population exposed to neurotoxic agents.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8472661

“The results indicated that
the profile of mood states posed
was moving to the negative side in
mercury-exposed group and most of the
NES-C performances, in particular, the mental arithmetic,
two-digit search, switching attention, visual choice
reaction time, and finger tapping, were also significantly
affected compared with those obtained from controls ...”

“... neurotoxic effects of inorganic mercury could be partially due to
the irreversible blockade of voltage-activated calcium channels.”
Brain Research • December 1993

Mercury (Hg2+) decreases voltage-gated calcium channel currents
in rat DRG and Aplysia neurons
M. Pekel, B. Platt, D. Büsselberg
Abstract
Inorganic mercury (Hg2+) reduced voltage-gated calcium channel currents irreversibility in two different preparations. In cultured rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, studied with the whole cell patch clamp technique, a
rapid concentration-dependent decrease in the L/N-type currents to a steady state was observed with an IC50 of
1.1 μM and a Hill coefficient of 1.3 T-currents were blocked with Hg2+ in the same concentration range (0.5–2
μM). With increasing Hg2+ concentrations a slow membrane current was additionally activated most obviously
at concentrations over 2 μM Hg2+. This current was irreversible and might be due to the opening of other (nonspecific) ion channels by Hg2+. The current-voltage (I–V) relation of DRG neurons shifted to more positive values, suggesting a binding of Hg2+ to the channel protein and/or modifying its gating properties. In neurons of the
abdominal ganglion of Aplysia californica, studied with the two electrode voltage clamp technique, a continous
decrease of calcium channel currents was seen even with the lowest used concentration of Hg2+ (5 μM). A steady
state was not reached and the effect was irreversible without any change on resting membrane currents, even with
high concentrations (up to 50 μM). No shift of the I–V relation of the calcium channel currents was observed.
Effects on voltage-activated calcium channel currents with Hg2+ concentrations such low have not been reported
before. We conclude that neurotoxic effects of inorganic mercury could be partially due to the irreversible blockade of voltage-activated calcium channels.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000689939391146J

European Journal Of Pediatrics • August 1994

Mercury burden of human fetal and infant tissues
Author information
Drasch G1, Schupp I, Höfl H, Reinke R, Roider G.
Institut für Rechtsmedizin
München, Germany
Abstract

“The mercury of fetuses

The total mercury concentrations in the liver (Hg-L), the kidney cortex (Hg-K) and
the cerebral cortex (Hg-C) of 108 children aged 1 day-5 years, and the Hg-K and HgL of 46 fetuses were determined. As far as possible, the mothers were interviewed
and their dental status was recorded. The results were compared to mercury concentrations in the tissues of adults from the same geographical area. The Hg-K (n = 38)
and Hg-L (n = 40) of fetuses and Hg-K (n = 35) and Hg-C (n = 35) of older infants
(11-50 weeks of life) correlated significantly with the number of dental amalgam fillings of the mother. The toxicological relevance of the unexpected high Hg-K of older
infants from mothers with higher numbers of dental amalgam fillings is discussed.

and mercury of older infants (11-50 weeks of life)

CONCLUSION
Future discussion on the pros and cons of dental amalgam should not be limited to
adults or children with their own amalgam fillings, but also include fetal exposure.
The unrestricted application of amalgam for dental restorations in women before and
during the child-bearing age should be reconsidered.

older infants from mothers with higher numbers

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7957411

correlated significantly with the number of dental
amalgam fillings of the mother. The toxicological
relevance of the unexpected high kidney cortex of

of dental amalgam fillings is discussed.”

Developmental Brain Research • March 1995

The effect of mercury vapour
on cholinergic neurons in the fetal brain:
studies on the expression of nerve growth factor
and its low- and high-affinity receptors
Author information
Söderström S1, Fredriksson A, Dencker L, Ebendal T.
Department of Developmental Neuroscience
Uppsala University, Sweden
Abstract
The effects of mercury vapour on the production of nerve growth factor during development have been examined. Pregnant rats were exposed to two different concentrations of mercury vapour during either embryonic days E6-E11
(early) or E13-E18 (late) in pregnancy, increasing the postnatal concentration of
mercury in the brain from 1 ng/g tissue to 4 ng/g tissue (low-dose group) or 11
ng/g (high-dose group). The effect of this exposure in offspring was determined
by looking at the NGF concentration at postnatal days 21 and 60 and comparing these levels to age-matched controls from sham-treated mothers. Changes
in the expression of mRNA encoding NGF, the low- and high-affinity receptors
for NGF (p75 and p140 trk, respectively) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)
were also determined. When rats were exposed to high levels of mercury vapour
during early embryonic development there was a significant (62%) increase in
hippocampal NGF levels at P21 accompanied by a 50% decrease of NGF in the
basal forebrain. The expression of NGF mRNA was found to be unaltered in
the dentate gyrus. The expression of p75 mRNA was significantly decreased to
39% of control levels in the diagonal band of Broca (DB) and to approximately
50% in the medial septal nucleus (MS) whereas no alterations in the level of
trk mRNA expression were detectable in the basal forebrain. ChAT mRNA was
slightly decreased in the DB and MS, significantly in the striatum. These findings
suggest that low levels of prenatal mercury vapour exposure can alter the levels
of the NGF and its receptors, indicating neuronal damage and disturbed trophic
regulations during development.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7781173

“These findings suggest
that low levels of prenatal mercury vapour exposure
can alter the levels of the NGF and its receptors,
indicating neuronal damage and disturbed trophic
regulations during development.”

Canadian Journal Of Physiology • February 1996

Altered porphyrin metabolism as
a biomarker of mercury exposure and toxicity
Author information
Woods JS.
Department of Environmental Health
University of Washington, Seattle, USA
Abstract
Changes in urinary porphyrin excretion patterns (porphyrin profiles)
have been described in response to a variety of drugs and chemicals.
The present studies were conducted to define the specific changes in
the urinary porphyrin profile associated with prolonged exposure to
mercury and mercury compounds. In rats, exposure for a prolonged
period to mercury as methyl mercury hydroxide was associated with
urinary porphyrin changes, which were uniquely characterized by
highly elevated levels of 4- and 5-carboxyl porphyrins and by the expression of an atypical porphyrin (“precoproporphyrin”) not found in
urine of unexposed animals. These distinct changes in urinary porphyrin concentrations were observed as early as 1-2 weeks after initiation
of mercury exposure, and increased in a dose- and time-related fashion
with the concentration of mercury in the kidney, a principal target organ of mercury compounds. Following cessation of mercury exposure,
urinary porphyrin concentrations reverted to normal levels, consistent
with renal mercury clearance. In human studies, a comparable change
in the urinary porphyrin profile was observed among subjects with occupational exposure to mercury as mercury vapor sufficient to elicit
urinary mercury levels greater than 20 micrograms/L. Urinary porphyrin profiles were also shown to correlate significantly with mercury
body burden and with specific neurobehavioral deficits associated with
low level mercury exposure. These findings support the utility of urinary porphyrin profiles as a useful biomarker of mercury exposure and
potential health effects in human subjects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8723034

“These findings support
the utility of urinary porphyrin
profiles as a useful biomarker of
mercury exposure and potential
health effects in human subjects.”

Clinical Neuropathology • May 1996

Demonstration of mercury
in the human brain and other organs
17 years after metallic mercury exposure
Author information
Opitz H1, Schweinsberg F, Grossmann T,
Wendt-Gallitelli MF, Meyermann R.
Department of Neuropathology
University of Tübingen, Germany
Abstract
A male subject became exposed to metallic mercury vapor at work in
1973. He excreted 1,850 mg Hg/l urine initially. Controls of urine mercury excretion after D-penicillamine administration led to the assumption of a total body clearance of mercury latest since 1976. Subsequently he developed an organic psychosyndrome without detectable signs
of classical mercurialism. He never returned to work again and died of
lung cancer in 1990. In different organs (brain, kidney, and lung) which
were sampled at autopsy elevated levels of mercury were documented
by atomic absorption analysis. Histological examination of the tissue
by the Danscher and Schroder method, which is specific for mercury,
showed a highly positive staining in the majority of nerve cells and
cells of other organs. Ultrastructurally mercury could be demonstrated
by elemental x-ray analysis within lipofuscin deposits. The lipofuscin
content was increased in the mercury positive nerve cells as demonstrated by a strong positive autofluorescence.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8793247

“He never returned to work again
and died of lung cancer in 1990. In
different organs (brain, kidney, and
lung) which were sampled at
autopsy elevated levels of mercury
were documented by atomic
absorption analysis.”

Neurotoxicology • Fall 1996

Effect of subchronic mercury exposure
on electrocorticogram of rats
Author information
Dési I1, Nagymajtényi L, Schulz H.
Department of Public Health
Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical University
Szeged, Hungary
Abstract
Mercury is a neurotoxic compound causing irreversible disorders of the central and peripheral nervous system. In some of the previous human and experimental studies mercury also affected some functional neurological parameters
such as EEG, and cortical evoked potentials. In the present study, the effect of
subchronic (4, 8, and 12 weeks) relatively low-level (0.4, 0.8, and 1.6 mg/kg
mercury in form of HgCl2, per os by gavage) treatment on the basic cortical
activity was investigated. Certain parameters of electrocorticogram (ECoG)
recorded simultaneously from the primary somatosensory, visual and auditory
centres were analyzed. The results showed that mercury had a dose- and timedependent effect on the examined ECoG parameters, and the changes became
significant by the end of the experiment of week 12.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9086494

“Mercury is a neurotoxic compound
causing irreversible disorders of the
central and peripheral nervous system.”

Neurotoxicology And Teratology • November 1997

Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children
with prenatal exposure to methylmercury
Author information
Grandjean P1, Weihe P, White RF, Debes F, Araki S,
Yokoyama K, Murata K, Sørensen N, Dahl R, Jørgensen PJ.
Institute of Community Health
Odense University, Denmark
p.grandjean@winsloew.ou.dk
Abstract
A cohort of 1022 consecutive singleton births was generated during
1986-1987 in the Faroe Islands. Increased methylmercury exposure
from maternal consumption of pilot whale meat was indicated by mercury concentrations in cord blood and maternal hair. At approximately
7 years of age, 917 of the children underwent detailed neurobehavioral
examination. Neuropsychological tests included Finger Tapping; HandEye Coordination; reaction time on a Continuous Performance Test;
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised Digit Spans, Similarities, and Block Designs; Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test; Boston
Naming Test; and California Verbal Learning Test (Children). Clinical
examination and neurophysiological testing did not reveal any clear-cut
mercury-related abnormalities. However, mercury-related neuropsychological dysfunctions were most pronounced in the domains of language,
attention, and memory, and to a lesser extent in visuospatial and motor
functions. These associations remained after adjustment for covariates
and after exclusion of children with maternal hair mercury concentrations above 10 microgram(s) (50 nmol/g). The effects on brain function associated with prenatal methylmercury exposure therefore appear
widespread, and early dysfunction is detectable at exposure levels currently considered safe.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9392777

“The effects on brain function
associated with prenatal methylmercury
exposure therefore appear widespread,
and early dysfunction is detectable at exposure
levels currently considered safe.”

General Pharmacology • July 1999

Thimerosal:
a versatile sulfhydryl reagent,
calcium mobilizer, and cell function-modulating agent
Author information
Elferink JG.
Department of Molecular Cell Biology, University of Leiden, The Netherlands
Abstract
An overview of the literature concerning the effects of thimerosal is presented. Because of
its antibacterial effect, thimerosal is used for a variety of practical purposes such as antiseptic and preservative. In biomedical studies, thimerosal is used as a sulfhydryl reagent,
and as a calcium-mobilizing agent. The ability of thimerosal to act as a sulfhydryl group is
related to the presence of mercury. Relatively little study has been devoted to the mechanism of the reaction of thimerosal with the sulfhydryl group; the sulfhydryl reactive capacity is mostly concluded on the basis of inactivation of the effect by dithiothreitol (DTT).
Thimersal causes a release of calcium from intracellular stores in many cells types; this is
followed by an influx of extracellular calcium. Both InsP3- and ryanodine-sensitive calcium stores may be affected. Studies with permeabilized cells or organelles show that the
effect of thimerosal on calcium is dependent on the concentration: low concentrations of
thimerosal stimulate calcium release, high concentrations are inhibitory. This dependence
is not found in intact cells. Thimerosal may activate or inhibit a number of cell functions.
These are often related to the ability to release calcium or with the sulfhydryl reactivity.
In platelets, thimerosal causes aggregation, increase of arachidonic acid metabolism, and
exocytotic release of serotonin. In neutrophils, thimerosal causes, besides an increase of
cytosolic free calcium, an increase of formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP)-activated leukotriene release, and a modulation of chemotactic migration and exocytosis.
At low concentrations, thimerosal induces chemotactic migration of neutrophils, in the
absence of other chemoattractants. The effect is also observed with thiosalicylic acid, indicating that the stimulation of migration was due to the thiosalicylic acid moiety of the
thimerosal molecule. At higher concentrations, thimerosal causes inhibition of fMLP-activated migration. Low concentrations of thimerosal, but not of thiosalicylic acid, induced
exocytotic enzyme release from neutrophils. High concentrations of thimerosal inhibited
fMLP-activated exocytosis. The results point to an involvement of calcium mobilization
and calcium influx of activation, and reaction with sulfhydryl groups for inhibition.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10428009

“Thimerosal may
activate or inhibit a
number of cell functions.”

Journal Of Neurochemistry • January 2000

Mercury induces cell cytotoxicity and oxidative stress
and increases beta-amyloid secretion and tau phosphorylation
in SHSY5Y neuroblastoma cells
Author information
Olivieri G1, Brack C, Müller-Spahn F,
Stähelin HB, Herrmann M, Renard P, Brockhaus M, Hock C.
Neurobiology Laboratory
Psychiatric University Hospital
Basel, Switzerland
Olivieri@ubaclu.unibas.ch
Abstract
Concentrations of heavy metals, including mercury, have been shown to be altered in the brain
and body fluids of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients. To explore potential pathophysiological
mechanisms we used an in vitro model system (SHSY5Y neuroblastoma cells) and investigated
the effects of inorganic mercury (HgCl2) on oxidative stress, cell cytotoxicity, beta-amyloid production, and tau phosphorylation. We demonstrated that exposure of cells to 50 microg/L (180
nM) HgCl2 for 30 min induces a 30% reduction in cellular glutathione (GSH) levels (n = 13,
p<0.001). Preincubation of cells for 30 min with 1 microM melatonin or premixing melatonin
and HgCl2 appeared to protect cells from the mercury-induced GSH loss. Similarly, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) cytotoxicity assays revealed that 50
microg/L HgCl2 for 24 h produced a 50% inhibition of MTT reduction (n = 9, p<0.001). Again,
melatonin preincubation protected cells from the deleterious effects of mercury, resulting in MTT
reduction equaling control levels. The release of beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta) 1-40 and 1-42 into
cell culture supernatants after exposure to HgCl2 was shown to be different: Abeta 1-40 showed
maximal (15.3 ng/ml) release after 4 h, whereas Abeta 1-42 showed maximal (9.3 ng/ml) release
after 6 h of exposure to mercury compared with untreated controls (n = 9, p<0.001). Preincubation of cells with melatonin resulted in an attenuation of Abeta 1-40 and Abeta 1-42 release. Tau
phosphorylation was significantly increased in the presence of mercury (n = 9, p<0.001), whereas
melatonin preincubation reduced the phosphorylation to control values. These results indicate that
mercury may play a role in pathophysiological mechanisms of AD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10617124

“These results indicate that
mercury may play a role in pathophysiological
mechanisms of Alzheimer’s disease.”

Journal Of Pediatrics • May 2000

Iatrogenic exposure to mercury
after hepatitis B vaccination in preterm infants
Author information
Stajich GV1, Lopez GP, Harry SW, Sexson WR.
Mercer University
Southern School of Pharmacy
Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA
Abstract
Thimerosal, a derivative of mercury, is used as a preservative in hepatitis
B vaccines. We measured total mercury levels before and after the administration of this vaccine in 15 preterm and 5 term infants. Comparison of
pre- and post-vaccination mercury levels showed a significant increase in
both preterm and term infants after vaccination. Additionally, post-vaccination mercury levels were significantly higher in preterm infants as compared with term infants. Because mercury is known to be a potential neurotoxin to infants, further study of its pharmacodynamics is warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10802503

“Comparison of pre- and post-vaccination
mercury levels showed a significant increase
in both preterm and term infants after vaccination.”

MMWR Morbidity And Mortality Weekly Report • July 14, 2000

Summary of the joint statement on thimerosal in vaccines
American Academy of Family Physicians
American Academy of Pediatrics
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
Public Health Service
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

“AAFP, AAP, ACIP, and PHS
recommend continuation of the

Abstract

current policy of moving rapidly to

In June 2000, a joint statement on thimerosal in vaccines was prepared by the American
Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), the
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), and the Public Health Service
(PHS) in response to 1) the progress in achieving the national goal declared in July 1999
to remove thimerosal from vaccines in the recommended childhood vaccination schedule,
and 2) results of recent studies that examined potential associations between exposure to
mercury in thimerosal-containing vaccines and health effects. In this statement, AAFP,
AAP, ACIP, and PHS recommend continuation of the current policy of moving rapidly to
vaccines that are free of thimerosal as a preservative. Until adequate supplies are available, use of vaccines that contain thimerosal as a preservative is acceptable.

vaccines that are free of thimerosal

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10914930

as a preservative. Until adequate supplies
are available, use of vaccines that contain
thimerosal as a preservative is acceptable.”

Drugs • 2001

Vaccines without thiomersal:
why so necessary, why so long coming?
Author information
van’t Veen AJ.
Department of Dermatology and Venereology
Erasmus University Hospital Rotterdam-Dijkzigt
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Abstract
The inorganic mercurial thiomersal (merthiolate) has been used as an effective preservative in numerous medical and non-medical products since
the early 1930s. Both the potential toxicity of thiomersal and sensitisation
to thiomersal in relation to the application of thiomersal-containing vaccines and immunoglobulins, especially in children, have been debated in
the literature. The very low thiomersal concentrations in pharmacological
and biological products are relatively non-toxic, but probably not in utero
and during the first 6 months of life. The developing brain of the fetus is
most susceptible to thiomersal and, therefore, women of childbearing age,
in particular, should not receive thiomersal-containing products. Definitive data of doses at which developmental effects occur are not available.
Moreover, revelation of subtle effects of toxicity needs long term observation of children. The ethylmercury radical of the thiomersal molecule
appears to be the prominent sensitiser. The prevalence of thiomersal hypersensitivity in mostly selected populations varies up to 18%, but higher
figures have been reported. The overall exposure to thiomersal differs
considerably between countries. In many cases a positive routine patch
test to thiomersal should be considered an accidental finding without or,
probably more accurately, with low clinical relevance. In practice, some
preventive measures can be taken with respect to thiomersal hypersensitivity. However, with regard to the debate on primary sensitisation during
childhood and renewed attention for a reduction of children’s exposure
to mercury from all sources, the use of thiomersal should preferably be
eliminated or at least be reduced. In 1999 the manufacturers of vaccines
and immunoglobulins in the US and Europe were approached with this
in mind. The potential toxicity in children seems to be of much more
concern to them than the hidden sensitising properties of thiomersal. In
The Netherlands, unlike many other countries, the exposure to thiomersal
from pharmaceutical sources has already been reduced. Replacement of
thiomersal in all products should have a high priority in all countries.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11368282

“The potential toxicity in children seems to be of much
more concern to them [the vaccine manufacturers]
than the hidden sensitising properties of thiomersal.
Replacement of thiomersal in all products should have
a high priority in all countries. In 1999 the manufacturers of vaccines and immunoglobulins in the US and
Europe were approached with this in mind.”

Medical Hypotheses • April 2001

Autism:
a novel form of mercury poisoning
Author information
Bernard S1, Enayati A, Redwood L, Roger H, Binstock T.
ARC Research, Cranford, New Jersey 07901, USA
Abstract
Autism is a syndrome characterized by impairments in social
relatedness and communication, repetitive behaviors, abnormal
movements, and sensory dysfunction. Recent epidemiological
studies suggest that autism may affect 1 in 150 US children. Exposure to mercury can cause immune, sensory, neurological, motor, and behavioral dysfunctions similar to traits defining or associated with autism, and the similarities extend to neuroanatomy,
neurotransmitters, and biochemistry. Thimerosal, a preservative
added to many vaccines, has become a major source of mercury
in children who, within their first two years, may have received
a quantity of mercury that exceeds safety guidelines. A review
of medical literature and US government data suggests that: (i)
many cases of idiopathic autism are induced by early mercury
exposure from thimerosal; (ii) this type of autism represents an
unrecognized mercurial syndrome; and (iii) genetic and non-genetic factors establish a predisposition whereby thimerosal’s adverse effects occur only in some children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11339848

“A review of medical literature
and US government data suggests
that many cases of idiopathic autism
are induced by early mercury
exposure from thimerosal.”

Neuroreport • May 2001

Retrograde degeneration of
neurite membrane structural integrity of
nerve growth cones following
in vitro exposure to mercury
Author information
Leong CC1, Syed NI, Lorscheider FL.
Faculty of Medicine
Department of Physiology and Biophysics
University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Abstract
Inhalation of mercury vapor (Hg0) inhibits binding of GTP to rat brain tubulin, thereby inhibiting tubulin polymerization into microtubules. A similar
molecular lesion has also been observed in 80% of brains from patients with
Alzheimer disease (AD) compared to age-matched controls. However the
precise site and mode of action of Hg ions remain illusive. Therefore, the
present study examined whether Hg ions could affect membrane dynamics
of neurite growth cone morphology and behavior. Since tubulin is a highly
conserved cytoskeletal protein in both vertebrates and invertebrates, we hypothesized that growth cones from animal species could be highly susceptible to Hg ions. To test this possibility, the identified, large Pedal A (PeA)
neurons from the central ring ganglia of the snail Lymnoea stagnalis were
cultured for 48 h in 2 ml brain conditioned medium (CM). Following neurite
outgrowth, metal chloride solution (2 microl) of Hg, Al, Pb, Cd, or Mn (10(7) M) was pressure applied directly onto individual growth cones. Time-lapse
images with inverted microscopy were acquired prior to, during, and after
the metal ion exposure. We demonstrate that Hg ions markedly disrupted
membrane structure and linear growth rates of imaged neurites in 77% of all
nerve growth cones. When growth cones were stained with antibodies specific for both tubulin and actin, it was the tubulin/microtubule structure that
disintegrated following Hg exposure. Moreover, some denuded neurites were
also observed to form neurofibrillary aggregates. In contrast, growth cone
exposure to other metal ions did not effect growth cone morphology, nor was
their motility rate compromised. To determine the growth suppressive effects
of Hg ions on neuronal sprouting, cells were cultured either in the presence
or absence of Hg ions. We found that in the presence of Hg ions, neuronal
somata failed to sprout, whereas other metalic ions did not effect growth patterns of cultured PeA cells. We conclude that this visual evidence and previous biochemical data strongly implicate Hg as a potential etiological factor
in neurodegeneration.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11277574

“We found that in the presence of
mercury ions, neuronal somata failed to sprout,
whereas other metalic ions did not effect growth
patterns of cultured PeA cells. We conclude that
this visual evidence and previous biochemical
data strongly implicate mercury as a potential
etiological factor in neurodegeneration.”

Neurotoxicology • October 2001

Predicted mercury concentrations
in hair from infant immunizations:
cause for concern
Author information
Redwood L1, Bernard S, Brown D.
Coalition for Safe Minds, Cranford, NJ 07016, USA
tlredwood@mindspring.com
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is considered one of the worlds most toxic metals. Current
thinking suggests that exposure to mercury occurs primarily from seafood
contamination and rare catastrophic events. Recently, another common
source of exposure has been identified. Thimerosal (TMS), a preservative
found in many infant vaccines, contains 49.6% ethyl mercury (EtHg) by
weight and typically contributes 25 microg of EtHg per dose of infant vaccine. As part of an ongoing review, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
announced in 1999 that infants who received multiple TMS-preserved vaccines may have been exposed to cumulative Hg in excess of Federal safety
guidelines. According to the centers for disease control (CDC) recommended
immunization schedule, infants may have been exposed to 12.5 microg Hg
at birth, 62.5 microg EtHg at 2 months, 50 microg EtHg at 4 months, 62.5
microg EtHg at 6 months, and 50 microg EtHg at approximately 18 months,
for a total of 237.5 microg EtHg during the first 18 months of life, if all
TMS-containing vaccines were administered. Neurobehavioral alterations,
especially to the more susceptible fetus and infant, are known to occur after
relatively low dose exposures to organic mercury compounds. In effort, to
further elucidate the levels of ethyl mercury resulting from exposure to vaccinal TMS, we estimated hair Hg concentrations expected to result from the
recommended CDC schedule utilizing a one compartment pharmacokinetic
model. This model was developed to predict hair concentrations from acute
exposure to methymercury (MeHg) in fish. Modeled hair Hg concentrations
in infants exposed to vaccinal TMS are in excess of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) safety guidelines of 1 ppm for up to 365 days, with
several peak concentrations within this period. More sensitive individuals
and those with additional sources of exposure would have higher Hg concentrations. Given that exposure to low levels of mercury during critical stages
of development has been associated with neurological disorders in children,
including ADD, learning difficulties, and speech delays, the predicted hair
Hg concentration resulting from childhood immunizations is cause for concern. Based on these findings, the impact which vaccinal mercury has had on
the health of American children warrants further investigation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11770890

“Given that exposure to low levels
of mercury during critical stages of development
has been associated with neurological disorders
in children, including ADD, learning difficulties,
and speech delays, the predicted hair ethyl mercury
concentration resulting from childhood
immunizations is cause for concern.”

Molecular Psychiatry • 2002

The role of mercury
in the pathogenesis of autism
S Bernard, A Enayati, H Roger, T Binstock and L
Redwood Safe Minds, Cranford, NJ, USA
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder of unknown
etiology in most cases. Studies of monozygotic twins report an average 60%
concordance rate, indicating a role for both genetic and environmental factors in
disease expression.1 Recent reviews in environmental health have suggested that
early exposure to hazardous substances may underlie some cases of neurodevelopmental disorders, including ADHD, learning disabilities, and speech/language
difficulties.2 In 1999, thimerosal used as a vaccine preservative was identified
as a widespread source of organic mercury exposure in infants.3 Mercury (Hg),
a heavy metal, is considered highly neurotoxic.4 The amount of mercury in vaccines, while small, exceeded USEPA safety guidelines on a cumulative basis.3
Certain individuals may exhibit severe adverse reactions to low doses of Hg
which are otherwise largely benign to the majority of those exposed.5 Some individuals with idiopathic autism spectrum disorder may represent such a sensitive
population. As summarized in this paper, disease characteristics suggest this possibility: (a) ASD traits are known to arise from mercury exposure; (b) onset of
ASD symptoms is temporally associated with administration of immunizations;
(c) the reported increase in the prevalence of autism in the 1990s closely follows
the introduction of two mercury-containing vaccines; and (d) elevated mercury
has been detected in biological samples of autistic patients. Since ASD may now
affect as many as one in 150 US children,6 and since thimerosal is still used in
many products worldwide, confirmation of thimerosal as an environmental agent
in autism pathogenesis has important societal and patient implications.
Full Report
http://www.nature.com/mp/journal/v7/n2s/pdf/4001177a.pdf

“... onset of ASD symptoms is temporally associated
with administration of immunizations; the reported
increase in the prevalence of autism in the 1990s closely
follows the introduction of two mercury-containing
vaccines; and elevated mercury has been detected
in biological samples of autistic patients.”

Genes And Immunity • August 2002

Biochemical and molecular basis
of thimerosal-induced apoptosis in T cells:
a major role of mitochondrial pathway
Author information
Makani S1, Gollapudi S, Yel L, Chiplunkar S, Gupta S.
Cellular and Molecular Immunology Laboratories
Division of Basic and Clinical Immunology
University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
Abstract
The major source of thimerosal (ethyl mercury thiosalicylate) exposure is childhood vaccines. It is believed that the children are exposed to significant accumulative dosage of thimerosal during the
first 2 years of life via immunization. Because of health-related concerns for exposure to mercury, we examined the effects of thimerosal
on the biochemical and molecular steps of mitochondrial pathway
of apoptosis in Jurkat T cells. Thimerosal and not thiosalcylic acid
(non-mercury component of thimerosal), in a concentration-dependent manner, induced apoptosis in T cells as determined by TUNEL
and propidium iodide assays, suggesting a role of mercury in T cell
apoptosis. Apoptosis was associated with depolarization of mitochondrial membrane, release of cytochrome c and apoptosis inducing factor (AIF) from the mitochondria, and activation of caspase9 and caspase-3, but not of caspase-8. In addition, thimerosal in a
concentration-dependent manner inhibited the expression of XIAP,
cIAP-1 but did not influence cIAP-2 expression. Furthermore, thimerosal enhanced intracellular reactive oxygen species and reduced
intracellular glutathione (GSH). Finally, exogenous glutathione protected T cells from thimerosal-induced apoptosis by upregulation of
XIAP and cIAP1 and by inhibiting activation of both caspase-9 and
caspase-3. These data suggest that thimerosal induces apoptosis in
T cells via mitochondrial pathway by inducing oxidative stress and
depletion of GSH.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12140745

“The major source of thimerosal
(ethyl mercury thiosalicylate) exposure
is childhood vaccines. It is believed that
the children are exposed to significant
accumulative dosage of thimerosal during
the first 2 years of life via immunization.
These data suggest that thimerosal induces
apoptosis in T cells via mitochondrial
pathway by inducing oxidative stress
and depletion of intracellular glutathione.”

Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine • 2003

Neurodevelopmental Disorders
after Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines:
A Brief Communication
Mark Geier And David A. Geier
The Genetic Centers of America
Silver Spring, Maryland 20905
Abstract
We were initially highly skeptical that differences in the concentrations of thimerosal in vaccines would have any
effect on the incidence rate of neurodevelopmental disorders after childhood immunization. This study presents the
first epidemiologic evidence, based upon tens of millions of doses of vaccine administered in the United States, that
associates increasing thimerosal from vaccines with neurodevelopmental disorders. Specifically, an analysis of the
Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS) database showed statistical increases in the incidence rate of
autism (relative risk [RR] = 6.0), mental retardation (RR = 6.1), and speech disorders (RR = 2.2) after thimerosalcontaining diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis (DTaP) vaccines in comparison with thimerosal-free DTaP
vaccines. The male/female ratio indicated that autism (17) and speech disorders (2.3) were reported more in males
than females after thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines, whereas mental retardation (1.2) was more evenly reported
among male and female vaccine recipients. Controls were employed to determine if biases were present in the data,
but none were found. It was determined that overall adverse reactions were reported in similar-aged populations after
thimerosal-containing DTaP (2.4 ± 3.2 years old) and thimerosal-free DTaP (2.1 ± 2.8 years old) vaccinations. Acute
control adverse reactions such as deaths (RR = 1.0), vasculitis (RR = 1.2), seizures (RR = 1.6), ED visits (RR = 1.4),
total adverse reactions (RR = 1.4), and gastroenteritis (RR = 1.1) were reported similarly after thimerosal- containing
and thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines. An association between neurodevelopmental disorders and thimerosal-containing
DTaP vaccines was found, but additional studies should be conducted to confirm and extend this study.
In recent years, thimerosal, an organic mercury compound that is metabolized to ethylmercury and thiosalicylate and
has been present since the 1930s as a preservative in some vaccines and pharmaceutical products to prevent bacterial
and fungal contamination, has come under scrutiny. It was determined by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) in 1999 under the recommended childhood immunization schedule that infants might be exposed to cumulative doses of ethylmercury that exceed some federal safety guidelines established for exposure to methylmercury,
another form of organic mercury (1).
The hypothesis that exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines could be associated with neurodevelopmental disorders is not established and rests on indirect and incomplete information, primarily from analogies with methylmercury and levels of maximum mercury exposure from vaccines given in children. The hypothesis is biologically
possible, but the possible relationship between thimerosal from vaccines and neurodevelopmental disorders of autism, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and speech or language delay remains seriously suspect. As
of the present, there are no peer-reviewed epidemiological studies in the scientific literature examining the potential
association between thimerosal-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we show the first epidemiologic evidence, based upon tens of millions of doses of vaccine administered in the United States, that associates increasing thimerosal from vaccines with neurodevelopmental disorders.
Full Report: http://www.autismhelpforyou.com/EXPERT%20PAPER%20-%20Geier%20-%20Internet%20File.pdf

“... we show the first epidemiologic evidence,
based upon tens of millions of doses of vaccine
administered in the United States, that associates
increasing thimerosal from vaccines with
neurodevelopmental disorders.”

Neurotoxic Research • February 2003

Neurotoxicity of organomercurial compounds
Author information
Sanfeliu C1, Sebastià J, Cristòfol R, Rodríguez-Farré E.
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, CSIC, IDIBAPS
Rossellò 161, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
cspfat@iibb.csic.es
Abstract
Mercury is a ubiquitous contaminant, and a range of chemical species is generated by human activity and natural environmental change. Elemental mercury and its inorganic and
organic compounds have different toxic properties, but all them are considered hazardous
in human exposure. In an equimolecular exposure basis, organomercurials with a short aliphatic chain are the most harmful compounds and they may cause irreversible damage to
the nervous system. Methylmercury (CH(3)Hg(+)) is the most studied following the neurotoxic outbreaks identified as Minamata disease and the Iraq poisoning. The first description
of the CNS pathology dates from 1954. Since then, the clinical neurology, the neuropathology and the mechanisms of neurotoxicity of organomercurials have been widely studied.
The high thiol reactivity of CH(3)Hg(+), as well as all mercury compounds, has been
suggested to be the basis of their harmful biological effects. However, there is clear selectivity of CH(3)Hg(+) for specific cell types and brain structures, which is not yet fully understood. The main mechanisms involved are inhibition of protein synthesis, microtubule
disruption, increase of intracellular Ca(2+) with disturbance of neurotransmitter function,
oxidative stress and triggering of excitotoxicity mechanisms. The effects are more damaging during CNS development, leading to alterations of the structure and functionality of
the nervous system. The major source of CH(3)Hg(+) exposure is the consumption of fish
and, therefore, its intake is practically unavoidable. The present concern is on the study of
the effects of low level exposure to CH(3)Hg(+) on human neurodevelopment, with a view
to establishing a safe daily intake. Recommendations are 0.4 micro g/kg body weight/day
by the WHO and US FDA and, recently, 0.1 micro g/kg body weight/day by the US EPA.
Unfortunately, these levels are easily attained with few meals of fish per week, depending
on the source of the fish and its position in the food chain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12835120

“Elemental mercury
and its inorganic and organic compounds
have different toxic properties, but all them
are considered hazardous in human exposure.
Recommendations are 0.4 micro g/kg body weight/day by
the WHO and US FDA and, recently, 0.1 micro g/kg body
weight/day by the US EPA. Unfortunately, these levels are
easily attained with few meals of fish per week, depending
on the source of the fish and its position in the food chain.”

“The evidence presented here shows that the occurrence of neurodevelopmental disorders
following thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines does not appear to be coincidental.”
Pediatric Rehabilitation • April 2003

An assessment of the impact of thimerosal
on childhood neurodevelopmental disorders
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
The Genetic Centers of America
14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
The prevalence of autism in the US has risen from 1 in approximately 2500 in the mid-1980s to 1 in approximately 300 children in the mid-1990s. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether mercury from thimerosal
in childhood vaccines contributed to neurodevelopmental disorders. Neurodevelopmental disorder dose-response
curves for increasing mercury doses of thimerosal in childhood vaccines were determined based upon examination of the Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS) database and the 2001 US’ Department of Education Report. The instantaneous dosage of mercury children received in comparison to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)’s maximum permissible dose for the oral ingestion of methylmercury was also determined. The
dose-response curves showed increases in odds ratios of neurodevelopmental disorders from both the VAERS and
US Department of Education data closely linearly correlated with increasing doses of mercury from thimerosalcontaining childhood vaccines and that for overall odds ratios statistical significance was achieved. Similar slopes
and linear regression coefficients for autism odds ratios in VAERS and the US Department of Education data help
to mutually validate each other. Controls employed in the VAERS and US Department of Education data showed
minimal biases. The evidence presented here shows that the occurrence of neurodevelopmental disorders following thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines does not appear to be coincidental.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14534046

“An association between neurodevelopmental disorders
and thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines was found ...”
Experiments In Biological Medicine • June 2003

Neurodevelopmental disorders after thimerosal-containing vaccines:
a brief communication
Author information
Geier MR1, Geier DA.
The Genetic Centers of America, Silver Spring, Maryland 20905, USA
mgeier@erols.com
Abstract
We were initially highly skeptical that differences in the concentrations of thimerosal in vaccines would have any
effect on the incidence rate of neurodevelopmental disorders after childhood immunization. This study presents
the first epidemiologic evidence, based upon tens of millions of doses of vaccine administered in the United
States, that associates increasing thimerosal from vaccines with neurodevelopmental disorders. Specifically, an
analysis of the Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS) database showed statistical increases in the
incidence rate of autism (relative risk [RR] = 6.0), mental retardation (RR = 6.1), and speech disorders (RR =
2.2) after thimerosal-containing diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis (DTaP) vaccines in comparison with
thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines. The male/female ratio indicated that autism (17) and speech disorders (2.3) were
reported more in males than females after thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines, whereas mental retardation (1.2)
was more evenly reported among male and female vaccine recipients. Controls were employed to determine if biases were present in the data, but none were found. It was determined that overall adverse reactions were reported
in similar-aged populations after thimerosal-containing DTaP (2.4 +/- 3.2 years old) and thimerosal-free DTaP
(2.1 +/- 2.8 years old) vaccinations. Acute control adverse reactions such as deaths (RR = 1.0), vasculitis (RR =
1.2), seizures (RR = 1.6), ED visits (RR = 1.4), total adverse reactions (RR = 1.4), and gastroenteritis (RR = 1.1)
were reported similarly after thimerosal-containing and thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines. An association between
neurodevelopmental disorders and thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines was found, but additional studies should
be conducted to confirm and extend this study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12773696

Environmental Toxicology • June 2003

Environmental exposure to mercury
and its toxicopathologic implications for public health
Author information
Tchounwou PB1, Ayensu WK, Ninashvili N, Sutton D.
Cellomics and Toxicogenomics Research Laboratory
NIH Center for Environmental Health, School of Science and Technology
Jackson State University, 1400 Lynch Street, Box 18540
Jackson, Mississippi 39217, USA. paul.b.tchounwou@jsums.edu
Abstract
Mercury is a toxic and hazardous metal that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. Natural
phenomena such as erosion and volcanic eruptions, and anthropogenic activities like metal
smelting and industrial production and use may lead to substantial contamination of the
environment with mercury. Through consumption of mercury in food, the populations of
many areas, particularly in the developing world, have been confronted with catastrophic
outbreaks of mercury-induced diseases and mortality. Countries such as Japan, Iraq, Ghana,
the Seychelles, and the Faroe Islands have faced such epidemics, which have unraveled the
insidious and debilitating nature of mercury poisoning. Its creeping neurotoxicity is highly
devastating, particularly in the central and peripheral nervous systems of children. Central
nervous system defects and erethism as well as arrythmias, cardiomyopathies, and kidney
damage have been associated with mercury exposure. Necrotizing bronchitis and pneumonitis arising from inhalation of mercury vapor can result in respiratory failure. Mercury is
also considered a potent immunostimulant and -suppressant, depending on exposure dose
and individual susceptibility, producing a number of pathologic sequelae including lymphoproliferation, hypergammaglobulinemia, and total systemic hyper- and hyporeactivities.
In this review we discuss the sources of mercury and the potential for human exposure; its
biogeochemical cycling in the environment; its systemic, immunotoxic, genotoxic/carcinogenic, and teratogenic health effects; and the dietary influences on its toxicity; as well as the
important considerations in risk assessment and management of mercury poisoning.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740802

“Its creeping neurotoxicity
is highly devastating, particularly
in the central and peripheral nervous
systems of children.”

“... the present study provides further insight into one possible mechanism
by which early mercury exposures could increase the risk of autism.”
International Journal Of Toxicology • July 2003

Reduced levels of mercury in first baby haircuts of autistic children
Author information
Holmes AS1, Blaxill MF, Haley BE.
SafeMinds, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Abstract
Reported rates of autism have increased sharply in the United States and the United Kingdom. One possible factor underlying these increases is increased exposure to mercury through thimerosal-containing vaccines, but vaccine exposures need
to be evaluated in the context of cumulative exposures during gestation and early infancy. Differential rates of postnatal
mercury elimination may explain why similar gestational and infant exposures produce variable neurological effects. First
baby haircut samples were obtained from 94 children diagnosed with autism using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM IV) criteria and 45 age- and gender-matched controls. Information on diet, dental
amalgam fillings, vaccine history, Rho D immunoglobulin administration, and autism symptom severity was collected
through a maternal survey questionnaire and clinical observation. Hair mercury levels in the autistic group were 0.47 ppm
versus 3.63 ppm in controls, a significant difference. The mothers in the autistic group had significantly higher levels of
mercury exposure through Rho D immunoglobulin injections and amalgam fillings than control mothers. Within the autistic group, hair mercury levels varied significantly across mildly, moderately, and severely autistic children, with mean
group levels of 0.79, 0.46, and 0.21 ppm, respectively. Hair mercury levels among controls were significantly correlated
with the number of the mothers’ amalgam fillings and their fish consumption as well as exposure to mercury through
childhood vaccines, correlations that were absent in the autistic group. Hair excretion patterns among autistic infants were
significantly reduced relative to control. These data cast doubt on the efficacy of traditional hair analysis as a measure of
total mercury exposure in a subset of the population. In light of the biological plausibility of mercury’s role in neurodevelopmental disorders, the present study provides further insight into one possible mechanism by which early mercury
exposures could increase the risk of autism.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12933322

Toxicological Science • August 2003

Thimerosal induces DNA breaks,
caspase-3 activation, membrane damage,
and cell death in cultured human neurons and fibroblasts
Author information
Baskin DS1, Ngo H, Didenko VV.
Department of Neurosurgery
Baylor College of Medicine
6560 Fannin Suite 944
Houston, Texas 77030, USA
dbaskin@tmh.tmc.edu
Abstract
Thimerosal is an organic mercurial compound used as a preservative in biomedical
preparations. Little is known about the reactions of human neuronal and skin cells to
its micro- and nanomolar concentrations, which can occur after using thimerosal-containing products. A useful combination of fluorescent techniques for the assessment of
thimerosal toxicity is introduced. Short-term thimerosal toxicity was investigated in
cultured human cerebral cortical neurons and in normal human fibroblasts. Cells were
incubated with 125-nM to 250-microM concentrations of thimerosal for 45 min to 24 h.
A 4’, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI) dye exclusion test was used
to identify nonviable cells and terminal transferase-based nick-end labeling (TUNEL)
to label DNA damage. Detection of active caspase-3 was performed in live cell cultures
using a cell-permeable fluorescent caspase inhibitor. The morphology of fluorescently
labeled nuclei was analyzed. After 6 h of incubation, the thimerosal toxicity was observed at 2 microM based on the manual detection of the fluorescent attached cells and
at a 1-microM level with the more sensitive GENios Plus Multi-Detection Microplate
Reader with Enhanced Fluorescence. The lower limit did not change after 24 h of incubation. Cortical neurons demonstrated higher sensitivity to thimerosal compared to
fibroblasts. The first sign of toxicity was an increase in membrane permeability to DAPI
after 2 h of incubation with 250 microM thimerosal. A 6-h incubation resulted in failure
to exclude DAPI, generation of DNA breaks, caspase-3 activation, and development of
morphological signs of apoptosis. We demonstrate that thimerosal in micromolar concentrations rapidly induce membrane and DNA damage and initiate caspase-3-dependent apoptosis in human neurons and fibroblasts. We conclude that a proposed combination of fluorescent techniques can be useful in analyzing the toxicity of thimerosal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12773768

“We demonstrate that thimerosal
in micromolar concentrations rapidly
induce membrane and DNA damage and
initiate caspase-3-dependent apoptosis
in human neurons and fibroblasts.”

“This study provides strong epidemiological evidence for a link between
increasing mercury from thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines and
neurodevelopment disorders and heart disease.”
Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons • Volume 8, Number 1 • Spring 2003

Thimerosal in Childhood Vaccines,
Neurodevelopment Disorders, and Heart Disease in the United States
Mark R. Geier, M.D., Ph.D. David A. Geier
Abstract
In this study, we evaluated doses of mercury from thimerosal-containing childhood immunizations in compari- son to US Federal Safety
Guidelines and the effects of increasing doses of mercury on the incidence of neurodevelopment disorders and heart disease. This study
showed that children received mercury from this source in excess of the Federal Safety Guidelines for the oral ingestion of methylmercury.
Our analyses showed increasing relative risks for neurodevelopment disorders and heart disease with increasing doses of mercury. This
study provides strong epidemiological evidence for a link between mercury exposure from thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines and
neurodevelopment disorders.
Conclusion
This study provides strong epidemiological evidence for a link between increasing mercury from thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines
and neurodevelopment disorders and heart disease. In light of voluminous literature supporting the biologic mechanisms for mercuryinduced adverse reactions, the presence of amounts of mercury in thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines exceeding Federal Safety
Guidelines for the oral ingestion of mercury, and previous epidemiological studies showing adverse reactions from such vaccines, a causal
relationship between thimerosal- containing childhood vaccines and neurodevelopment disorders and heart disease appears to be confirmed.
It is to be hoped that complete removal of thimerosal from all childhood vaccines will help to stem the tragic, apparently iatrogenic epidemic
of autism and speech disorders that the United States is now facing.
Full Report
http://www.jpands.org/vol8no1/geier.pdf

Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology • October 2003

Brain barrier systems:
a new frontier in metal neurotoxicological research
Author information
Zheng W1, Aschner M, Ghersi-Egea JF.
School of Health Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
wz18@purdue.edu
Abstract
The concept of brain barriers or a brain barrier system embraces the blood-brain
interface, referred to as the blood-brain barrier, and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) interface, referred to as the blood-CSF barrier. These brain barriers protect the CNS against chemical insults, by different complementary mechanisms.
Toxic metal molecules can either bypass these mechanisms or be sequestered in
and therefore potentially deleterious to brain barriers. Supportive evidence suggests that damage to blood-brain interfaces can lead to chemical-induced neurotoxicities. This review article examines the unique structure, specialization, and
function of the brain barrier system, with particular emphasis on its toxicological
implications. Typical examples of metal transport and toxicity at the barriers,
such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn), are discussed
in detail with a special focus on the relevance to their toxic neurological consequences. Based on these discussions, the emerging research needs, such as construction of the new concept of blood-brain regional barriers, understanding of
chemical effect on aged or immature barriers, and elucidation of the susceptibility
of tight junctions to toxicants, are identified and addressed in this newly evolving field of neurotoxicology. They represent both clear challenges and fruitful
research domains not only in neurotoxicology, but also in neurophysiology and
pharmacology.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14554098

“This review article examines
the unique structure, specialization, and function
of the brain barrier system, with particular emphasis
on its toxicological implications. Typical examples of metal
transport and toxicity at the barriers, such as ... mercury ...
are discussed in detail with a special focus on the
relevance to their toxic neurological consequences.”

Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology • January 2004

Dose-response study of thimerosal-induced
murine systemic autoimmunity
Author information
Havarinasab S1, Lambertsson L, Qvarnström J, Hultman P.
Molecular and Immunological Pathology (AIR)
Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine
Linköping University, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
Abstract
The organic compound ethylmercurithiosalicylate (thimerosal), which is primarily
present in the tissues as ethylmercury, has caused illness and several deaths due
to erroneous handling when used as a disinfectant or as a preservative in medical preparations. Lately, possible health effects of thimerosal in childhood vaccines have been much discussed. Thimerosal is a well-known sensitizing agent,
although usually of no clinical relevance. In rare cases, thimerosal has caused systemic immune reactions including acrodynia. We have studied if thimerosal might
induce the systemic autoimmune condition observed in genetically susceptible
mice after exposure to inorganic mercury. A.SW mice were exposed to 1.25-40
mg thimerosal/l drinking water for 70 days. Antinucleolar antibodies, targeting the
34-kDa protein fibrillarin, developed in a dose-related pattern and first appeared
after 10 days in the two highest dose groups. The lowest observed adverse effect
level (LOAEL) for antifibrillarin antibodies was 2.5 mg thimerosal/l, corresponding to an absorbed dose of 147 microg Hg/kg bw and a concentration of 21 and 1.9
microg Hg/g in the kidney and lymph nodes, respectively. The same LOAEL was
found for tissue immune-complex deposits. The total serum concentration of IgE,
IgG1, and IgG2a showed a significant dose-related increase in thimerosal-treated
mice, with a LOAEL of 5 mg thimerosal/l for IgG1 and IgE, and 20 mg thimerosal/
l for IgG2a. The polyclonal B-cell activation showed a significant dose-response
relationship with a LOAEL of 10 mg thimerosal/l. Therefore, thimerosal induces
in genetically susceptible mice a systemic autoimmune syndrome very similar to
that seen after treatment with inorganic mercury, although a higher absorbed dose
of Hg is needed using thimerosal. The autoimmune syndrome induced by thimerosal is different from the weaker and more restricted autoimmune reaction observed
after treatment with an equipotent dose of methylmercury.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14736497

“... thimerosal induces
in genetically susceptible mice
a systemic autoimmune syndrome ...”

Toxicology • January 2004

Effect of thimerosal,
a preservative in vaccines,
on intracellular Ca2+ concentration
of rat cerebellar neurons
Author information
Ueha-Ishibashi T1, Oyama Y, Nakao H, Umebayashi C,
Nishizaki Y, Tatsuishi T, Iwase K, Murao K, Seo H.
Laboratory of Cellular Signaling
Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences
The University of Tokushima
Tokushima 770-8502, Japan
Abstract
The effect of thimerosal, an organomercurial preservative in vaccines, on cerebellar neurons dissociated from 2-week-old rats was compared with those of
methylmercury using a flow cytometer with appropriate fluorescent dyes. Thimerosal and methylmercury at concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 10 microM
increased the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) in a concentration-dependent manner. The potency of 10 microM thimerosal to increase the
[Ca2+]i was less than that of 10 microM methylmercury. Their effects on the
[Ca2+]i were greatly attenuated, but not completely suppressed, under external Ca(2+)-free condition, suggesting a possibility that both agents increase
membrane Ca2+ permeability and release Ca2+ from intracellular calcium
stores. The effect of 10 microM thimerosal was not affected by simultaneous
application of 30 microM L-cysteine whereas that of 10 microM methylmercury was significantly suppressed. The potency of thimerosal was similar to
that of methylmercury in the presence of L-cysteine. Both agents at 1 microM
or more similarly decreased the cellular content of glutathione in a concentration-dependent manner, suggesting an increase in oxidative stress. Results
indicate that thimerosal exerts some cytotoxic actions on cerebellar granule
neurons dissociated from 2-week-old rats and its potency is almost similar to
that of methylmercury.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14698570

“Results indicate that thimerosal
exerts some cytotoxic actions on
cerebellar granule neurons ...
its potency is almost similar to
that of methylmercury.”

Medical Science Monitor • March 2004

A comparative evaluation of the effects of MMR immunization
and mercury doses from thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines
on the population prevalence of autism
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
President, MedCon, Inc, Silver Spring, MD, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of MMR immunization and mercury from thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines on the prevalence of autism.
MATERIAL/METHODS
Evaluations of the Biological Surveillance Summaries of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the U.S. Department of Education datasets, and the CDC’s yearly live birth estimates were
undertaken.
RESULTS
It was determined that there was a close correlation between mercury doses from thimerosal--containing childhood vaccines and the prevalence of autism from the late 1980s through the mid-1990s. In
contrast, there was a potential correlation between the number of primary pediatric measles-containing vaccines administered and the prevalence of autism during the 1980s. In addition, it was found
that there were statistically significant odds ratios for the development of autism following increasing
doses of mercury from thimerosal-containing vaccines (birth cohorts: 1985 and 1990-1995) in comparison to a baseline measurement (birth cohort: 1984). The contribution of thimerosal from childhood
vaccines (>50% effect) was greater than MMR vaccine on the prevalence of autism observed in this
study.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study agree with a number of previously published studies. These studies have
shown that there is biological plausibility and epidemiological evidence showing a direct relationship
between increasing doses of mercury from thimerosal-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental
disorders, and measles-containing vaccines and serious neurological disorders. It is recommended that
thimerosal be removed from all vaccines, and additional research be undertaken to produce a MMR
vaccine with an improved safety profile.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14976450

“The results of this study
agree with a number of previously published studies.
These studies have shown that there is biological plausibility
and epidemiological evidence showing a direct relationship
between increasing doses of mercury from
thimerosal-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental
disorders, and measles-containing vaccines and serious
neurological disorders.”

Medical Hypotheses • March 2004

Thimerosal and autism?
A plausible hypothesis that should not be dismissed
Author information
Blaxill MF1, Redwood L, Bernard S.
Safe Minds (Sensible Action For Ending Mercury-Induced Neurological Disorders)
14 Commerce Drive, PH Cranford, New Jersey 07016, USA
blaxill@comcast.net
Abstract
The autism-mercury hypothesis first described by Bernard et al. has generated much
interest and controversy. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) reviewed the connection
between mercury-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental disorders, including
autism. They concluded that the hypothesis was biologically plausible but that there
was insufficient evidence to accept or reject a causal connection and recommended a
comprehensive research program. Without citing new experimental evidence, a number of observers have offered opinions on the subject, some of which reject the IOM’s
conclusions. In a recent review, Nelson and Bauman argue that a link between the preservative thimerosal, the source of the mercury in childhood vaccines, is improbable. In
their defense of thimerosal, these authors take a narrow view of the original hypothesis,
provide no new evidence, and rely on selective citations and flawed reasoning. We provide evidence here to refute the Nelson and Bauman critique and to defend the autismmercury hypothesis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15082108

“We provide evidence here
to refute the Nelson and Bauman critique
and to defend the autism-mercury hypothesis.”

Molecular Psychiatry • April 2004

Activation of methionine synthase
by insulin-like growth factor-1 and dopamine:
a target for neurodevelopmental toxins and thimerosal
Author information
Waly M1, Olteanu H, Banerjee R, Choi SW, Mason JB,
Parker BS, Sukumar S, Shim S, Sharma A, Benzecry JM,
Power-Charnitsky VA, Deth RC.
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
Abstract
Methylation events play a critical role in the ability of growth factors to promote
normal development. Neurodevelopmental toxins, such as ethanol and heavy metals, interrupt growth factor signaling, raising the possibility that they might exert
adverse effects on methylation. We found that insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)and dopamine-stimulated methionine synthase (MS) activity and folate-dependent
methylation of phospholipids in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells, via a PI3kinase- and MAP-kinase-dependent mechanism. The stimulation of this pathway increased DNA methylation, while its inhibition increased methylation-sensitive gene
expression. Ethanol potently interfered with IGF-1 activation of MS and blocked
its effect on DNA methylation, whereas it did not inhibit the effects of dopamine.
Metal ions potently affected IGF-1 and dopamine-stimulated MS activity, as well as
folate-dependent phospholipid methylation: Cu(2+) promoted enzyme activity and
methylation, while Cu(+), Pb(2+), Hg(2+) and Al(3+) were inhibitory. The ethylmercury-containing preservative thimerosal inhibited both IGF-1- and dopaminestimulated methylation with an IC(50) of 1 nM and eliminated MS activity. Our
findings outline a novel growth factor signaling pathway that regulates MS activity
and thereby modulates methylation reactions, including DNA methylation. The potent inhibition of this pathway by ethanol, lead, mercury, aluminum and thimerosal
suggests that it may be an important target of neurodevelopmental toxins.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14745455

“The potent inhibition of this pathway
by ethanol, lead, mercury, aluminum
and thimerosal suggests that it may
be an important target of
neurodevelopmental toxins.”

International Journal Of Hygiene And Environmental Health • September 2004

Amalgam studies:
disregarding basic principles of mercury toxicity
Author information
Mutter J1, Naumann J, Sadaghiani C, Walach H, Drasch G.
Institute for Environmental Medicine and Hospital Epidemiology
University Hospital, Freiburg, Germany
jmutter@iuk3.ukl.uni-freiburg.de
Abstract
Dental amalgam, which has been used for over 150 years in dental practice, consists of about 50% metallic mercury. Studies on animal and humans show that
mercury is continuously released from dental amalgam and absorbed by several
body tissues. It is widely accepted that the main source of mercury vapor is dental amalgam and it contributes substantially to mercury load in human body tissues. There is still a controversy about the consequences of this additional mercury exposure from amalgam to human health. Many studies were performed to
evaluate possible adverse effects. In this comment, these studies were analyzed
with regard to their methodical quality by considering the newest findings on
mercury toxicity and metabolism. In sum, a number of studies are methodically
flawed drawing inaccurate conclusions as to the safety of dental amalgam.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15471104

“Studies on animal and humans show that
mercury is continuously released from
dental amalgam and absorbed by several body
tissues. It is widely accepted that the main
source of mercury vapor is dental amalgam
and it contributes substantially to mercury
load in human body tissues. In sum, a number
of studies are methodically flawed drawing
inaccurate conclusions as to the safety of
dental amalgam.”

Molecular Psychiatry • September 2004

Neurotoxic effects of postnatal thimerosal
are mouse strain dependent
Author information
Hornig M1, Chian D, Lipkin WI.
Jerome L and Dawn Greene Infectious Disease Laboratory
Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health
Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
mady.hornig@columbia.edu
Abstract
The developing brain is uniquely susceptible to the neurotoxic hazard
posed by mercurials. Host differences in maturation, metabolism, nutrition, sex, and autoimmunity influence outcomes. How population-based
variability affects the safety of the ethylmercury-containing vaccine
preservative, thimerosal, is unknown. Reported increases in the prevalence of autism, a highly heritable neuropsychiatric condition, are intensifying public focus on environmental exposures such as thimerosal.
Immune profiles and family history in autism are frequently consistent
with autoimmunity. We hypothesized that autoimmune propensity influences outcomes in mice following thimerosal challenges that mimic
routine childhood immunizations. Autoimmune disease-sensitive SJL/J
mice showed growth delay; reduced locomotion; exaggerated response
to novelty; and densely packed, hyperchromic hippocampal neurons
with altered glutamate receptors and transporters. Strains resistant to
autoimmunity, C57BL/6J and BALB/cJ, were not susceptible. These
findings implicate genetic influences and provide a model for investigating thimerosal-related neurotoxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15184908

“These findings implicate
genetic influences and provide a model
for investigating thimerosal-related
neurotoxicity.”

Toxicology In Vitro • October 2004

Property of thimerosal-induced decrease
in cellular content of glutathione in rat thymocytes:
a flow cytometric study with 5-chloromethylfluorescein diacetate
Author information
Ueha-Ishibashi T1, Tatsuishi T, Iwase K, Nakao H,
Umebayashi C, Nishizaki Y, Nishimura Y, Oyama Y, Hirama S, Okano Y.
Laboratory of Cellular Signaling, Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences
The University of Tokushima, Minami-Jyosanjima 1-1
Tokushima 770-8502, Japan
Abstract
There is a concern on the part of public health community that adverse health consequences by
thimerosal, a preservative in vaccines for infants, may occur among infants during immunization
schedule. Therefore, the effect of thimerosal on cellular content of glutathione was examined on
thymocytes obtained from 4-week-old rats using a flow cytometer and 5-chloromethylfluorescein
diacetate. Thimerosal at concentrations ranging from 1 to 10 microM reduced the cellular content
of glutathione in a concentration-dependent manner, and the complete depletion of cellular glutathione was observed when the cells were treated with 30 microM thimerosal. L-Cysteine significantly attenuated the actions of thimerosal to reduce the glutathione content and to increase the
intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Prolonged incubation (24 h) with 1-3 microM thimerosal induced
the apoptosis. The cytotoxic action of thimerosal was greatly augmented when the cells suffered
oxidative stress induced by H2O2. It may be unlikely that thimerosal exerts potent cytotoxic action
under the in vivo condition because the blood concentration of thimerosal after receiving vaccines
does not seem to reach micromolar range and nonprotein thiols at micromolar concentrations are
present in the blood.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15251173

“Thimerosal at concentrations
ranging from 1 to 10 microM reduced
the cellular content of glutathione in a
concentration-dependent manner, and the
complete depletion of cellular glutathione was
observed when the cells were treated with
30 microM thimerosal.”

“The present study provides additional epidemiological evidence
supporting previous epidemiological, clinical and experimental evidence
that administration of thimerosal-containing vaccines in the United States
resulted in a significant number of children developing Neurological Disorders.”
International Journal Of Toxicology • November 2004

Neurodevelopmental disorders following thimerosal-containing childhood immunizations:
a follow-up analysis
Author information
Geier D1, Geier MR.
MedCon, Inc., Maryland, USA
Abstract
The authors previously published the first epidemiological study from the United States associating thimerosal from childhood vaccines
with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs) based upon assessment of the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). A number
of years have gone by since their previous analysis of the VAERS. The present study was undertaken to determine whether the previously
observed effect between thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines and NDs are still apparent in the VAERS as children have had a chance
to further mature and potentially be diagnosed with additional NDs. In the present study, a cohort of children receiving thimerosal-containing diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis (DTaP) vaccines in comparison to a cohort of children receiving thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines administered from 1997 through 2000 based upon an assessment of adverse events reported to the VAERS were evaluated. It was
determined that there were significantly increased odds ratios (ORs) for autism (OR = 1.8, p < .05), mental retardation (OR = 2.6, p <
.002), speech disorder (OR = 2.1, p < .02), personality disorders (OR = 2.6, p < .01), and thinking abnormality (OR = 8.2, p < .01) adverse
events reported to the VAERS following thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines in comparison to thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines. Potential
confounders and reporting biases were found to be minimal in this assessment of the VAERS. It was observed, even though the media has
reported a potential association between autism and thimerosal exposure, that the other NDs analyzed in this assessment of the VAERS had
significantly higher ORs than autism following thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines in comparison to thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines. The
present study provides additional epidemiological evidence supporting previous epidemiological, clinical and experimental evidence that
administration of thimerosal-containing vaccines in the United States resulted in a significant number of children developing NDs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15764492

Washington, D.C. • 2004

Vaccines And Autism
Immunization Safety Review Committee
Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
Institute Of Medicine Of The National Academies
The National Academies Press
http://www.nap.edu/read/10997/chapter/1

“It has been estimated that about 15% of the population may show enhanced susceptibility to mercury exposure.”

“We provide evidence here to refute the Nelson and Bauman critique
and to defend the autism-mercury hypothesis.”
Medical Hypotheses • 2004

Thimerosal and autism?
A plausible hypothesis that should not be dismissed
Author information
Blaxill MF1, Redwood L, Bernard S.
Sensible Action For Ending Mercury-Induced Neurological Disorders
SAFE MINDS 14 Commerce Drive, PH Cranford, New Jersey 07016, USA
blaxill@comcast.net
Abstract
The autism-mercury hypothesis first described by Bernard et al. has generated much interest and controversy. The
Institute of Medicine (IOM) reviewed the connection between mercury-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism. They concluded that the hypothesis was biologically plausible but that there
was insufficient evidence to accept or reject a causal connection and recommended a comprehensive research
program. Without citing new experimental evidence, a number of observers have offered opinions on the subject,
some of which reject the IOM’s conclusions. In a recent review, Nelson and Bauman argue that a link between
the preservative thimerosal, the source of the mercury in childhood vaccines, is improbable. In their defense of
thimerosal, these authors take a narrow view of the original hypothesis, provide no new evidence, and rely on
selective citations and flawed reasoning. We provide evidence here to refute the Nelson and Bauman critique and
to defend the autism-mercury hypothesis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15082108

Neurotoxicology • January 2005

Thimerosal neurotoxicity
is associated with glutathione depletion:
protection with glutathione precursors
Author information
James SJ1, Slikker W 3rd, Melnyk S,
New E, Pogribna M, Jernigan S.
Department of Pediatrics
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and
Arkansas Children’s Hospital Research Institute
Little Rock, AR 72202 USA
jamesjill@uams.edu
Abstract
Thimerosol is an antiseptic containing 49.5% ethyl mercury that has
been used for years as a preservative in many infant vaccines and in flu
vaccines. Environmental methyl mercury has been shown to be highly
neurotoxic, especially to the developing brain. Because mercury has a
high affinity for thiol (sulfhydryl (-SH)) groups, the thiol-containing
antioxidant, glutathione (GSH), provides the major intracellular defense against mercury-induced neurotoxicity. Cultured neuroblastoma
cells were found to have lower levels of GSH and increased sensitivity
to thimerosol toxicity compared to glioblastoma cells that have higher
basal levels of intracellular GSH. Thimerosal-induced cytotoxicity was
associated with depletion of intracellular GSH in both cell lines. Pretreatment with 100 microM glutathione ethyl ester or N-acetylcysteine
(NAC), but not methionine, resulted in a significant increase in intracellular GSH in both cell types. Further, pretreatment of the cells with
glutathione ethyl ester or NAC prevented cytotoxicity with exposure
to 15 microM Thimerosal. Although Thimerosal has been recently removed from most children’s vaccines, it is still present in flu vaccines
given to pregnant women, the elderly, and to children in developing
countries. The potential protective effect of GSH or NAC against mercury toxicity warrants further research as possible adjunct therapy to
individuals still receiving Thimerosal-containing vaccinations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15527868

“Although Thimerosal has
been recently removed from
most children’s vaccines, it
is still present in flu vaccines
given to pregnant women,
the elderly, and to children
in developing countries.”

Archives Of Environmental Occupational Health • January 2005

Genetic influences on
the retention of inorganic mercury
Author information
Custodio HM1, Harari R, Gerhardsson L, Skerfving S, Broberg K.
Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Lund University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
Abstract
Mercury is eliminated as glutathione (GSH) conjugates. GSH production is mediated by glutamyl-cysteine ligase (GCL), and conjugation by
glutathione S-transferases (GST). This study tested if polymorphisms in
GCL and GST genes modify mercury retention in humans exposed to
elemental mercury vapor. Total mercury concentrations in whole blood,
plasma and urine, and genotypes for GCLC, GCLM, GSTA1, GSTM1,
GSTP1, and GSTT1 were determined in 309 gold miners, gold buyers
and controls. The presence of the GCLM-588T allele was associated
with increased blood, plasma and urine mercury levels. These results
indicate that genotypes with decreased GSH availability for mercury
conjugation affect the metabolism of inorganic mercury.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16961004

“These results indicate
that genotypes with decreased glutathione
availability for mercury conjugation
affect the metabolism of
inorganic mercury.”

Medical Science Monitor • April 2005

A two-phased population epidemiological study
of the safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines:
a follow-up analysis
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
MedCon, Inc., USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Thimerosal is an ethylmercury-containing preservative in vaccines. Toxicokinetic
studies have shown children received doses of mercury from thimerosal-containing
vaccines (TCVs) that were in excess of safety guidelines. Previously, an ecological
study showing a significant association between TCVs and neurodevelopmental
disorders (NDs) in the US was published in this journal.
MATERIAL/METHODS
A two phased population-based epidemiological study was undertaken. Phase one
evaluated reported NDs to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS)
following thimerosal-containing Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular-Pertussis (DTaP)
vaccines in comparison to thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines administered from 1997
through 2001. Phase two evaluated the automated Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD)
for cumulative exposures to mercury from TCVs at 1-, 2-, 3-, and 6-months-ofage for infants born from 1992 through 1997 and the eventual risk of developing
NDs.
RESULTS
Phase one showed significantly increased risks for autism, speech disorders, mental
retardation, personality disorders, and thinking abnormalities reported to VAERS
following thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines in comparison to thimerosal-free
DTaP vaccines. Phase two showed significant associations between cumulative
exposures to thimerosal and the following types of NDs: unspecified developmental delay, tics, attention deficit disorder (ADD), language delay, speech delay, and
neurodevelopmental delays in general.
CONCLUSIONS
This study showed that exposure to mercury from TCVs administered in the US
was a consistent significant risk factor for the development of NDs. It is clear from
these data and other recent publications linking TCVs with NDs that additional
ND research should be undertaken in the context of evaluating mercury-associated
exposures and thimerosal-free vaccines should be made available.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15795695

“This study showed
that exposure to mercury from
Thimerosal containing vaccines
administered in the US was a
consistent significant risk factor
for the development of NDs.”

Neurotoxicology • June 2005

Mitochondrial mediated thimerosal-induced
apoptosis in a human neuroblastoma cell line
(SK-N-SH)
Author information
Humphrey ML1, Cole MP,
Pendergrass JC, Kiningham KK.
Department of Pharmacology
Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine
Marshall University
Huntington, WV 25704-9388, USA
Abstract
Environmental exposure to mercurials continues to be a public health issue due
to their deleterious effects on immune, renal and neurological function. Recently the safety of thimerosal, an ethyl mercury-containing preservative used in
vaccines, has been questioned due to exposure of infants during immunization.
Mercurials have been reported to cause apoptosis in cultured neurons; however,
the signaling pathways resulting in cell death have not been well characterized.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the mode of cell death in
an in vitro model of thimerosal-induced neurotoxicity, and more specifically,
to elucidate signaling pathways which might serve as pharmacological targets.
Within 2 h of thimerosal exposure (5 microM) to the human neuroblastoma
cell line, SK-N-SH, morphological changes, including membrane alterations
and cell shrinkage, were observed. Cell viability, assessed by measurement of
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in the medium, as well as the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, showed a
time- and concentration-dependent decrease in cell survival upon thimerosal
exposure. In cells treated for 24 h with thimerosal, fluorescence microscopy
indicated cells undergoing both apoptosis and oncosis/necrosis. To identify
the apoptotic pathway associated with thimerosal-mediated cell death, we first
evaluated the mitochondrial cascade, as both inorganic and organic mercurials
have been reported to accumulate in the organelle. Cytochrome c was shown
to leak from the mitochondria, followed by caspase 9 cleavage within 8 h of
treatment. In addition, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) was cleaved to
form a 85 kDa fragment following maximal caspase 3 activation at 24 h. Taken
together these findings suggest deleterious effects on the cytoarchitecture by
thimerosal and initiation of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15869795

“Taken together
these findings suggest
deleterious effects on the cytoarchitecture
by thimerosal and initiation of
mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis.”

Toxicology Science • July 2005

Effects of thimerosal
on NGF signal transduction and cell death
in neuroblastoma cells
Author information
Parran DK1, Barker A, Ehrich M.
Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine
Laboratory for Neurotoxicity Studies, Virginia Tech
1 Duckpond Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0442, USA
Abstract
Signaling through neurotrophic receptors is necessary for differentiation and survival of the developing nervous system. The present study examined the effects
of the organic mercury compound thimerosal on nerve growth factor signal transduction and cell death in a human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y cells). Following exposure to 100 ng/ml NGF and increasing concentrations of thimerosal
(1 nM-10 microM), we measured the activation of TrkA, MAPK, and PKC-delta.
In controls, the activation of TrkA MAPK and PKC-delta peaked after 5 min of
exposure to NGF and then decreased but was still detectable at 60 min. Concurrent
exposure to increasing concentrations of thimerosal and NGF for 5 min resulted in
a concentration-dependent decrease in TrkA and MAPK phosphorylation, which
was evident at 50 nM for TrkA and 100 nM for MAPK. Cell viability was assessed
by the LDH assay. Following 24-h exposure to increasing concentrations of thimerosal, the EC50 for cell death in the presence or absence of NGF was 596 nM
and 38.7 nM, respectively. Following 48-h exposure to increasing concentrations
of thimerosal, the EC50 for cell death in the presence and absence of NGF was 105
nM and 4.35 nM, respectively. This suggests that NGF provides protection against
thimerosal cytotoxicity. To determine if apoptotic versus necrotic cell death was
occurring, oligonucleosomal fragmented DNA was quantified by ELISA. Control
levels of fragmented DNA were similar in both the presence and absence of NGF.
With and without NGF, thimerosal caused elevated levels of fragmented DNA
appearing at 0.01 microM (apoptosis) to decrease at concentrations >1 microM
(necrosis). These data demonstrate that thimerosal could alter NGF-induced signaling in neurotrophin-treated cells at concentrations lower than those responsible
for cell death.
Full Report
http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/86/1/132.long

“These data demonstrate that
thimerosal could alter NGF-induced signaling
in neurotrophin-treated cells at concentrations
lower than those responsible for cell death.”

Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology • August 2005

The association between
genetic polymorphisms of coproporphyrinogen oxidase
and an atypical porphyrinogenic response
to mercury exposure in humans
Author information
Woods JS1, Echeverria D, Heyer NJ,
Simmonds PL, Wilkerson J, Farin FM.
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences
University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
Battelle Centers for Public Health Research and Evaluation
Seattle, WA 98105, USA
jwoods@u.washington.edu
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated highly specific urinary porphyrin profile (UPP)
changes in response to mercury (Hg) exposure in animals and human subjects and
have defined the biochemical etiology of this effect as selective alteration of the heme
pathway enzymes, uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase (UROD), and coproporphyrinogen oxidase (CPOX) by Hg in the kidney. Ongoing validation studies in a population
of dental practitioners with low-level occupational Hg exposure have demonstrated the
predicted UPP change among approximately 85% of subjects. This study focused on
the genetic etiology of an atypical porphyrinogenic response (APR) seen among the
remaining 15% of Hg-exposed subjects, characterized by excess excretion of 4- and
5-carboxyl porphyrins and also of the atypical ketoisocoproporphyrin (KICP). Automated DNA-sequencing-based assays were developed to examine the 7 exons and
flanking intron-exon boundaries of the CPOX gene. Among several polymorphisms
identified, an A814C variant in exon 4 encoding a N272H substitution was found to
be predominant among subjects with the APR. Studies suggest that this variant CPOX
preferentially converts the upstream 5-carboxylporphyrin (5-CP) to KICP. By partially
inhibiting the 5- to 4-decarboxylation step of UROD, Hg promotes 5-CP accumulation, accounting for excess KICP excretion and the APR in Hg-exposed subjects carrying the variant CPOX gene. This finding represents the first report of a polymorphism
in a human gene that modifies the effect of Hg on a biological process. The APR might
serve as a biomarker of both Hg exposure and susceptibility to Hg toxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15967199

“This finding represents
the first report of a polymorphism
in a human gene that modifies the effect of ethyl mercury
on a biological process. The atypical porphyrinogenic
response might serve as a biomarker of both mercury
exposure and susceptibility to mercury toxicity.”

“The results indicate that methyl mercury
is not a suitable reference for risk assessment from exposure to thimerosal-derived ethyl mercury.”

Environmental Health Perspectives • August 2005

Comparison of blood and brain mercury levels in infant monkeys exposed to methylmercury or vaccines containing thimerosal
Author information
Burbacher TM1, Shen DD, Liberato N, Grant KS, Cernichiari E, Clarkson T.
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Community Medicine
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
tmb@u.washington.edu
Thimerosal is a preservative that has been used in manufacturing vaccines since the 1930s. Reports have indicated
that infants can receive ethylmercury (in the form of thimerosal) at or above the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency guidelines for methylmercury exposure, depending on the exact vaccinations, schedule, and size of the
infant. In this study we compared the systemic disposition and brain distribution of total and inorganic mercury in
infant monkeys after thimerosal exposure with those exposed to MeHg. Monkeys were exposed to MeHg (via oral
gavage) or vaccines containing thimerosal (via intramuscular injection) at birth and 1, 2, and 3 weeks of age. Total
blood Hg levels were determined 2, 4, and 7 days after each exposure. Total and inorganic brain Hg levels were
assessed 2, 4, 7, or 28 days after the last exposure. The initial and terminal half-life of Hg in blood after thimerosal
exposure was 2.1 and 8.6 days, respectively, which are significantly shorter than the elimination half-life of Hg
after MeHg exposure at 21.5 days. Brain concentrations of total Hg were significantly lower by approximately
3-fold for the thimerosal-exposed monkeys when compared with the MeHg infants, whereas the average brainto-blood concentration ratio was slightly higher for the thimerosal-exposed monkeys (3.5 +/- 0.5 vs. 2.5 +/- 0.3).
A higher percentage of the total Hg in the brain was in the form of inorganic Hg for the thimerosal-exposed monkeys (34% vs. 7%). The results indicate that MeHg is not a suitable reference for risk assessment from exposure
to thimerosal-derived Hg. Knowledge of the toxicokinetics and developmental toxicity of thimerosal is needed to
afford a meaningful assessment of the developmental effects of thimerosal-containing vaccines.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1280342/
Editors note: most current risk assessments of biological thimerosal (ethyl mercury) use are based on the false
assumption that ethyl mercury and methyl mercury behave similarly in vivo and in vitro

Environmental Toxicology And Pharmacology • September 2005

Low dose mercury toxicity
and human health
Author information
Zahir F1, Rizwi SJ, Haq SK, Khan RH.
Interdisciplinary Brain Research Centre
JN Medical College, AMU, Aligarh, U.P., India
Abstract
Post Minamata incident there has been awareness about mercury toxicity even among
the general public. Previous researches contributed a vast amount of data regarding
acute mercury exposure, but gradually information about the low dose [Ninomiya, T.,
Ohmori, H., Hashimoto, K., Tsuruta, K., Ekino, S., 1995. Expansion of methylmercury poisoning outside minamata: an epidemiological study on chronic methylmercury poisoninig outside of Minamata. Environ. Res. 70 (1) 47-50; Lebel, J., Mergler,
D., Lucotte, M., Amorim, M., Dolbec, J., Miranda, D., Arantes, G., Rheault, I., Pichet,
P., 1996. Evidence of early nervous system dysfunction in Amazonian populations
exposed to low-levels of methylmercury. Neurotoxicology 17 (1) 157-167] of mercury toxicity has been trickling in. With mercury contaminating rain-, ground- and
sea-water no one is safe. Polluted water leads to mercury laced fish, meat and vegetable. In aquatic environments, inorganic mercury is microbiologically transformed
into lipophilic organic compound ‘methylmercury’. This transformation makes mercury more prone to biomagnification in food chains. Consequently, populations with
traditionally high dietary intake of food originating from fresh or marine environment
have highest dietary exposure to mercury. Extensive research done on locals across
the globe have already established this, persons who routinely consume fish or a particular species of fish are at an increased risk of methylmercury poisoning. The easy
access of the toxicant to man through multiple pathways air, water, food, cosmetic
products and even vaccines increase the exposure. Foetus and children are more susceptible towards mercury toxicity. Mothers consuming diet containing mercury pass
the toxicant to foetus and to infants through breast milk. Decreased performance in
areas of motor function and memory has been reported among children exposed to
presumably safe mercury levels. Similarly, disruption of attention, fine motor function
and verbal memory was also found in adults on exposure to low mercury levels. It is
an occupational hazard for dental staff, chloralkali factory workers and goldminers,
etc. Mercury has been found to be a causative agent of various sorts of disorders, including neurological, nephrological, immunological, cardiac, motor, reproductive and
even genetic. Recently heavy metal mediated toxicity has been linked to diseases like
Alzeihemer’s, Parkinson’s, Autism, Lupus, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, etc. Besides
this, it poses danger to wildlife. Therefore, it becomes imperative to spread the information regarding the threat of mercury exposure amongst the scientists and masses.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21783611

“Recently heavy metal mediated toxicity
has been linked to diseases like Alzeihemer’s,
Parkinson’s, Autism, Lupus, Amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis, etc. Besides this, it poses
danger to wildlife. Therefore, it becomes
imperative to spread the information
regarding the threat of mercury exposure
amongst the scientists and masses.”

“Repetitive doses of thimerosal leads to neurobehavioral deteriorations ...”
Neuro Endocrinology Letters • October 2005

Mercury and autism: accelerating evidence?
Author information
Mutter J1, Naumann J, Schneider R, Walach H, Haley B.
Institute for Environmental Medicine and Hospital Epidemiology
University Hospital Freiburg, Germany
joachim.mutter@uniklinik-freiburg.de
Abstract
The causes of autism and neurodevelopmental disorders are unknown. Genetic and environmental risk factors
seem to be involved. Because of an observed increase in autism in the last decades, which parallels cumulative
mercury exposure, it was proposed that autism may be in part caused by mercury. We review the evidence for
this proposal. Several epidemiological studies failed to find a correlation between mercury exposure through
thimerosal, a preservative used in vaccines, and the risk of autism. Recently, it was found that autistic children
had a higher mercury exposure during pregnancy due to maternal dental amalgam and thimerosal-containing immunoglobulin shots. It was hypothesized that children with autism have a decreased detoxification capacity due to
genetic polymorphism. In vitro, mercury and thimerosal in levels found several days after vaccination inhibit methionine synthetase (MS) by 50%. Normal function of MS is crucial in biochemical steps necessary for brain development, attention and production of glutathione, an important antioxidative and detoxifying agent. Repetitive
doses of thimerosal leads to neurobehavioral deteriorations in autoimmune susceptible mice, increased oxidative
stress and decreased intracellular levels of glutathione in vitro. Subsequently, autistic children have significantly
decreased level of reduced glutathione. Promising treatments of autism involve detoxification of mercury, and
supplementation of deficient metabolites.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16264412

International Journal Of Molecular Medicine • December 2005

Thimerosal induces neuronal cell apoptosis
by causing cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing
factor release from mitochondria
Author information
Yel L1, Brown LE, Su K, Gollapudi S, Gupta S.
Department of Medicine
University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
lyel@uci.edu
Abstract
There is a worldwide increasing concern over the neurological risks of thimerosal (ethylmercury thiosalicylate) which is an organic mercury compound that is commonly used as an antimicrobial preservative. In this study,
we show that thimerosal, at nanomolar concentrations, induces neuronal cell
death through the mitochondrial pathway. Thimerosal, in a concentration- and
time-dependent manner, decreased cell viability as assessed by calcein-ethidium staining and caused apoptosis detected by Hoechst 33258 dye. Thimerosal-induced apoptosis was associated with depolarization of mitochondrial
membrane, generation of reactive oxygen species, and release of cytochrome
c and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) from mitochondria to cytosol. Although
thimerosal did not affect cellular expression of Bax at the protein level, we
observed translocation of Bax from cytosol to mitochondria. Finally, caspase-9 and caspase-3 were activated in the absence of caspase-8 activation.
Our data suggest that thimerosal causes apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells by
changing the mitochondrial microenvironment.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16273274

“Our data suggest
that thimerosal causes apoptosis
in neuroblastoma cells by changing the
mitochondrial microenvironment.”

Medical Veritas • 2005

Mercury toxicity:
Genetic susceptibility and synergistic effects
Boyd E. Haley, PhD
Professor and Chair • Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Abstract
Mercury toxicity and intoxication (poisoning) are realities that every American needs to face. Both the Environmental Protection Agency and National
Academy of Science state that between 8 to 10% of American women have
mercury levels that would render any child they gave birth to neurological disorders. One of six children in the USA have a neurodevelopmental
disorder according to the Centers for Disease Control and Preven- tion. Yet
our dentistry and medicine continue to expose all patients to mercury. This
article discusses the obvious sources of mercury exposures that can be easily prevented. It also points out that genetic susceptibility and exposures
to other materials that synergistically enhance mercury and ethyl- mercury
toxicity need to be evaluated, and that by their existence prevent the actual
determination of a “safe level” of mercury exposure for all. The mercury
sources we consider are from dentistry and from drugs, mainly vaccines,
that, in today’s world are not only unnecessary sources, but also sources
that are being increasingly recognized as being significantly deleterious to
the health of many.
Excerpts

circles will cause the death of about 70% of the neurons within 24 hours.
The synergistic effects of aluminum, neomycin and tes- tosterone are shown
(Fig. 6) and are as follows:
Aluminum: Aluminum hydroxide alone at 500 nM showed no significant
death of cells at 6 hours, and only slight toxicity over the 24-hour period.
Thimerosal at 50 nM effected only a slight increase in neuron death at 6
hours. However, in the presence of 50 nM thimerosal plus 500 nM aluminum hydroxide (open triangles [Δ]), the neuronal death increases to roughly
60%, an amazing increase and clearly demonstrates the synergistic effects
of other metals on mercury toxicity and certainly thimerosal toxicity.
Neomycin: At 1.75 mcg neomycin alone (solid squares) did not cause a
significant increase in neuronal death after 12 hours. In the presence of 50
nM thimerosal (open squares) the rate of death at same point increased from
about 40% to 60%, a 20% increase in rate of death.
4. Hormonal effects: Testosterone and Estrogen

3. Synergistic effects:
Thimerosal, aluminum hydroxide and Neomycin
It is well documented in the literature that mercury toxicity is synergistic
with other heavy metals such as cadmium and lead. It is also known that
certain antibiotics greatly enhance the toxicity of thimerosal in ocular solutions and that antibiotics prevent test animals from effectively excreting
mercury. The major known difference between males and females is their
hormones. We therefore investigated the possible involvement of aluminum cation (found in vaccines), antibiotics (neomycin) and male versus
female (estrogen versus testosterone) on the toxic effects of 50 nanomolar (nM) thimerosal on neurons in culture. Neurons can be cultured for 24
hours without much death (Fig. 6). Fifty nanomolar thimerosal alone (solid

Testosterone and estrogen-like compounds give vastly dif- ferent results.
Using female hormones we found them not toxic to the neurons alone and
to be consistently protective against thimerosal toxicity. In fact, at high levels they could afford total protection for 24 hours against neuronal death in
this test sys- tem (data not plotted). However, testosterone which appeared
protective at very low levels (0.01 to 0.1 micromolar), dramati- cally increased neuron death at higher levels (0.5 to 1.0 micro- molar). In fact, 1.0
micromolar levels of testosterone that by itself did not significantly increase
neuron death (red flattened oval), within 3 hours when added with 50 nanomolar thimerosal (solid circles) caused 100% neuron death. Fifty nanomolar thimerosal at this time point did not significantly cause any cell death.

Full Report
http://www.1796kotok.com/pdfs/haley.pdf

“In fact,
1.0 micromolar levels of testosterone
that by itself did not significantly increase
neuron death, within 3 hours when
added with 50 nanomolar thimerosal
caused 100% neuron death.”

“... there are a number of other diseases that may have a chronic mercury toxicity component,
such as Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, obesity, ALS, asthma,
and other various forms of autoimmune disorders ...”
Medical Hypotheses • 2005

The potential importance of steroids
in the treatment of autistic spectrum disorders
and other disorders involving mercury toxicity
Author information
Geier MR1, Geier DA.
The Genetic Centers of America, 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder that according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) affects 1 in
150 children in the United States. Autism is characterized by impairments in social relatedness and communication, repetitive
behaviors, abnormal movements, and sensory dysfunction. Recently emerging evidence suggests that mercury, especially from
childhood vaccines, appears to be a factor in the development of the autistic disorders, and that autistic children have higher than
normal body-burdens of mercury. In considering mercury toxicity, it has previously been shown that testosterone significantly
potentates mercury toxicity, whereas estrogen is protective. Examination of autistic children has shown that the severity of autistic disorders correlates with the amount of testosterone present in the amniotic fluid, and an examination of a case-series of
autistic children has shown that some have plasma testosterone levels that were significantly elevated in comparison neurotypical
control children. A review of some of the current biomedical therapies for autistics, such as glutathione and cysteine, chelation,
secretin, and growth hormone, suggests that they may in fact lower testosterone levels. We put forward the medical hypothesis
that autistic disorders, in fact, represents a form of testosterone mercury toxicity, and based upon this observation, one can design
novel treatments for autistics directed towards higher testosterone levels in autistic children. We suggest a series of experiments
that need to be conducted in order to evaluate the exact mechanisms for mercury-testosterone toxicity, and various types of clinical manipulations that may be employed to control testosterone levels. It is hoped by devising therapies that address the steroid
hormone pathways, in addition to the current treatments that successful lower heavy metal body-burdens of mercury, will work
synergistically to improve clinical outcomes. In light of the fact that there are a number of other diseases that may have a chronic
mercury toxicity component, such as Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, obesity, ALS, asthma, and other various forms of autoimmune disorders, it is imperative that further research should be conducted to understand mercury-testosterone toxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15780490

Toxicology Letters • February 2006

A cascade analysis of the interaction
of mercury and coproporphyrinogen oxidase (CPOX)
polymorphism on the heme biosynthetic
pathway and porphyrin production
Author information
Heyer NJ1, Bittner AC Jr, Echeverria D, Woods JS.
Battelle Centers for Public Health Research and Evaluation
1100 Dexter Avenue N, Suite 400, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) exposure in various forms remains a persistent public health concern in many parts of the world. In previous studies, we have described a biomarker of mercury exposure characterized by increased urinary concentrations of
specific porphyrins, pentacarboxyporphyrin (5-CP) and coproporphyrin (4-CP),
and the atypical keto-isocoproporphyrin (KICP), based on selective interference
with the fifth (uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase, UROD) and sixth (coproporphyrinogen oxidase, CPOX) enzymes of the heme biosynthetic pathway. Whereas
this response occurs in a predictable manner among approximately 85% of subjects with Hg exposure, an atypical porphyrinogenic response (APR) has been observed in approximately 15% of Hg-exposed persons, in which the three porphyrins that are affected by Hg, i.e., 5-CP, 4-CP and, KICP, are excreted in substantial
excess of that predicted on the basis of Hg exposure alone. This APR has been
attributed to a specific polymorphism in exon 4 of the CPOX gene (CPOX4). In
the present study, we sought to further confirm the hypothesis that the observed
changes in porphyrin excretion patterns might serve as a biomarker of Hg exposure and potential toxicity by statistically modeling the cascading effects on
porphyrin concentrations within the heme biosynthetic pathway of Hg exposure
and CPOX4 polymorphism in a human population with long-term occupational
exposure to elemental mercury. Our results are highly consistent with this hypothesis. After controlling for precursor porphyrin concentrations, we demonstrated
that 5-CP and 4-CP are independently associated with Hg concentration, while
KICP is associated only with the CPOX4. An unpredicted association of Hg with
heptacarboxyporphyrin (7-CP) may indicate a previously unidentified point of
mercury inhibition of UROD. These findings lend further support to the proposed
utility of urinary porphyrin changes as a biomarker of exposure and potential toxicity in subjects with mercury exposure. Additionally, these findings demonstrate
the successful application of a computational model for characterizing complex
metabolic responses and interactions associated with both toxicant exposure and
genetic variation in human subjects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16214298

“Mercury (Hg) exposure
in various forms remains a
persistent public health concern
in many parts of the world ... these findings
demonstrate the successful application of a
computational model for characterizing
complex metabolic responses and
interactions associated with both
toxicant exposure and genetic
variation in human subjects.”

Neuro Endocrinology Letters • February 2006

Metal-specific lymphocyte reactivity
is downregulated after dental metal replacement
Author information
Yaqob A1, Danersund A,
Stejskal VD, Lindvall A, Hudecek R, Lindh U.
Foundation for Metal Biology, Uppsala, Sweden
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
This study was done to evaluate the results and clinical relevance of an optimized
lymphocyte proliferation test, MELISA, for metal-induced inflammation in patients
with CFS-like symptoms. The treatment of patients consisted of the replacement of
incompatible dental materials (RID) together with supportive anti-oxidant therapy.
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
513 patients were tested by MELISA at the beginning of the study. Out of this group,
248 patients were available for follow-up MELISA after RID.
METHODS
In MELISA, lymphocytes are isolated from the blood and cultivated with different
metal salts in tissue culture medium containing 10% inactivated human AB+ serum
or autologous serum. After 5 days, the presence of metal-reactive lymphocytes are
measured by isotope labelling of newly formed DNA in growing lymphoblasts and
evaluated by calculating the Stimulation Index.
RESULTS
Nickel was the most common sensitizer, followed by inorganic mercury, thimerosal,
lead, cadmium, palladium and gold. After RID treatment, a decrease of metal-specific
lymphocyte responses in patients who reacted to metals at the beginning of the study
could be observed. The cultivation of lymphocytes in autologous and homologous serum did not significantly affect the results. Simultaneous, the health status of patients
improved as well.
CONCLUSIONS
Replacement of incompatible dental materials resulted in down-regulation of metalinduced lymphocyte sensitivity in vitro, as well as in the improvement of health status of majority of patients with unspecific CFS-like symptoms.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16648791

“Replacement of incompatible dental materials
resulted in down-regulation of metal-induced lymphocyte
sensitivity in vitro, as well as in the improvement of health
status of majority of patients with
unspecific Chronic Fatigue-like symptoms.”

Oxford Journals
Toxicological Sciences • April 2006

Thimerosal Induces Apoptosis
in a Neuroblastoma Model via the
cJun N-Terminal Kinase Pathway
Author Information
Michelle L. Herdman*, Aileen Marcelo*, Ying Huang†
Richard M. Niles†, Sanjit Dhar‡ and Kinsley Kelley Kiningham*
Departments of *Pharmacology, Physiology
and Toxicology and †Biochemistry and Microbiology
Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University
Huntington, West Virginia 25704
‡Graduate Center for Toxicology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40536
kiningham@marshall.edu.
Abstract
The cJun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-signaling pathway is activated in response to a
variety of stimuli, including environmental insults, and has been implicated in neuronal apoptosis. In this study, we investigated the role that the JNK pathway plays in
neurotoxicity caused by thimerosal, an ethylmercury-containing preservative. SK-NSH cells treated with thimerosal (0–10μM) showed an increase in the phosphorylated
(active) form of JNK and cJun with 5 and 10μM thimerosal treatment at 2 and 4 h. To
examine activator protein-1 (AP-1) transcription, cells were transfected with a pGL2
vector containing four AP-1 consensus sequences and then treated with thimerosal
(0–2.5μM) for 24 h. Luciferase studies showed an increase in AP-1 transcriptional
activity upon thimerosal administration. To determine the components of the AP-1
complex, cells were transfected with a dominant negative to either cFos (A-Fos) or
cJun (TAM67). Reporter analysis showed that TAM67, but not A-Fos, decreased AP1 transcriptional activity, indicating a role for cJun in this pathway. To assess which
components are essential to apoptosis, cells were treated with a cell-permeable JNK
inhibitor II (SP600125) or transfected with TAM67, and the downstream effectors of
apoptosis were analyzed. Cells pretreated with SP600125 showed decreases in activation of caspases 9 and 3, decreases in degradation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase
(PARP), and decreased levels of proapoptotic Bim, in comparison to cells treated
with thimerosal alone. However, cells transfected with TAM67 showed no changes
in those same components. Taken together, these results indicate that thimerosal-induced neurotoxicity occurs through the JNK-signaling pathway, independent of cJun
activation, leading ultimately to apoptotic cell death.
http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/92/1/246.long

“Taken together,
these results indicate that thimerosal-induced
neurotoxicity occurs through the JNK-signaling
pathway, independent of cJun activation, leading
ultimately to apoptotic cell death.”

Medical Science Monitor • June 2006

An assessment of downward trends
in neurodevelopmental disorders in the USA
following removal of Thimerosal
from childhood vaccines
Author Information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
Department of Biochemistry
George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The US is in the midst of an epidemic of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs).
Thimerosal is an ethylmercury-containing compound added to some childhood
vaccines. Several previous epidemiological studies conducted in the US have associated Thimerosal-containing vaccine (TCV) administration with NDs.
MATERIAL/METHODS
An ecological study was undertaken to evaluate NDs reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) from 1991 through 2004 by date of receipt and by date of vaccine administration. The NDs examined included autism,
mental retardation, and speech disorders. Statistical trend analysis was employed
to evaluate the effects of removal of Thimerosal on the proportion of NDs reported
to VAERS.
RESULTS
There was a peak in the proportion of ND reports received by VAERS in 2001-2002
and in the proportion of ND reports by date of vaccine administration in 1998.
There were significant reductions in the proportion of NDs reported to VAERS as
Thimerosal was begun to be removed from childhood vaccines in the US from mid1999 onwards.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study provides the first epidemiological evidence showing that as Thimerosal was removed from childhood vaccines, the number of NDs has decreased
in the US. The analysis techniques utilized attempted to minimize chance or bias/
confounding. Additional research should be conducted to further evaluate the relationship between TCVs and NDs. This is especially true because the handling of
vaccine safety data from the National Immunization Program of the CDC has been
called into question by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences in 2005.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16733480

“The present study provides the first
epidemiological evidence showing that
as Thimerosal was removed from childhood
vaccines, the number of neurodevelopmental
disorders has decreased in the US.

Neuro Endocrinology Letters • August 2006

A meta-analysis epidemiological assessment of
neurodevelopmental disorders following vaccines
administered from 1994 through 2000 in the United States
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
The Institute for Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Thimerosal is an ethylmercury-containing compound (49.6% mercury by weight) used as at
the preservative level in vaccines (0.005% to 0.01%).
METHODS
Statistical modeling in a meta-analysis epidemiological assessment of the Vaccine Adverse
Event Reporting System (VAERS) for neurodevelopment disorders (NDs) reported following
Diphtheria-Tetanus-whole-cell-Pertussis (DTP) vaccines in comparison to Diphtheria-Tetanus-whole-cell-Pertussis-Haemophilus Influenzae Type b (DTPH) vaccines (administered:
1994-1997) and following Thimerosal-containing Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular-Pertussis
(DTaP), vaccines in comparison to Thimerosal-free DTaP vaccines (administered: 19972000), was undertaken.
RESULTS
Significantly increased adjusted (sex, age, vaccine type, vaccine manufacturer) risks of autism, speech disorders, mental retardation, personality disorders, thinking abnormalities,
ataxia, and NDs in general, with minimal systematic error or confounding, were associated
with TCV exposure.
CONCLUSION
It is clear from the results of the present epidemiological study and other recently published
data associating mercury exposure with childhood NDs, additional ND research should be
undertaken in the context of evaluating mercury-associated exposures, especially from Thimerosal-containing vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16807526

“It is clear from the results
of the present epidemiological study
and other recently published data associating
mercury exposure with childhood
neurological disorders.”

“Autism was recently associated with a urinary porphyrin pattern indicative of mercury toxicity ...”
Neurotoxicity Research • August 2006

A prospective assessment of porphyrins in autistic disorders:
a potential marker for heavy metal exposure
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
The Institute for Chronic Illnesses, Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
Autism was recently associated with a urinary porphyrin pattern indicative of mercury toxicity in a large cohort
of French children. The IRB of the Institute for Chronic Illnesses approved the present study. A total of 37 consecutive American patients (> or = 7 years-old) with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition-DSM IV), born from 1983-1998, that presented to the Genetic
Centers of America for outpatient genetic evaluations were prospectively examined for urinary prophryin levels
(LabCorp, Inc.) from June 2005-June 2006. Imaging and laboratory testing were conducted on each patient to
rule-out other causal factors for their ASDs. As controls, age-, sex-, and race-matched neurotypical ASD siblings
were examined. An apparent dose-response effect was observed between autism severity and increased urinary
coproporphyrins. Patients with non-chelated autism (2.25-fold, 83% had levels > 2 SD above the control mean)
and non-chelated ASDs (2-fold, 58% had levels > 2 SD above the control mean), but not patients with non-chelated pervasive developmental delay-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) or Asperger’s disorder (1.4-fold, 46% had
levels > 2 SD above the control mean), had significantly increased median coproporphyrin levels versus controls.
A significant increase (1.7-fold) in median coproporphyrin levels was observed among non-chelated ASD patients
versus chelated ASD patients. Porphyrins should be routinely clinically measured in ASDs, and potential ASD
treatments should consider monitoring porphyrin levels. Additional research should be conducted to evaluate the
potential role for mercury exposure in some ASDs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17000470

“Significantly increased odds ratios for autism, speech disorders,
mental retardation, infantile spasms, and thinking abnormalities reported to VAERS were found
following DTP vaccines in comparison to DTPH vaccines with minimal bias or systematic error.”
Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • August 2006

An evaluation of the effects of thimerosal on neurodevelopmental disorders reported
following DTP and Hib vaccines in comparison to DTPH vaccine in the United States
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
The Genetic Centers of America, Silver Spring, Maryland 20905, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
Thimerosal is an ethylmercury (49.55% mercury by weight) preservative historically added to some vaccines. Toxicokinetic studies
showed children in the United States received doses of mercury from Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs) in excess of safety
guidelines. In the United States during the 1990s, diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)
vaccines (maximally, 50 mug mercury per joint administration) and diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-Haemophilus influenzae type b
(DTPH) vaccines (25 mug mercury per administration) were given to children in the same childhood vaccination schedule at 2,
4, 6, and 15-18 mo, so that children receiving DTP and Hib vaccines may have maximally received an additional 100 mug more
mercury exposure from TCVs than children administered DTPH vaccines. A case-control epidemiological study of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs) reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) (online public access version; updated
31 August 2004) following administration of DTP vaccines in comparison DTPH vaccines manufactured by Lederle Laboratories
(Pearl River, NY) from 1994 through 1998 was undertaken. Significantly increased odds ratios for autism, speech disorders, mental
retardation, infantile spasms, and thinking abnormalities reported to VAERS were found following DTP vaccines in comparison to
DTPH vaccines with minimal bias or systematic error. Additional ND research should be undertaken in the context of evaluating
mercury-associated exposures, especially since in 2005 the Institute of Medicine issued a report calling into question handling of
vaccine safety data by the National Immunization Program of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16766480

Environmental Toxicology And Pharmacology • September 2006

Thimerosal induces oxidative stress
in HeLa S epithelial cells
Author information
Lee S1, Mian MF, Lee HJ, Kang CB,
Kim JS, Ryu SH, Suh PG, Kim E.
Laboratory of Toxicology
Institute of Animal Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine
Gyeongsang National University
Gajwa-Dong, Jinju 660-701
Republic of Korea
Abstract
Thimerosal is one of the most widely used preservatives and is
found in a variety of biological products, including vaccines, contact
lens cleaning solutions, and cosmetics. It has been reported to have
harmful effects on epithelial tissues, such as causing conjunctivitis
or contact dermatitis. However, the molecular mechanism of its toxicity has not been characterized using epithelial tissues. In the present study, we report that reactive oxygen species play a key role in
thimerosal-induced cytotoxicity in HeLa S epithelial cells. Thimerosal significantly reduced HeLa S cell viability and it was associated
with a decrease in intracellular glutathione levels. Flow cytometric
cell cycle analysis showed a marked increase in the hypodiploidic
cell population, indicating apoptosis of thimerosal-treated cells. The
apoptotic cell death of epithelial cells was confirmed by observing a
significant increase of caspase-3 activity in the cytosolic fraction of
the treated cells. Thimerosal also induced a concentration-dependent
increase of genomic DNA fragmentation, a biochemical hallmark of
apoptosis. Hoechst 33342 nuclear staining demonstrated apoptoticfragmented multinuclei in thimerosal-treated cells. All the thimerosal-mediated toxic responses observed in the present study were
almost completely suppressed by pretreating cells with N-acetyl-lcysteine, a radical scavenger. Taken together, these results suggest
for the first time that epithelial cytotoxicity of thimerosal is mediated
by oxidative stress.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21783709

“[thimerosal] has been reported
to have harmful effects on epithelial tissues,
such as causing conjunctivitis or contact dermatitis.
Thimerosal also induced a concentration-dependent
increase of genomic DNA fragmentation,
a biochemical hallmark of apoptosis.
Taken together, these results suggest
for the first time that epithelial cytotoxicity
of thimerosal is mediated by oxidative stress.”

“... some autism spectrum disorders may result from ... exposure to mercury.”
Neuro Endocrinology Letters • December 2006

A clinical trial
of combined anti-androgen and anti-heavy metal therapy
in autistic disorders
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
A medical hypothesis has suggested that some autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) may result from interactions between the methionine cycle-transsulfuration and androgen pathways following exposure to mercury.
METHODS
The IRB of the Institute for Chronic Illnesses approved the present study. A novel treatment was utilized combining LUPRON
(leuprolide acetate, TAP Pharmaceuticals, Inc.) and CHEMET (meso-2, 3-dimercaptosuccinic acid--DMSA, McNeil Consumer
Products Company) on 11 consecutive children with ASDs.
RESULTS
A significant (p<0.01) overall improvement from the 70-79th percentile of severity (median baseline score=87) at baseline to the
40-49th percentile of severity (median end of study period score=63) at the end of the study was observed for patients treated for
a median of approximately 4 months. Significant improvements in sociability, cognitive awareness, behavior, and clinical symptoms/behaviors of hyperandrogenemia were also observed. Significant decreases in blood androgens and increases in urinary
heavy metal concentrations were observed. Minimal drug adverse effects were found.
CONCLUSION
This study provides the first clinical evidence for the benefit that combined anti-androgen and anti-heavy metal therapy may have
on some children with ASDs. Additional studies should examine androgen and heavy metal mechanisms of action in ASDs, and
future ASD treatment protocols should consider androgens and heavy metals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17187010

[an example of disagreement within the research community]

Critical Reviews In Toxicology • December 2007

The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds

Comments on the article
“the toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds”
by Clarkson and Magos (2006)

Author information

Author information

Clarkson TW1, Magos L.

Mutter J1, Naumann J, Guethlin C.

Department of Environmental Medicine
University of Rochester School of Medicine
New York, USA
Twc30@aol.co

University Hospital
Institute for Environmental Medicine and Hospital Epidemiology
Freiburg, Germany
joachim.mutter@uniklinik-freiburg.de

Abstract

Abstract

This review covers the toxicology of mercury and its compounds. Special attention is
paid to those forms of mercury of current public health concern. Human exposure to
the vapor of metallic mercury dates back to antiquity but continues today in occupational settings and from dental amalgam. Health risks from methylmercury in edible
tissues of fish have been the subject of several large epidemiological investigations
and continue to be the subject of intense debate. Ethylmercury in the form of a preservative, thimerosal, added to certain vaccines, is the most recent form of mercury that
has become a public health concern. The review leads to general discussion of evolutionary aspects of mercury, protective and toxic mechanisms, and ends on a note that
mercury is still an “element of mystery.”

Clarkson and Magos (2006) provide their perspectives on the toxicology of mercury vapor and dental amalgam. As scientists who are involved in preparing a German federal
guideline regarding dental amalgam, we welcome additional scientific data on this issue.
However, Clarkson and Magos do not present all the relevant studies in their review.

Critical Reviews In Toxicology • December 2006

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16973445

The additional data provided here show that: (a) Dental amalgam is the main source
of human total mercury body burden, because individuals with amalgam have 2-12
times more mercury in their body tissues compared to individuals without amalgam;
(b) there is not necessarily a correlation between mercury levels in blood, urine, or
hair and in body tissues, and none of the parameters correlate with severity of symptoms; (c) the half-life of mercury deposits in brain and bone tissues could last from
several years to decades, and thus mercury accumulates over time of exposure; (d)
mercury, in particular mercury vapor, is known to be the most toxic nonradioactive
element, and is toxic even in very low doses, and (e) some studies which conclude that
amalgam fillings are safe for human beings have important methodogical flaws.
Therefore, they have no value for assessing the safety of amalgam.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17661216

Toxicology • February 2007

Cell death and cytotoxic effects
in YAC-1 lymphoma cells following
exposure to various forms of mercury
Author information
Yole M1, Wickstrom M, Blakley B.
Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences
Western College of Veterinary Medicine
52 Campus Drive, University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon SK S7N 5B4, Canada
yole@sask.usask.ca
Abstract
The effects of 1 min-4 h exposures to four Hg compounds (mercuric chloride [HgCl2],
methyl mercuric chloride [CH3HgCl], p-chloromercuribenzoate [p-CMB] and thimerosal
[TMS; ethylmercurithiosalicylate]) on cell death, microtubules, actin, CD3 receptor expression, protein tyrosine phosphorylation (PTyr-P) and intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) levels
were investigated in YAC-1 lymphoma cells using flow cytometry. YOPRO-1 (YP) and
propidium iodide (PI) dye uptake indicated all forms of Hg tested were toxic at concentrations ranging from 25.8-48.4 microM, with two distinct patterns of effects. Early apoptosis was prolonged for CH3HgCl- and TMS-treated cells, with more than 50% remaining
YP+/PI- after 4h. Both CH3HgCl and TMS induced complete loss of beta-tubulin fluorescence, indicative of microtubule depolymerization and inhibition of tubulin synthesis and/
or beta-tubulin degradation, while F-actin fluorescence diminished to a lesser degree and
only after loss beta-tubulin. CH3HgCl and TMS induced an almost immediate two-fold
increase in CD3 fluorescence, with levels returning to baseline within minutes. With continued exposure, CD3 fluorescence was reduced to approximately 50% of baseline values.
Both compounds also increased PTyr-P two- to three-fold immediately, with levels returning
to baseline at 4h. Similarly, two- to three-fold increases in [Ca2+]i were noted after 1 min
exposure. [Ca2+]i increased progressively, reaching levels five- to eight-fold greater than
control values. In contrast, dye uptake was delayed with HgCl2 and p-CMB, although cell
death proceeded rapidly, with almost all non-viable cells being late apoptotic (YP+/PI+) by
4h. p-CMB produced early reductions in F-actin, and after 4h, complete loss of F-actin with
only partial reduction of total beta-tubulin was seen with both p-CMB and HgCl2. HgCl2
reduced CD3 expression and PTyr-P slightly within minutes, while p-CMB produced similar
effects on CD3 only at 4h, at which time PTyr-P was increased two- to three-fold. Both compounds increased [Ca2+]i within minutes, though levels remained under twice the baseline
concentration after 15 min exposure. With continued exposure, [Ca2+]i increased to levels
two- to five-fold greater than control values. These findings indicate the two groups of Hg
compounds may induce cell death by distinct pathways, reflecting interactions with different
cellular targets leading to cell death.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17210217

“These findings indicate
the two groups of mercury compounds
may induce cell death by distinct pathways,
reflecting interactions with different
cellular targets leading to cell death.”

Integrative Medicine • Vol. 6, No. 2 • April 2007

Heavy-Metal Toxicity—With Emphasis on Mercury
by John Neustadt, ND, and Steve Pieczenik, MD, PhD
• Recommended

Report •

http://montanaim.com/pubs/Heavy_Metals_Article.pdf

“8 of 9 patients examined were exposed to significant mercury
from Thimerosal-containing biologic/vaccine preparations during their fetal/infant developmental periods,
and subsequently, between 12 and 24 mo of age, these previously normally developing children suffered
mercury toxic encephalopathies that manifested with clinical symptoms
consistent with regressive Autistic Spectrum Disorders.”
Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • May 2007

A case series of children with apparent mercury toxic encephalopathies
manifesting with clinical symptoms of regressive autistic disorders
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Impairments in social relatedness and communication, repetitive behaviors, and stereotypic abnormal movement patterns
characterize autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). It is clear that while genetic factors are important to the pathogenesis of
ASDs, mercury exposure can induce immune, sensory, neurological, motor, and behavioral dysfunctions similar to traits
defining or associated with ASDs. The Institutional Review Board of the Institute for Chronic Illnesses (Office for Human Research Protections, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, IRB number IRB00005375) approved the
present study. A case series of nine patients who presented to the Genetic Centers of America for a genetic/developmental
evaluation are discussed. Eight of nine patients (one patient was found to have an ASD due to Rett’s syndrome) (a) had
regressive ASDs; (b) had elevated levels of androgens; (c) excreted significant amounts of mercury post chelation challenge; (d) had biochemical evidence of decreased function in their glutathione pathways; (e) had no known significant
mercury exposure except from Thimerosal-containing vaccines/Rho(D)-immune globulin preparations; and (f) had alternate causes for their regressive ASDs ruled out. There was a significant dose-response relationship between the severity
of the regressive ASDs observed and the total mercury dose children received from Thimerosal-containing vaccines/Rho
(D)-immune globulin preparations. Based upon differential diagnoses, 8 of 9 patients examined were exposed to significant mercury from Thimerosal-containing biologic/vaccine preparations during their fetal/infant developmental periods,
and subsequently, between 12 and 24 mo of age, these previously normally developing children suffered mercury toxic
encephalopathies that manifested with clinical symptoms consistent with regressive ASDs. Evidence for mercury intoxication should be considered in the differential diagnosis as contributing to some regressive ASDs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17454560

Journal Of Maternal, Fetal And Neonatal Medicine • May 2007

A prospective study of
thimerosal-containing Rho(D)-immune globulin
administration as a risk factor for autistic disorders
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Silver Spring, MD, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
This study evaluated the relationship between prenatal mercury exposure from
thimerosal (49.55% mercury by weight)-containing Rho(D)-immune globulins
(TCRs) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs).
METHODS
The Institutional Review Board of the Institute for Chronic Illnesses approved
the present study. A total of 53 consecutive non-Jewish Caucasian patients with
ASDs (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth ed. - DSM
IV) born between 1987 and 2001 who presented to the Genetic Centers of America for outpatient genetic/developmental evaluations were prospectively collected from June 1, 2005 through March 31, 2006. Imaging and laboratory testing
were conducted on each patient to rule out other causal factors for their ASDs. As
race-matched controls, the frequency of Rh negativity was determined from 926
non-Jewish Caucasian pregnant women who had presented for outpatient prenatal genetics care to the Genetic Centers of America between 1980 and 1989.
RESULTS
Children with ASDs (28.30%) were significantly more likely (odds ratio 2.35,
95% confidence interval 1.17-4.52, p < 0.01) to have Rh-negative mothers than
controls (14.36%). Each ASD patient’s mother was determined to have been
administered a TCR during her pregnancy.
CONCLUSION
The results provide insights into the potential role prenatal mercury exposure
may play in some children with ASDs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17674242

“Each Autisic Spectrum Disorder patient’s mother
was determined to have been administered a
Thimerosal-containing vaccine during her pregnancy …
The results provide insights into the potential role prenatal
mercury exposure may play in some children with
Autisic Spectrum Disorders.”

American Journal Of Perinatology • August 2007

Exposure to mercury
during the first six months via human milk and vaccines:
modifying risk factors
Author information
Dórea JG.
Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasília
Brasília, Brazil
Abstract
Breastfeeding is the best natural protection infants have against morbidity and mortality,
and the development of safe and effective vaccines has made it possible to immunize
children against infectious disease. Both of these mechanisms for ensuring good health
in children may be compromised by contact with mercury (Hg). Maternal exposure
to environmental Hg during pregnancy can predispose nursing children to neurodevelopmental disorders. Despite the World Health Organization assurance that thimerosalpreserved vaccines are safe to use in infants, the United States, the European Union,
and dozens of other countries have eliminated thimerosal as a vaccine preservative and
stopped the immunization of children with such vaccines. Because of the increase in
environmental pollution and the need to produce cheap and safe vaccines, there is a need
to address the uncertainty of vaccine-ethylmercury risk of toxicity and Hg exposure during breastfeeding.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17564957

“Maternal exposure
to environmental mercury
during pregnancy can predispose
nursing children to
neurodevelopmental disorders.”

European Journal Of Pediatrics • September 2007

Hair mercury in breast-fed infants
exposed to thimerosal-preserved vaccines
Author information
Marques RC1, Dórea JG, Fonseca MF, Bastos WR, Malm O.
Fundação Universidade Federal de Rondônia
Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
Abstract
Because of uncertainties associated with a possible rise in neurodevelopmental deficits among vaccinated children, thimerosalpreserved vaccines have not been used since 2004 in the USA
(with the exception of thimerosal-containing influenza vaccines
which are routinely recommended for administration to pregnant
women and children), and the EU but are widely produced and
used in other countries. We investigated the impact of thimerosal
on the total Hg in hair of 82 breast-fed infants during the first 6
months of life. The infants received three doses of the hepatitisB vaccine (at birth, 1 and 6 months) and three DTP (diphtheria,
tetanus, and pertussis) doses at 2, 4 and 6 months, according to the
immunization schedule recommended by the Ministry of Health
of Brazil. The thimerosal in vaccines provided an ethylmercury
(EtHg) exposure of 25 microgHg at birth, 30, 60 and 120 days,
and 50 microgHg at 180 days. The exposure to vaccine-EtHg represents 80% of that expected from total breast milk-Hg in the first
month but only 40% of the expected exposure integrated in the
6 months of breastfeeding. However, the Hg exposure corrected for body weight at the day of immunization was much higher
from thimerosal- EtHg (5.7 to 11.3 microgHg/kg b.w.) than from
breastfeeding (0.266 microgHg/kg b.w.). While mothers showed
a relative decrease (-57%) in total hair-Hg during the 6 months
lactation there was substantial increase in the infant’s hair-Hg
(446%). We speculate that dose and parenteral mode of thimerosal-EtHg exposure modulated the relative increase in hair-Hg of
breast-fed infants at 6 months of age.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17237965

“Because of uncertainties associated
with a possible rise in neuro-developmental deficits
among vaccinated children, thimerosal-preserved vaccines
have not been used since 2004 in the USA (with the exception
of thimerosal-containing influenza vaccines which are
routinely recommended for administration to
pregnant women and children) ...”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • October 2007

A prospective study of mercury toxicity biomarkers
in autistic spectrum disorders
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses
Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Porphyrins are derivatives formed in the heme synthesis pathway and porphyrins
afford a measure of xenobiotic exposure. The steps in the heme pathway most vulnerable to heavy metal inhibition are uroporphyrin decarboxylase (UROD) and
coproporphyrinogen oxidase (CPOX) reactions. Mercury toxicity was associated
with elevations in urinary coproporphyrin (cP), pentacarboxyporphyrin (5cxP),
and precoproporphyrin (prcP) (also known as keto-isocoproporphyrin) levels.
Two cohorts of autistic patients in the United States and France had urine porphyrin levels associated with mercury toxicity. A prospective study of urinary porphyrin testing at LabCorp (United States) and the Laboratoire Philippe Auguste
(France) involving 71 autism spectrum disorder (ASD) patients, neurotypical sibling controls, and general population controls was undertaken. ASD patients had
significant elevations in urinary levels of cP, 5cxP, and prcP relative to controls,
and > 50% of ASD patients had urinary cP levels more than 2 standard deviations
above the mean values for neurotypical sibling controls. Significant reductions in
urinary 5cxP and cP levels were observed in ASD patients following chelation. A
significant correlation was found between urinary porphyrins measured at LabCorp and those measured at the Laboratoire Philippe Auguste on individual ASD
patients. The established developmental neurotoxicity attributed to mercury and
biochemical/genomic evidence for mercury susceptibility/toxicity in ASDs indicates a causal role for mercury. Urinary porphyrin testing is clinically available,
relatively inexpensive, and noninvasive. Porphyrins need to be routinely measured in ASDs to establish if mercury toxicity is a causative factor and to evaluate
the effectiveness of chelation therapy.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17885929

“The established developmental neurotoxicity
attributed to mercury and biochemical/genomic
evidence for mercury susceptibility/toxicity in
Autistic Spectrum Disorders indicates
a causal role for mercury”

Toxicological Sciences • October 2007

Modeling Neurodevelopment Outcomes and Ethylmercury Exposure from Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines
Author Information
José G. Dórea*,1 and Rejane C. Marques†

	
Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil

†Fundação Universidade Federal de Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Dear Editor
The neurotoxic effects of ethylmercury (EtHg) accidentally consumed in Iraq were sufficient
to withdraw ethylmercury-containing fungicides as seed dressing. Despite that, not only did
thimerosal continue to be used in pharmaceutical preparations but also toxicological interest in
EtHg-derived substances diminished considerably and was never addressed with regard to the
small quantities used as a vaccine preservative. Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCV) have
no record of overt clinical neurological consequences due to EtHg, and the plausibility of subtle neurotoxic effects in children has been recognized only recently by the United States and
other industrialized countries. In this context, we welcome the interesting work of Berman et
al. (2008); it is clear that this assiduous study (in immunologically susceptible mice) took into
consideration doses and schedules of TCV-Hg concentrations that had been used in infants in the
United States. Their mice model does not, however, cover the full extent of modifying factors
associated with TCV-Hg exposure in the majority of immature and newborns around the world
that still have to depend on TCV.
According to Berman et al. (2008), the United States vaccination scheduled exposed a total of
125 μgHg distributed at 2, 2, and 6 months through TCV (hepatitis B and DTP). This type of
vaccine is no longer used in industrialized countries but it is still used all over the world. We
know that thimerosal concentrations vary among brands of vaccines and also that immunization schedules vary depending on a country’s health policy; not only that but new outbreaks of
disease introduce additional new vaccines (which may contain thimerosal) during the first year
of life. As an example, the public health services of Brazil, like other countries, still uses several brands of hepatitis B vaccine (containing thimerosal as preservative) with concentrations
ranging from 12.5 to 50 μgHg per 0.5 ml shot. Another salient difference between countries that
use TCV (like Brazil) and the United States is that in the former country hepatitis B inoculation
starts within the first 12–24 h after birth (Marques et al., 2007) and is administered to low-birth
weight ≥2000 g (Ministério, da Saúde, 2006 and premature babies who are also recommended a
fourth shot as an additional booster (DI/DH/CVE, 2006). In such situations, not only toxicokinetics (TK) but especially toxicodynamics (TD) of EtHg are entirely different between a 1-dayold (with different stages of immaturity and birth weight) and a 60-day-old child (as modeled).
The newborn presents several physiological degrees of immaturity in the excretory system (kid-

neys and bile formation) and target organ (central nervous system, CNS) that are important
modifiers of EtHg TK and TD. These features are inversely accentuated by gestational age and
birth weight. Under such circumstances, unbound circulating EtHg in a newborn (and immature)
may not be eliminated as fast as in a 2-month-old baby and thus will be readier to cross the more
vulnerable blood-brain barrier (BBB). The newborn BBB increases in effectiveness with age;
therefore, the free EtHg can more easily penetrate the immature CNS (Dorea, 2007). As a consequence, the smaller the body size and blood volume, the more altered the TD and TK of EtHg.
Indeed, Stajich et al. (2000) showed that preterm infants do not metabolize Hg efficiently. Collectively, studies show that larger babies have significantly higher mean liver metallothionein
than smaller babies (Dorea, 2007).
Factors associated with protein-binding capacity, excretion mechanisms, and enzyme activities
are immature in the neonate and modulate differences in adverse effects between newborns and
infants exposed to neurotoxic substances. During the period of immaturity, not only plasma
albumin but also total protein concentrations decrease (Dorea, 2007). The best example in differences between neurotoxic effects is the type of albumin and competition for binding sites
(due to increased circulatory concentrations of bilirubin). Albumin binding (to bilirubin) is less
effective during the first postnatal days and, as a consequence, excess free bilirubin can cross the
BBB at early stages of the postnatal CNS immaturity and cause brainstem abnormalities; albumin priming can be effective in attenuating effects caused by unbound bilirubin (Dorea, 2007).
We do not dispute the conclusions drawn by Berman et al. regarding Hg and the neurobiology
of autism; however, we think it is possible to take their findings one step further in regards to
thimerosal neurotoxicity. We contend that these findings are appropriate for U.S.-like scenarios
(as intended by the authors) but are not sufficient to address the current TCV schedules in the
majority of newborns and infants around the world. TCV are used worldwide in vaccination
schedules that include more of these vaccines at an earlier age. Unfortunately, the differences
that set newborns (especially low-birth-weights and prematures) apart from 2-month-old infants
have not yet been modeled in experimental studies and remain neglected in TK and TD knowledge of TCV-EtHg exposure. We hope that studies like Berman et al. (2008) can inspire conventional toxicology to address uncertainties regarding current serial EtHg exposure in newborns
and infants that have to take TCV.

http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/103/2/414.long#ref-1

“the hair sample analysis results offer some support for the idea that persons with autism
may be less efficient and more variable at eliminating mercury from the blood.”
Journal Of Child Neurology • November 2007

Blood levels of mercury are related to diagnosis of autism:
a reanalysis of an important data set
Author information
Desoto MC1, Hitlan RT.
Department of Psychology
University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, Iowa 50614, USA
cathy.desoto@uni.edu
Abstract
The question of what is leading to the apparent increase in autism is of great importance. Like the link between
aspirin and heart attack, even a small effect can have major health implications. If there is any link between autism
and mercury, it is absolutely crucial that the first reports of the question are not falsely stating that no link occurs.
We have reanalyzed the data set originally reported by Ip et al. in 2004 and have found that the original p value
was in error and that a significant relation does exist between the blood levels of mercury and diagnosis of an
autism spectrum disorder. Moreover, the hair sample analysis results offer some support for the idea that persons
with autism may be less efficient and more variable at eliminating mercury from the blood.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18006963

The Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part B - Critical Reviews • December 2007

A review of Thimerosal (Merthiolate)
and its ethylmercury breakdown product:
specific historical considerations regarding
safety and effectiveness
Author Information
Geier DA1, Sykes LK, Geier MR.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc.
Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Thimerosal (Merthiolate) is an ethylmercury-containing pharmaceutical compound that is 49.55%
mercury and that was developed in 1927. Thimerosal has been marketed as an antimicrobial agent in a
range of products, including topical antiseptic solutions and antiseptic ointments for treating cuts, nasal sprays, eye solutions, vaginal spermicides, diaper rash treatments, and perhaps most importantly as
a preservative in vaccines and other injectable biological products, including Rho(D)-immune globulin
preparations, despite evidence, dating to the early 1930s, indicating Thimerosal to be potentially hazardous to humans and inffective as an antimicrobial agent. Despite this, Thimerosal was not scrutinized
as part of U.S. pharmaceutical products until the 1980s, when the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
finally recognized its demonstrated ineffectiveness and toxicity in topical pharmaceutical products,
and began to eliminate it from these. Ironically, while Thimerosal was being eliminated from topicals,
it was becoming more and more ubiquitous in the recommended immunization schedule for infants
and pregnant women. Furthermore, Thimerosal continues to be administered, as part of mandated immunizations and other pharmaceutical products, in the United States and globally. The ubiquitous and
largely unchecked place of Thimerosal in pharmaceuticals, therefore, represents a medical crisis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18049924

“The ubiquitous and largely unchecked
place of Thimerosal in pharmaceuticals, therefore,
represents a medical crisis.”

Anales de la Facultad de Medicina • 2007

Neurotoxic effects of thimerosal
at vaccines doses on the encephalon
and development in 7 day-old hamsters
Laurente, Jonny, et al.
Objectives
To determine if thimerosal administration in amounts equivalent to vaccines content produces neurotoxic effects on the encephalon in postnatal hamsters and on experimentation animals’ development.
Design
Experimental, prospective, bietapic study.
Setting
San Fernando Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.
Biologic material
Seven-day old hamsters.
Material
We divided 45 postnatal hamsters in three groups: group A (n = 15), group B (n = 15) and group C (n
= 15). We administered three intramuscular equivalent doses of sucrose and thimerosal in 20 μL of
physiological serum respectively to groups B and C on birth-days 7 (0,227 μg), 9 (0,216 μg) and 11
(0,220 μg). Group A received only 20 μL of saline solution.
Main outcome measures
Body weight, encephalon weight, hamster’s stature and encephalon histopathological alterations.
Results
Anova and student t tests showed statistical significance in favor of low body weight, low encephalon weight and smaller stature in group C with respect to groups A and B hamsters (p<0,000). ∼2
statistical significance in relation to the presence of histopathological alterations in group C was also
obtained (p<0,000). We observed greater relative risk of encephalic alterations in group C.
Conclusions
The administration of thimerosal in doses equivalent to vaccines content was associated with low
corporal weight, low encephalon weight and smaller stature in postnatal hamsters. Neurotoxic effects
were also produced at encephalic level, at hippocampus (regions CA1, CA3, DG), cerebral cortex and
cerebellum (Purkinje cells and granuloses cells) with decrease in neuronal density, neuronal necrosis,
axonal dismyelinization and gliosis. In addition, risk increase in developing any of these alterations
was high in the animal group receiving thimerosal.
http://www.scielo.org.pe/scielo.php?pid=S1025-55832007000300003&script=sci_abstract&tlng=en

“The administration of thimerosal in doses equivalent to
vaccines content was associated with low corporal weight,
low encephalon weight and smaller stature in postnatal
hamsters. Neurotoxic effects were also produced at encephalic
level, at hippocampus (regions CA1, CA3, DG), cerebral cortex
and cerebellum (Purkinje cells and granuloses cells) with
decrease in neuronal density, neuronal necrosis, axonal
dismyelinization and gliosis. In addition, risk increase in
developing any of these alterations was high in the animal
group receiving thimerosal.”

Pediatrics • February 2008

Mercury levels in newborns and infants
after receipt of thimerosal-containing vaccines
Author information
Pichichero ME1, Gentile A, Giglio N, Umido V, Clarkson T,
Cernichiari E, Zareba G, Gotelli C, Gotelli M, Yan L, Treanor J.
Department of Microbiology/Immunology, Pediatrics and Medicine
University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
michael_pichichero@urmc.rochester.edu
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
Thimerosal is a mercurial preservative that was widely used in multidose vaccine vials
in the United States and Europe until 2001 and continues to be used in many countries
throughout the world. We conducted a pharmacokinetic study to assess blood levels and
elimination of ethyl mercury after vaccination of infants with thimerosal-containing vaccines.
METHODS
Blood, stool, and urine samples were obtained before vaccination and 12 hours to 30 days
after vaccination from 216 healthy children: 72 newborns (group 1), 72 infants aged 2
months (group 2), and 72 infants aged 6 months (group 3). Total mercury levels were measured by atomic absorption. Blood mercury pharmacokinetics were calculated by pooling
the data on the group and were based on a 1-compartment first-order pharmacokinetics
model.
RESULTS
For groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively, (1) mean +/- SD weights were 3.4 +/- 0.4, 5.1 +/- 0.6,
and 7.7 +/- 1.1 kg; (2) maximal mean +/- SD blood mercury levels were 5.0 +/- 1.3, 3.6 +/1.5, and 2.8 +/- 0.9 ng/mL occurring at 0.5 to 1 day after vaccination; (3) maximal mean
+/- SD stool mercury levels were 19.1 +/- 11.8, 37.0 +/- 27.4, and 44.3 +/- 23.9 ng/g occurring on day 5 after vaccination for all groups; and (4) urine mercury levels were mostly
nondetectable. The blood mercury half-life was calculated to be 3.7 days and returned to
prevaccination levels by day 30.
CONCLUSIONS
The blood half-life of intramuscular ethyl mercury from thimerosal in vaccines in infants
is substantially shorter than that of oral methyl mercury in adults. Increased mercury levels were detected in stools after vaccination, suggesting that the gastrointestinal tract is
involved in ethyl mercury elimination. Because of the differing pharmacokinetics of ethyl
and methyl mercury, exposure guidelines based on oral methyl mercury in adults may not
be accurate for risk assessments in children who receive thimerosal-containing vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18245396

“Because of the differing
pharmacokinetics of ethyl and
methyl mercury, exposure guidelines based
on oral methyl mercury in adults may not be
accurate for risk assessments in children who
receive thimerosal-containing vaccines.”

Chemical Research In Toxicology • February 2008

Thiol-modulated mechanisms
of the cytotoxicity of thimerosal and inhibition of
DNA topoisomerase II alpha
Author information
Wu X1, Liang H, O’Hara KA,
Yalowich JC, Hasinoff BB.
Faculty of Pharmacy
University of Manitoba
50 Sifton Road, Winnipeg
Manitoba, R3T 2N2, Canada
Abstract
Thimerosal is an organic mercury compound that is widely used as a preservative in vaccines and other solution
formulations. The use of thimerosal has caused concern about its ability to cause neurological abnormalities due
to mercury accumulation during a normal schedule of childhood vaccinations. While the chemistry and the biological effects of methylmercury have been well-studied, those of thimerosal have not. Thimerosal reacted rapidly
with cysteine, GSH, human serum albumin, and single-stranded DNA to form ethylmercury adducts that were
detectable by mass spectrometry. These results indicated that thimerosal would be quickly metabolized in vivo
because of its reactions with protein and nonprotein thiols. Thimerosal also potently inhibited the decatenation
activity of DNA topoisomerase II alpha, likely through reaction with critical free cysteine thiol groups. Thimerosal, however, did not act as a topoisomerase II poison and the lack of cross-resistance with a K562 cell line with
a decreased level of topoisomerase II alpha (K/VP.5 cells) suggested that inhibition of topoisomerase II alpha
was not a significant mechanism for the inhibition of cell growth. Depletion of intracellular GSH with buthionine
sulfoximine treatment greatly increased the K562 cell growth inhibitory effects of thimerosal, which showed that
intracellular glutathione had a major role in protecting cells from thimerosal. Pretreatment of thimerosal with
glutathione did not, however, change its K562 cell growth inhibitory effects, a result consistent with the rapid exchange of the ethylmercury adduct among various thiol-containing cellular reactants. Thimerosal-induced single
and double strand breaks in K562 cells were consistent with a rapid induction of apoptosis. In conclusion, these
studies have elucidated some of the chemistry and biological activities of the interaction of thimerosal with topoisomerase II alpha and protein and nonprotein thiols and with DNA.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18197631

“Thimerosal-induced single and double
strand breaks in K562 cells were consistent
with a rapid induction of apoptosis. In
conclusion, these studies have elucidated
some of the chemistry and biological
activities of the interaction of thimerosal
with topoisomerase II alpha and protein
and nonprotein thiols and with DNA.”

“This study associates Thimerosal-containing Rho(D) immune globulins
exposure with some Neurodevelopmental Disorders in children.”
Neuro Endocrinology Letters • April 2008

Neurodevelopmental disorders, maternal Rh-negativity,
and Rho(D) immune globulins: a multi-center assessment
Author information
Geier DA1, Mumper E, Gladfelter B, Coleman L, Geier MR.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Many formulations of Thimerosal (49.55% mercury by weight)-containing Rho(D) immune globulins (TCRs) were routinely
administered to Rh-negative mothers in the US prior to 2002.
OBJECTIVES
It was hypothesized: (1) if prenatal Rho(D)-immune globulin preparation exposure was a risk factor for neurodevelopmental
disorders (NDs) then more children with NDs would have Rh-negative mothers compared to controls; and (2) if Thimerosal in
the Rho(D)-immune globulin preparations was the ingredient associated with NDs, following the removal of Thimerosal from
all manufactured Rho(D)-immune globulin preparations from 2002 in the US the frequency of maternal Rh-negativity among
children with NDs should be similar to control populations.
METHODS
Maternal Rh-negativity was assessed at two sites (Clinic A-Lynchburg, VA; Clinic B-Rockville and Baltimore, MD) among 298
Caucasian children with NDs and known Rh-status. As controls, maternal Rh-negativity frequency was determined from 124
Caucasian children (born 1987-2001) without NDs at Clinic A, and the Rh-negativity frequency was determined from 1,021
Caucasian pregnant mothers that presented for prenatal genetic care at Clinic B (1980-1989). Additionally, 22 Caucasian patients
with NDs born from 2002 onwards (Clinics A and B) were assessed for maternal Rh-negativity.
RESULTS
There were significant and comparable increases in maternal Rh-negativity among children with NDs (Clinic: A=24.2%), autism
spectrum disorders (Clinic: A=28.3%, B=25.3%), and attention-deficit-disorder/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder (Clinic:
A=26.3%) observed at both clinics in comparison to both control groups (Clinic: A=12.1%, B=13.9%) employed. Children with
NDs born post-2001 had a maternal Rh-negativity frequency (13.6%) similar to controls.
CONCLUSION
This study associates TCR exposure with some NDs in children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18404135

Journal Of Neurological Science • August 2008

Thimerosal exposure in infants
and neurodevelopmental disorders:
an assessment of computerized medical records
in the Vaccine Safety Datalink
Author information
Young HA1, Geier DA, Geier MR.
The George Washington University School of Public Health and Health Services
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, United States
Abstract
The study evaluated possible associations between neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs) and exposure to mercury (Hg) from Thimerosal-containing vaccines
(TCVs) by examining the automated Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD). A total of
278,624 subjects were identified in birth cohorts from 1990-1996 that had received
their first oral polio vaccination by 3 months of age in the VSD. The birth cohort
prevalence rate of medically diagnosed International Classification of Disease, 9th
revision (ICD-9) specific NDs and control outcomes were calculated. Exposures to
Hg from TCVs were calculated by birth cohort for specific exposure windows from
birth-7 months and birth-13 months of age. Poisson regression analysis was used
to model the association between the prevalence of outcomes and Hg doses from
TCVs. Consistent significantly increased rate ratios were observed for autism, autism spectrum disorders, tics, attention deficit disorder, and emotional disturbances
with Hg exposure from TCVs. By contrast, none of the control outcomes had significantly increased rate ratios with Hg exposure from TCVs. Routine childhood
vaccination should be continued to help reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases, but efforts should be undertaken to remove Hg from
vaccines. Additional studies should be conducted to further evaluate the relationship between Hg exposure and NDs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18482737

“Consistent significantly increased rate ratios
were observed for autism, autism spectrum disorders,
tics, attention deficit disorder, and emotional
disturbances with ethyl mercury exposure
from thimerosal containing vaccines.”

Indian Journal Of Medical Research • October 2008

A comprehensive review of mercury provoked autism
Author information
Geier DA1, King PG, Sykes LK, Geier MR.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Silver Spring, MD, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
Emerging evidence supports the theory that some autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
may result from a combination of genetic/biochemical susceptibility, specifically a
reduced ability to excrete mercury (Hg), and exposure to Hg at critical developmental periods. Elemental/inorganic Hg is released into the air/water where it becomes
methylated and accumulates in animal tissues. The US population is primarily exposed to methyl-Hg by fish consumption. In addition, many pharmaceuticals have
been, and some continue to be, a ubiquitous source of danger because they contain
mercurials. Mercurials may be found in drugs for the eye, ear, nose, throat, and skin;
in bleaching creams; as preservatives in cosmetics, tooth pastes, lens solutions, vaccines, allergy test and immunotherapy solutions; in antiseptics, disinfectants, and
contraceptives; in fungicides and herbicides; in dental fillings and thermometers;
and many other products. Hg has been found to cause immune, sensory, neurological, motor, and behavioural dysfunctions similar to traits defining/associated with
ASDs, and that these similarities extend to neuroanatomy, neurotransmitters, and
biochemistry. Furthermore, a review of molecular mechanisms indicates that Hg exposure can induce death, disorganization and/or damage to selected neurons in the
brain similar to that seen in recent ASD brain pathology studies, and this alteration
may likely produce the symptoms by which ASDs are diagnosed. Finally, a review
of treatments suggests that ASD patients who undergo protocols to reduce Hg and/or
its effects show significant clinical improvements in some cases. In conclusion, the
overwhelming preponderance of the evidence favours acceptance that Hg exposure
is capable of causing some ASDs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19106436

“In conclusion,
the overwhelming preponderance of the evidence
favours acceptance that ethyl mercury exposure
is capable of causing some Autistic Spectrum Disorders.”

Alternative Therapies In Health And Medicine • November 2008

A possible central mechanism
in autism spectrum disorders, part 1
Author information
Blaylock RL.
Belhaven College
Jackson, Mississippi, USA
Abstract
The autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of related neurodevelopmental disorders that have been increasing in incidence since the
1980s. Despite a considerable amount of data being collected from cases, a central mechanism has not been offered. A careful review of ASD
cases discloses a number of events that adhere to an immunoexcitotoxic mechanism. This mechanism explains the link between excessive
vaccination, use of aluminum and ethylmercury as vaccine adjuvants,
food allergies, gut dysbiosis, and abnormal formation of the developing brain. It has now been shown that chronic microglial activation is
present in autistic brains from age 5 years to age 44 years. A considerable amount of evidence, both experimental and clinical, indicates
that repeated microglial activation can initiate priming of the microglia
and that subsequent stimulation can produce an exaggerated microglial
response that can be prolonged. It is also known that one phenotypic
form of microglia activation can result in an outpouring of neurotoxic
levels of the excitotoxins, glutamate and quinolinic acid. Studies have
shown that careful control of brain glutamate levels is essential to brain
pathway development and that excesses can result in arrest of neural
migration, as well as dendritic and synaptic loss. It has also been shown
that certain cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, can, via its receptor, interact
with glutamate receptors to enhance the neurotoxic reaction. To describe this interaction I have coined the term immunoexcitotoxicity,
which is described in this article.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19043938

“This mechanism explains
the link between excessive
vaccination, use of aluminum and
ethylmercury as vaccine adjuvants,
food allergies, gut dysbiosis,
and abnormal formation of the
developing brain.”

Current Medicinal Chemistry • December 2008

Kawasaki’s disease, acrodynia, and mercury
Author information
Mutter J1, Yeter D.
Department of Environmental and Complementary Medicine
Salusmed Medical Center, Wieslistrasse 34,
CH - 8267 Berlingen, Switzerland
jo.mutter@web.de
Abstract
A superantigen or autoimmunity has been hypothesized to be the main cause of
the Kawasaki’s Disease but the etiology is unknown. Medical literature, epidemiological findings, and some case reports have suggested that mercury may play
a pathogenic role. Several patients with Kawasaki’s Disease have presented with
elevated urine mercury levels compared to matched controls. Most symptoms and
diagnostic criteria which are seen in children with acrodynia, known to be caused
by mercury, are similar to those seen in Kawasaki’s Disease. Genetic depletion
of glutathione S-transferase , a susceptibility marker for Kawasaki’s Disease, is
known to be also a risk factor for acrodynia and may also increase susceptibility to mercury. Coinciding with the largest increase (1985-1990) of thimerosal
(49.6% ethyl mercury) in vaccines, routinely given to infants in the U.S. by 6
months of age (from 75microg to 187.5microg), the rates of Kawasaki’s Disease
increased ten times, and, later (1985-1997), by 20 times. Since 1990 88 cases of
patients developing Kawasaki’s Disease some days after vaccination have been
reported to the Centers of Disease Control (CDC) including 19% manifesting
symptoms the same day. The presented pathogenetic model may lead to new preventive- and therapeutic strategies for Kawasaki’s disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19075648

“Coinciding with the largest increase
(1985-1990) of thimerosal in vaccines,
routinely given to infants in the U.S. by 6 months of age
(from 75microg to 187.5microg), the rates of Kawasaki’s
Disease increased ten times, and, later (1985-1997), by
20 times. Since 1990 eighty-eight cases of patients
developing Kawasaki’s Disease some days after
vaccination have been reported to the Centers of
Disease Control (CDC) including 19% manifesting
symptoms the same day.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • 2008

An investigation of porphyrinuria
in Australian children with autism
Author information
Austin DW1, Shandley K.
Swinburne Autism Bio-Research Initiative (SABRI)
Faculty of Life and Social Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology
Melbourne, Australia
daustin@swin.edu.au
Abstract
Two recent studies, from France (Nataf et al., 2006) and the United States (Geier
& Geier, 2007), identified atypical urinary porphyrin profiles in children with an
autism spectrum disorder (ASD). These profiles serve as an indirect measure of
environmental toxicity generally, and mercury (Hg) toxicity specifically, with
the latter being a variable proposed as a causal mechanism of ASD (Bernard
et al., 2001; Mutter et al., 2005). To examine whether this phenomenon occurred in a sample of Australian children with ASD, an analysis of urinary porphyrin profiles was conducted. A consistent trend in abnormal porphyrin levels
was evidenced when data was compared with those previously reported in the
literature. The results are suggestive of environmental toxic exposure impairing heme synthesis. Three independent studies from three continents have now
demonstrated that porphyrinuria is concomitant with ASD, and that Hg may be
a likely xenobiotic to produce porphyrin profiles of this nature.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18704827

“These profiles serve as an indirect measure
of environmental toxicity generally, and mercury
toxicity specifically, with the latter being a
variable proposed as a causal mechanism of
Autistic Spectrum Disorder
(Bernard et al., 2001; Mutter et al., 2005).”

“... present observations are compatible with increased oxidative stress and a decreased detoxification capacity,
particularly of mercury, in patients diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorders.”
Neurochemical Research • February 2009

A prospective study of transsulfuration biomarkers in autistic disorders
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, Garver CR, Adams JB, Audhya T, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
Abstract
The goal of this study was to evaluate transsulfuration metabolites in participants diagnosed with autism spectrum
disorders (ASDs). Transsulfuration metabolites, including: plasma reduced glutathione (GSH), plasma oxidized
glutathione (GSSG), plasma cysteine, plasma taurine, plasma sulfate, and plasma free sulfate among participants
diagnosed with ASDs (n = 38) in comparison to age-matched neurotypical controls were prospectively evaluated.
Testing was conducted using Vitamin Diagnostics, Inc. (CLIA-approved). Participants diagnosed with ASDs
had significantly (P < 0.001) decreased plasma reduced GSH, plasma cysteine, plasma taurine, plasma sulfate,
and plasma free sulfate relative to controls. By contrast, participants diagnosed with ASDs had significantly (P <
0.001) increased plasma GSSG relative to controls. The present observations are compatible with increased oxidative stress and a decreased detoxification capacity, particularly of mercury, in patients diagnosed with ASDs.
Patients diagnosed with ASDs should be routinely tested to evaluate transsulfuration metabolites, and potential
treatment protocols should be evaluated to potentially correct the transsulfuration abnormalities observed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18612812

Experimental And Toxicological Pathology • March 2009

Gender-selective toxicity of thimerosal
Author information

“Thus, our studies, although not directly

Branch DR

addressing the controversy surrounding

Departments of Medicine and Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology
University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
don.branch@utoronto.ca
Abstract
A recent report shows a correlation of the historical use of thimerosal in
therapeutic immunizations with the subsequent development of autism;
however, this association remains controversial. Autism occurs approximately four times more frequently in males compared to females; thus,
studies of thimerosal toxicity should take into consideration gender-selective effects. The present study was originally undertaken to determine
the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of thimersosal in male and female
CD1 mice. However, during the limited MTD studies, it became apparent that thimerosal has a differential MTD that depends on whether
the mouse is male or female. At doses of 38.4-76.8mg/kg using 10%
DMSO as diluent, seven of seven male mice compared to zero of seven
female mice tested succumbed to thimerosal. Although the thimerosal
levels used were very high, as we were originally only trying to determine MTD, it was completely unexpected to observe a difference of the
MTD between male and female mice. Thus, our studies, although not
directly addressing the controversy surrounding thimerosal and autism,
and still preliminary due to small numbers of mice examined, provide,
nevertheless, the first report of gender-selective toxicity of thimerosal
and indicate that any future studies of thimerosal toxicity should take
into consideration gender-specific differences.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18771903

thimerosal and autism, and still preliminary
due to small numbers of mice examined,
provide, nevertheless, the first report of
gender-selective toxicity of thimerosal and
indicate that any future studies of thimerosal
toxicity should take into consideration
gender-specific differences.”

[autism occurs at a 4-1 ratio for boys to girls. Four
boys to every one girl are damaged with autism]

Health Place • March 2009

Proximity to point sources
of environmental mercury release
as a predictor of autism prevalence
Author information
Palmer RF1, Blanchard S, Wood R.
University of Texas Health Science Center
San Antonio Department of Family and Community Medicine
7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio Texas
Mail Code 7794, TX 78229-3900, USA
palmerr@uthscsa.edu
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine if proximity to
sources of mercury pollution in 1998 were related to autism
prevalence in 2002. Autism count data from the Texas Educational Agency and environmental mercury release data from the
Environmental Protection Agency were used. We found that
for every 1000 pounds of industrial release, there was a corresponding 2.6% increase in autism rates (p<.05) and a 3.7% increase associated with power plant emissions(P<.05). Distances
to these sources were independent predictors after adjustment
for relevant covariates. For every 10 miles from industrial or
power plant sources, there was an associated decreased autism
Incident Risk of 2.0% and 1.4%, respectively (p<.05). While
design limitations preclude interpretation of individual risk, further investigations of environmental risks to child development
issues are warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18353703

“We found that for every 1000
pounds of industrial release, there
was a corresponding 2.6% increase
in autism rates (p<.05) and a 3.7%
increase associated with power plant
emissions(P<.05). For every 10 miles
from industrial or power plant sources,
there was an associated decreased
autism Incident Risk of 2.0% and 1.4%,
respectively (p<.05).”

Journal Of Neurological Science • May 2009

Biomarkers of environmental toxicity
and susceptibility in autism
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, Garver CR, Adams JB, Audhya T, Nataf R, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) may result from a combination of genetic/biochemical susceptibilities in the form of a reduced ability to excrete mercury and/or
increased environmental exposure at key developmental times. Urinary porphyrins
and transsulfuration metabolites in participants diagnosed with an ASD were examined. A prospective, blinded study was undertaken to evaluate a cohort of 28 participants with an ASD diagnosis for Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) scores,
urinary porphyrins, and transsulfuration metabolites. Testing was conducted using Vitamin Diagnostics, Inc. (CLIA-approved) and Laboratoire Philippe Auguste
(ISO-approved). Participants with severe ASDs had significantly increased mercury
intoxication-associated urinary porphyrins (pentacarboxyporphyrin, precoproporphyrin, and coproporphyrin) in comparison to participants with mild ASDs, whereas other urinary porphyrins were similar in both groups. Significantly decreased
plasma levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), cysteine, and sulfate were observed
among study participants relative to controls. In contrast, study participants had
significantly increased plasma oxidized glutathione (GSSG) relative to controls.
Mercury intoxication-associated urinary porphyrins were significantly correlated
with increasing CARS scores and GSSG levels, whereas other urinary porphyrins
did not show these relationships. The urinary porphyrin and CARS score correlations observed among study participants suggest that mercury intoxication is significantly associated with autistic symptoms. The transsulfuration abnormalities
observed among study participants indicate that mercury intoxication was associated with increased oxidative stress and decreased detoxification capacity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18817931

“The urinary porphyrin and CARS score correlations
observed among study participants suggest that
mercury intoxication is significantly associated
with autistic symptoms.”

Toxicology And Environmental Chemistry • June 2009

Mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired oxidative-reduction activity,
degeneration, and death in human neuronal and fetal cells induced by
low-level exposure to thimerosal and other metal compounds
Author information
Geier DA1, King PG2, Geier MR3.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
2. CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
3. The Genetic Centers of America, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Thimerosal (ethylmercurithiosalicylic acid), an ethylmercury (EtHg)-releasing compound (49.55% mercury
(Hg)), was used in a range of medical products for more than 70 years. Of particular recent concern, routine
administering of Thimerosal-containing biologics/childhood vaccines have become significant sources of Hg exposure for some fetuses/infants. This study was undertaken to investigate cellular damage among in vitro human
neuronal (SH-SY-5Y neuroblastoma and 1321N1 astrocytoma) and fetal (nontransformed) model systems using
cell vitality assays and microscope-based digital image capture techniques to assess potential damage induced
by Thimerosal and other metal compounds (aluminum (Al) sulfate, lead (Pb)(II) acetate, methylmercury (MeHg)
hydroxide, and mercury (Hg)(II) chloride) where the cation was reported to exert adverse effects on developing
cells. Thimerosal-associated cellular damage was also evaluated for similarity to pathophysiological findings observed in patients diagnosed with autistic disorders (ADs). Thimerosal-induced cellular damage as evidenced by
concentration- and time-dependent mitochondrial damage, reduced oxidative-reduction activity, cellular degeneration, and cell death in the in vitro human neuronal and fetal model systems studied. Thimerosal at low nanomolar
(nM) concentrations induced significant cellular toxicity in human neuronal and fetal cells. Thimerosal-induced
cytoxicity is similar to that observed in AD pathophysiologic studies. Thimerosal was found to be significantly
more toxic than the other metal compounds examined. Future studies need to be conducted to evaluate additional
mechanisms underlying Thimerosal-induced cellular damage and assess potential co-exposures to other compounds that may increase or decrease Thimerosal-mediated toxicity.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3924342/

“Thimerosal at low nanomolar concentrations
induced significant cellular toxicity in human
neuronal and fetal cells. Thimerosal-induced
cytoxicity is similar to that observed in Autistic
Disorder pathophysiologic studies. Thimerosal was
found to be significantly more toxic than the
other metal compounds examined.”

American Journal Of Perinatology • August 2009

Neonate exposure to thimerosal
mercury from hepatitis B vaccines
Author information
Dórea JG1, Marques RC, Brandão KG.
Universidade de Brasília, DF, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
Infant exposure to ethylmercury (EtHg) has not only increased but
is starting earlier as a result of the current immunization schedule
that uses thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs). Although vaccination schedule varies considerably between countries, infants in
less-developed countries continue to be exposed to EtHg derived
from more affordable TCVs. We studied the exposure of newborns
to EtHg from hepatitis B vaccines; hospital records (21,685) were
summarized for the years 2001 to 2005 regarding date of birth, vaccination date, and birth weight. Most of the vaccinations occurred
in the first 24 hours postdelivery; over the 5 years, there was an increase in vaccinations within hours of birth (same day), from 7.4%
(2001) to 87.8% (2005). Nearly 94.6% of infants are now being
vaccinated within the first 24 hours. Range of mercury exposure
spread from 4.2 to 21.1 microg mercury/kg body weight for those
receiving TCVs with the highest thimerosal concentration; these
exposure levels are conservative for 2% of children receiving vaccines within 2 to 3 postnatal days, when they are still going through
physiological postnatal weight loss. Because of the particular timing (transitioning from in utero to ex utero metabolism) and specific aspects of exposure (i.e., parenteral mode, bypassing gastroenteric barriers) and dose (related to vaccine manufacturer and with
variation in birth weight), this study reveals critical issues that can
modulate toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of organomercurials
in neonates.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19283656

“Infant exposure to
ethylmercury (EtHg)
has not only increased
but is starting earlier as a
result of the current immunization
schedule that uses thimerosal-containing
vaccines (TCVs) ... this study reveals critical
issues that can modulate toxicokinetics
and toxicodynamics of organomercurials
in neonates.”

Toxicology In Vitro • September 2009

Increase in intracellular Zn2+ concentration
by thimerosal in rat thymocytes:
intracellular Zn2+ release induced by oxidative stress
Author information
Hashimoto E1, Oyama TB, Oyama K, Nishimura Y,
Oyama TM, Ueha-Ishibashi T, Okano Y, Oyama Y.
Laboratory of Cellular Signaling
Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences
The University of Tokushima
Tokushima 770-8502, Japan
Abstract
Thimerosal (TMR), an ethylmercury-containing preservative in pharmaceutical products, was recently reported to increase intracellular Zn(2+) concentration. Therefore,
some health concerns about the toxicity of TMR remain because of physiological and
pathological roles of Zn(2+). To reveal the property of TMR-induced increase in intracellular Zn(2+) concentration, the effect of TMR on FluoZin-3 fluorescence, an indicator of intracellular Zn(2+), of rat thymocytes was examined. TMR at concentrations
ranging from 0.3 microM to 10 microM increased the intensity of FluoZin-3 fluorescence in a concentration-dependent manner under external Ca(2+)- and Zn(2+)-free
condition. The threshold concentration was 0.3-1 microM. The increase in the intensity
was significant when TMR concentration was 1 microM or more. N,N,N’,N’-Tetrakis(2pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine (TPEN), a chelator for intracellular Zn(2+), completely
attenuated the TMR-induced augmentation of FluoZin-3 fluorescence. Hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and N-ethylmaleimide, reducing cellular thiol content, significantly
increased FluoZin-3 fluorescence intensity and decreased 5-chloromethylfluorescein
(5-CMF) fluorescence intensity, an indicator for cellular thiol. The correlation coefficient between TMR-induced augmentation of FluoZin-3 fluorescence and attenuation
of 5-CMF fluorescence was -0.882. TMR also attenuated the 5-CMF fluorescence in
the presence of TPEN. Simultaneous application of H(2)O(2) and TMR synergistically
augmented the FluoZin-3 fluorescence. It is suggested that TMR increases intracellular
Zn(2+) concentration via decreasing cellular thiol content.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19497362

“It is suggested that Thimerosal
increases intracellular Zn(2+) concentration
via decreasing cellular thiol content.”

Biometals • December 2009

Assessment of chronic mercury exposure
within the U.S. population,
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
1999–2006
Author information
Laks DR.
Mental Retardation Research Center
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
635 Charles E. Young Dr. South
Neuroscience Research Bldg., Room 379 (lab)
Los Angeles, CA 90095-7332, USA
dlaks@mednet.ucla.edu
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess chronic mercury exposure within the US
population. Time trends were analyzed for blood inorganic mercury (I-Hg) levels in
6,174 women, ages 18-49, in the NHANES, 1999-2006 data sets. Multivariate logistic regression distinguished a significant, direct correlation within the US population between I-Hg detection and years since the start of the survey (OR = 1.49, P
< 0.001). Within this population, I-Hg detection rose sharply from 2% in 1999-2000
to 30% in 2005-2006. In addition, the population averaged mean I-Hg concentration rose significantly over that same period from 0.33 to 0.39 μ/L (Anova, P <
0.001). In a separate analysis, multivariate logistic regression indicated that I-Hg
detection was significantly associated with age (OR = 1.02, P < 0.001). Furthermore, multivariate logistic regression revealed significant associations of both I-Hg
detection and mean concentration with biomarkers for the main targets of mercury
deposition and effect: the liver, immune system, and pituitary. This study provides
compelling evidence that I-Hg deposition within the human body is a cumulative
process, increasing with age and in the population over time, since 1999, as a result
of chronic mercury exposure. Furthermore, our results indicate that I-Hg deposition
is associated with the significant biological markers for main targets of exposure,
deposition, and effect. Accumulation of focal I-Hg deposits within the human body
due to chronic mercury exposure provides a mechanism which suggests a time dependent rise in the population risks for associated disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19697139

“Within this population,
inorganic mercury detection rose sharply
from 2% in 1999-2000 to 30% in 2005-2006.
In addition, the population averaged mean
inorganic mercury concentration rose
significantly over that same period
from 0.33 to 0.39 μ/L (Anova, P < 0.001).”

“... thimerosal administration to suckling or adult rats impairs sensitivity to pain ...”
Brain Research • December 2009

Neonatal administration of a vaccine preservative, thimerosal,
produces lasting impairment of nociception and apparent activation
of opioid system in rats
Author information
Olczak M1, Duszczyk M, Mierzejewski P, Majewska MD.
Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of the Nervous System
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology
Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
Thimerosal (THIM), an organomercury preservative added to many child vaccines is a suspected factor in pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders. We examined the pharmacokinetics of Hg in the brain, liver and kidneys after i.m. THIM injection in suckling rats and we tested THIM effect on nociception. THIM solutions were
injected to Wistar and Lewis rats in a vaccination-like mode on PN days 7, 9, 11 and 15 in four equal doses. For
Wistar rats these were: 12, 48, 240, 720, 1440, 2160, 3000 microg Hg/kg and for Lewis: 54, 216, 540 and 1080
microg Hg/kg. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that Hg from THIM injections accumulates in the rat brain
in significant amounts and remains there longer than 30 days after the injection. At the 6th week of age animals
were examined for pain sensitivity using the hot plate test. THIM treated rats of both strains and sexes manifested
statistically significantly elevated pain threshold (latency for paw licking, jumping) on a hot plate (56 degrees C).
Wistar rats were more sensitive to this effect than Lewis rats. Protracted THIM-induced hypoalgesia was reversed
by naloxone (5 mg/kg, i.p.) injected before the hot plate test, indicative of involvement of endogenous opioids.
This was confirmed by augmented catalepsy after morphine (2.5 mg/kg, s.c.) injection. Acute THIM injection to
6-week-old rats also produced hypoalgesia, but this effect was transient and was gone within 14 days. Present
findings show that THIM administration to suckling or adult rats impairs sensitivity to pain, apparently due to
activation the endogenous opioid system.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19747466

Acta Neurobiologia Experimentalis • 2009

A prospective study of prenatal mercury exposure
from maternal dental amalgams and autism severity
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Dental amalgams containing 50% mercury (Hg) have been used in dentistry for
the last 150 years, and Hg exposure during key developmental periods was associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). This study examined increased
Hg exposure from maternal dental amalgams during pregnancy among 100
qualifying participants born between 1990-1999 and diagnosed with DSM-IV
autism (severe) or ASD (mild). Logistic regression analysis (age, gender, race,
and region of residency adjusted) by quintile of maternal dental amalgams during pregnancy revealed the ratio of autism:ASD (severe:mild) were about 1 (no
effect) for < or =5 amalgams and increased for > or =6 amalgams. Subjects with
> or =6 amalgams were 3.2-fold significantly more likely to be diagnosed with
autism (severe) in comparison to ASD (mild) than subjects with < or =5 amalgams. Dental amalgam policies should consider Hg exposure in women before
and during the child-bearing age and the possibility of subsequent fetal exposure
and adverse outcomes.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19593333

“Hg [ethyl mercury] exposure
during key developmental periods was associated with
autism spectrum disorders … Subjects with > or =6
amalgams were 3.2-fold significantly more likely to be
diagnosed with autism (severe) in comparison to ASD
(mild) than subjects with < or =5 amalgams.”

“A significant correlation was observed between increasing cP levels and CARS scores.”
Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • 2009

A prospective blinded evaluation of urinary porphyrins
verses the clinical severity of autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
A prospective, blinded study evaluated the relationship between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) severity measured by Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) scores and urinary porphyrins among a cohort of participants (n
= 26). LabCorp (CLIA-approved) tested for uroporphyrins, heptacarboxylporphyrins, hexacarboxylporphyrins,
pentacarboxylporphyrins, coproporphyrin (cP) I, and cP III levels. Participants with severe ASD had significantly
increased cP I, cP III, and total cP levels in comparison to participants with mild ASD. A significant correlation was observed between increasing cP levels and CARS scores. Significant correlations were also noted for
comparative urinary porphyrin testing between LabCorp and the Laboratoire Philippe Auguste (ISO-approved)
for total cP. Finally, total cP measured at LabCorp was found to significantly correlate with precoproporphryin
(a specific porphyrin marker for mercury toxicity) measured at the Laboratoire Philippe Auguste. Since urinary
porphyrin testing is clinically available, relatively inexpensive, and noninvasive, it may be used to help suggest
whether heavy metal toxicity is associated with ASD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20077233

Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology • March 2010

Mercury toxicokinetics
dependency on strain and gender
Author information
Ekstrand J1, Nielsen JB, Havarinasab S,
Zalups RK, Söderkvist P, Hultman P.
Molecular and Immunological Pathology
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
Linköping University, SE-58185 Linköping, Sweden
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) exposure from dental amalgam fillings and thimerosal in vaccines is not a major health hazard, but adverse
health effects cannot be ruled out in a small and more susceptible part of the exposed population. Individual differences in
toxicokinetics may explain susceptibility to mercury. Inbred,
H-2-congenic A.SW and B10.S mice and their F1- and F2hybrids were given HgCl2 with 2.0 mg Hg/L drinking water and traces of (203)Hg. Whole-body retention (WBR) was
monitored until steady state after 5 weeks, when the organ Hg
content was assessed. Despite similar Hg intake, A.SW males
attained a 20-30% significantly higher WBR and 2- to 5-fold
higher total renal Hg retention/concentration than A.SW females and B10.S mice. A selective renal Hg accumulation but
of lower magnitude was seen also in B10.S males compared
with females. Differences in WBR and organ Hg accumulation are therefore regulated by non-H-2 genes and gender.
Lymph nodes lacked the strain- and gender-dependent Hg accumulation profile of kidney, liver and spleen. After 15 days
without Hg A.SW mice showed a 4-fold higher WBR and
liver Hg concentration, but 11-fold higher renal Hg concentration, showing the key role for the kidneys in explaining the
slower Hg elimination in A.SW mice. The trait causing higher
mercury accumulation was not dominantly inherited in the F1
hybrids. F2 mice showed a large inter-individual variation in
Hg accumulation, showing that multiple genetic factors influence the Hg toxicokinetics in the mouse. The genetically
heterogeneous human population may therefore show a large
variation in mercury toxicokinetics.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19732784

“The genetically heterogeneous
human population may therefore
show a large variation in mercury
toxicokinetics.”

Journal Of Neuroinflammation • March 2010

Mercury induces inflammatory
mediator release from human mast cells
Author information
Kempuraj D1, Asadi S, Zhang B, Manola A,
Hogan J, Peterson E, Theoharides TC.
Molecular Immunopharmacology and Drug Discovery Laboratory
Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
Tufts University School of Medicine and Tufts Medical Center
Boston, MA 02111, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Mercury is known to be neurotoxic, but its effects on the immune system are less well known. Mast cells are involved in allergic reactions, but also in innate and acquired immunity, as well as in inflammation. Many patients
with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) have “allergic” symptoms; moreover, the prevalence of ASD in patients
with mastocytosis, characterized by numerous hyperactive mast cells in most tissues, is 10-fold higher than the
general population suggesting mast cell involvement. We, therefore, investigated the effect of mercuric chloride
(HgCl2) on human mast cell activation.
METHODS
Human leukemic cultured LAD2 mast cells and normal human umbilical cord blood-derived cultured mast cells
(hCBMCs) were stimulated by HgCl2 (0.1-10 microM) for either 10 min for beta-hexosaminidase release or 24
hr for measuring vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and IL-6 release by ELISA.
RESULTS
HgCl2 induced a 2-fold increase in beta-hexosaminidase release, and also significant VEGF release at 0.1 and 1
microM (311 +/- 32 pg/106 cells and 443 +/- 143 pg/106 cells, respectively) from LAD2 mast cells compared to
control cells (227 +/- 17 pg/106 cells, n = 5, p < 0.05). Addition of HgCl2 (0.1 microM) to the proinflammatory
neuropeptide substance P (SP, 0.1 microM) had synergestic action in inducing VEGF from LAD2 mast cells.
HgCl2 also stimulated significant VEGF release (360 +/- 100 pg/106 cells at 1 microM, n = 5, p < 0.05) from
hCBMCs compared to control cells (182 +/- 57 pg/106 cells), and IL-6 release (466 +/- 57 pg/106 cells at 0.1
microM) compared to untreated cells (13 +/- 25 pg/106 cells, n = 5, p < 0.05). Addition of HgCl2 (0.1 microM)
to SP (5 microM) further increased IL-6 release.
CONCLUSIONS
HgCl2 stimulates VEGF and IL-6 release from human mast cells. This phenomenon could disrupt the bloodbrain-barrier and permit brain inflammation. As a result, the findings of the present study provide a biological
mechanism for how low levels of mercury may contribute to ASD pathogenesis.
Full Report:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2850891/

“... the findings of the present study
provide a biological mechanism
for how low levels of mercury may contribute
to Autistic Spectrum Disorder pathogenesis.”

“... association between premature puberty and exposure to mercury from thimerosal-containing vaccines ...”
Indian Journal Of Medical Research • April 2010

Thimerosal exposure & increasing trends
of premature puberty in the vaccine safety datalink
Author information
Geier DA1, Young HA, Geier MR.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES
The US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) reports that mercury (Hg) is a known endocrine disruptor
and it adversely affects the steroid synthesis pathway in animals and humans, and may interact to enhance the risk for a child
developing premature puberty. An association between premature puberty and exposure to Hg from thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs) was evaluated in computerized medical records within the Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD).
METHODS
A total of 278,624 subjects were identified in birth cohorts from 1990-1996. The birth cohort prevalence rates of medically diagnosed International Classification of Disease, 9(th) revision (ICD-9) premature puberty and control outcomes were calculated.
Exposures to Hg from TCVs were calculated by birth cohort for specific exposure windows from birth-7 months and birth-13
months of age. Poisson regression analysis was used to model the association between the prevalence of outcomes and Hg doses
from TCVs.
RESULTS
Significantly increased (P<0.0001) rate ratios were observed for premature puberty for a 100 microg difference in Hg exposure
from TCVs in the birth-7 months (rate ratio=5.58) and birth-13 months (rate ratio=6.45) of age exposure windows. By contrast,
none of the control outcomes had significantly increased rate ratios with Hg exposure from TCVs.
INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS
Routine childhood vaccination should be continued to help reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases, but efforts should be undertaken to remove Hg from vaccines. Additional studies should be done to evaluate the relationship
between Hg exposure and premature puberty.
Full report available at this link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20424300

Indian Journal Of Medical Research • April 2010

Exposure to low-dose mercury (from thimerosal) & premature puberty - a new avenue for research with the vaccine safety datalink
Author information
Dórea JG.
Universidade de Brasilia, Brasilia, DF. Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
The paper by Geier et al1 addresses the plausible association of premature
puberty after a typical pattern of exposure to ethylmercury in thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs) taken by young children in the USA before TCVs
were discontinued. Both precocious puberty and low-level mercury are per se
high-profile topics of public health interest. Given that TCVs are still currently given to pregnant women, infants and young children around the world, the
paper raises a unique opportunity for discussing the role of mercury- based
preservatives.
The study took advantage of the vaccine-safety datalink (VSD) system of the
USA. Black et al2 summarized the advantage of the VSD over the former
Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) in use until 1991 in the
USA. Until then, potential vaccine safety issues could only be evaluated by
the passive data collected through the VAERS. The current VSD system links
outcome and vaccine exposure information, demographic and other covariate information, from the automated clinical databases within several Health
Maintenance Organizations (HMOs). As pointed out by Black et al2 this data
bank can be utilized to screen for possible associations of events after vaccination and also, as in the case of Geier et al1, to evaluate hypotheses. Geier
et al1 analyzed the data from 1990 to 1996 (n = 278,624) and explored a
possible link of premature puberty to TCV received at young ages by comparing this outcome to outcomes not related to mercury exposure (controls).
It is worth mentioning the disproportionate percentage of males (7%) in the
sample. If encountered in future studies, this information confirms gender
differences in thimerosal toxicity3. Constitutional differences in gender determine hormonal balance and represent a biologic variable4 to be considered
in reproductive and neurologic outcomes.

Premature sexual development is a topic of current interest because of social
and attendant health- associated issues, especially for girls. Unwanted teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases are among the important
social and biological issues affecting poor countries and disadvantaged segments of rich countries. Reports from different parts of the world indicate
that precocious gynaecological-age is significantly associated with early sexual initiation5 and with teenage pregnancy6,7. Additionally, as reviewed by
Karaolis-Danckert et al8, an accelerated age of puberty onset may influence
the life-time risk for breast and testicular cancer, insulin resistance, and adiposity. It is becoming clear that environmental factors are strongly associated
with precocious puberty9. Studies indicate that increasing rates of precocious
puberty are among the endocrine-system related effects of endocrine-disruptor chemicals found in the environment10.
Generally described as endocrine disruptors, there are a broad range of these
substances capable of affecting the endocrine system. Some of these can act
specifically on the reproductive system having estrogenic, anti-estrogenic,
androgenic, and anti- androgenic activity. Besides that, these chemicals can
also interfere with the hypthalamo-pituitary unit, and also disrupt estrous cyclicity. The endocrine-disrupting activity of these pollutants on developmental toxicology depends on timing and dosage. However, since these occur as
mixtures, it is not yet possible to know if their end-point effects are additive
or antagonistic. Therefore, this type of exposure is difficult to study because
of the variety of possible outcomes10. A wide range of endocrine disruptors
listed by Abaci et al18 include biocides (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides,
nematocides), and industrial compounds made up of organic substances and
metals (that includes mercury).

Full report available at this link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20424297

Toxicology • August 2010

Sensitization effect of thimerosal
is mediated in vitro via reactive oxygen species
and calcium signaling
Author information
Migdal C1, Foggia L, Tailhardat M, Courtellemont P,
Haftek M, Serres M.
EA 41-69, Université Lyon 1, Pavillon R
Hôpital Edouard Herriot
69437 Lyon Cedex 03, France
Abstract
Thimerosal, a mercury derivative composed of ethyl mercury chloride (EtHgCl) and thiosalicylic acid (TSA), is widely used as a preservative in vaccines and cosmetic products and
causes cutaneous reactions. Since dendritic cells (DCs) play an essential role in the immune
response, the sensitization potency of chemicals was studied in vitro using U937, a human
promyelomonocytic cell line that is used as a surrogate of monocytic differentiation and
activation. Currently, this cell line is under ECVAM (European Center for the Validation of
Alternative Methods) validation as an alternative method for discriminating chemicals. Thimerosal and mercury derivatives induced in U937 an overexpression of CD86 and interleukin (IL)-8 secretion similarly to 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB), a sensitizer used as
a positive control for DC activation. Non-sensitizers, dichloronitrobenzene (DCNB), TSA
and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), an irritant, had no effect. U937 activation was prevented
by cell pretreatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) but not with thiol-independent antioxidants except vitamin E which affected CD86 expression by preventing lipid peroxidation
of cell membranes. Thimerosal, EtHgCl and DNCB induced glutathione (GSH) depletion
and reactive oxygen species (ROS) within 15 min; another peak was detected after 2h for
mercury compounds only. MitoSOX, a specific mitochondrial fluorescent probe, confirmed
that ROS were essentially produced by mitochondria in correlation with its membrane depolarization. Changes in mitochondrial membrane permeability induced by mercury were
reversed by NAC but not by thiol-independent antioxidants. Thimerosal and EtHgCl also
induced a calcium (Ca2+) influx with a peak at 3h, suggesting that Ca2+ influx is a secondary event following ROS induction as Ca2+ influx was suppressed after pretreatment with
NAC but not with thiol-independent antioxidants. Ca2+ influx was also suppressed when
culture medium was deprived of Ca2+ confirming the specificity of the measure. In conclusion, these data suggest that thimerosal induced U937 activation via oxidative stress from
mitochondrial stores and mitochondrial membrane depolarization with a primordial effect
of thiol groups. A cross-talk between ROS and Ca2+ influx was demonstrated.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20457211

“In conclusion, these data suggest
that thimerosal induced U937 activation
via oxidative stress from mitochondrial
stores and mitochondrial membrane
depolarization with a primordial effect of
thiol groups. A cross-talk between ROS
and Ca2+ in ux was demonstrated.”

Environmental Health Perspectives • October 2010

Urinary porphyrin excretion
in neurotypical and autistic children
Author information
Woods JS1, Armel SE, Fulton DI, Allen J, Wessels K,
Simmonds PL, Granpeesheh D, Mumper E, Bradstreet JJ,
Echeverria D, Heyer NJ, Rooney JP.
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA
jwoods@u.washington.edu
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Increased urinary concentrations of pentacarboxyl-, precopro- and copro-porphyrins have been associated with prolonged mercury (Hg) exposure in adults, and comparable increases have been attributed to Hg exposure in children with
autism (AU).

“Increased urinary

OBJECTIVES
This study was designed to measure and compare urinary porphyrin concentrations in neurotypical (NT) children and
same-age children with autism, and to examine the association between porphyrin levels and past or current Hg exposure
in children with autism.

pentacarboxyl-, precopro-

METHODS
This exploratory study enrolled 278 children 2-12 years of age. We evaluated three groups: AU, pervasive developmental
disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and NT. Mothers/caregivers provided information at enrollment regarding
medical, dental, and dietary exposures. Urine samples from all children were acquired for analyses of porphyrin, creatinine, and Hg. Differences between groups for mean porphyrin and Hg levels were evaluated. Logistic regression analysis
was conducted to determine whether porphyrin levels were associated with increased risk of autism.

have been associated with

RESULTS
Mean urinary porphyrin concentrations are naturally high in young children and decline by as much as 2.5-fold between
2 and 12 years of age. Elevated copro- (p < 0.009), hexacarboxyl- (p < 0.01) and pentacarboxyl- (p < 0.001) porphyrin
concentrations were significantly associated with AU but not with PDD-NOS. No differences were found between NT
and AU in urinary Hg levels or in past Hg exposure as determined by fish consumption, number of dental amalgam fillings, or vaccines received.
CONCLUSIONS
These findings identify disordered porphyrin metabolism as a salient characteristic of autism. Hg exposures were comparable between diagnostic groups, and a porphyrin pattern consistent with that seen in Hg-exposed adults was not apparent.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2957928/

concentrations of

and copro-porphyrins

prolonged mercury (Hg) exposure
in adults, and comparable
increases have been attributed
to Hg exposure in
children with autism.”

“These data document that exposure to thimerosal during early postnatal life
produces lasting alterations in the densities of brain opioid receptors along with
other neuropathological changes, which may disturb brain development.”
Neurochemistry Research • November 2010

Neonatal administration of thimerosal
causes persistent changes in mu opioid receptors in the rat brain
Author information
Olczak M1, Duszczyk M, Mierzejewski P, Bobrowicz T, Majewska MD.
Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of the Nervous System
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
Thimerosal added to some pediatric vaccines is suspected in pathogenesis of several neurodevelopmental disorders. Our previous study showed that thimerosal administered to suckling rats causes persistent, endogenous
opioid-mediated hypoalgesia. Here we examined, using immunohistochemical staining technique, the density of
μ-opioid receptors (MORs) in the brains of rats, which in the second postnatal week received four i.m. injections
of thimerosal at doses 12, 240, 1,440 or 3,000 μg Hg/kg. The periaqueductal gray, caudate putamen and hippocampus were examined. Thimerosal administration caused dose-dependent statistically significant increase in
MOR densities in the periaqueductal gray and caudate putamen, but decrease in the dentate gyrus, where it was
accompanied by the presence of degenerating neurons and loss of synaptic vesicle marker (synaptophysin). These
data document that exposure to thimerosal during early postnatal life produces lasting alterations in the densities
of brain opioid receptors along with other neuropathological changes, which may disturb brain development.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2957583/

“our data demonstrated that the toxicokinetics of Thimerosal (ethyl mercury)
is completely different from that of methyl mercury.”
Archives of Toxicology • Inorganic Compounds • November 2010

Identification and distribution of mercury species in rat tissues
following administration of thimerosal or methylmercury
Jairo L. Rodrigues, Juliana M. Serpeloni, Bruno L. Batista, Samuel S. Souza, Fernando BarbosaJr
Abstract
Methylmercury (Met-Hg) is one the most toxic forms of Hg, with a considerable range of harmful effects on humans. Sodium ethyl mercury thiosalicylate, thimerosal (TM) is an ethylmercury (Et-Hg)-containing preservative
that has been used in manufacturing vaccines in many countries. Whereas the behavior of Met-Hg in humans is
relatively well known, that of ethylmercury (Et-Hg) is poorly understood. The present study describes the distribution of mercury as (-methyl, -ethyl and inorganic mercury) in rat tissues (brain, heart, kidney and liver) and
blood following administration of TM or Met-Hg. Animals received one dose/day of Met-Hg or TM by gavage
(0.5 mg Hg/kg). Blood samples were collected after 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 and 120 h of exposure. After 5 days, the animals were killed, and their tissues were collected. Total blood mercury (THg) levels were determined by ICP-MS,
and methylmercury (Met-Hg), ethylmercury (Et-Hg) and inorganic mercury (Ino-Hg) levels were determined by
speciation analysis with LC-ICP-MS. Mercury remains longer in the blood of rats treated with Met-Hg compared
to that of TM-exposed rats. Moreover, after 48 h of the TM treatment, most of the Hg found in blood was inorganic. Of the total mercury found in the brain after TM exposure, 63% was in the form of Ino-Hg, with 13.5% as
Et-Hg and 23.7% as Met-Hg. In general, mercury in tissues and blood following TM treatment was predominantly
found as Ino-Hg, but a considerable amount of Et-Hg was also found in the liver and brain. Taken together, our
data demonstrated that the toxicokinetics of TM is completely different from that of Met-Hg. Thus, Met-Hg is not
an appropriate reference for assessing the risk from exposure to TM-derived Hg. It also adds new data for further
studies in the evaluation of TM toxicity.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00204-010-0538-4

Clinica Chimica Acta • November 2010

Making sense of epidemiological studies
of young children exposed to thimerosal in vaccines
Author information
Dórea JG.
C.P. 04322, Universidade de Brasilia
70919-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
OBJECTIVE:
To compare epidemiological studies dealing with neurological issues (compatible with Hg toxicity) linked to exposing newborns and infants to intramuscular
doses of preservative-Hg resulting from vaccination with thimerosal-containing
vaccines (TCV).
METHODS:
Major databases were searched for studies that addressed neurodevelopment
outcomes other than autism. Eight studies were identified and compared.
RESULTS:
Information extracted from the studies done in the USA, the UK, and Italy is
important in understanding the complex interplay of variables but insufficient
to establish non-toxicity for infants and young children still receiving TCV: a)
there is ambiguity in some studies reporting neurodevelopment outcomes that
seem to depend on confounding variables; b) the risk of neurotoxicity due to
low doses of thimerosal is plausible at least for susceptible infants; c) there is
a need to address these issues in less developed countries still using TCV in
pregnant mothers, newborns, and young children.
CONCLUSIONS:
Since the use of TCV is still inevitable in many countries, this increases the
need to protect vulnerable infants and promote actions that strengthen neurodevelopment. Developing countries should intensify campaigns that include
breastfeeding among efforts to help prime the central nervous system to tolerate
exposure to neurotoxic substances, especially thimerosal-Hg.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20638374?dopt=Abstract

“Since the use of thimerosal-containing
vaccines is still inevitable in many
countries, this increases the need to
protect vulnerable infants ...”

“The neurotoxic effects of both mercurials are interwoven with their modulatory actions on
GABA(A) and NMDA receptors, which most likely involve binding to these macromolecules.”
Journal Of Physiological Pharmacology • December 2010

Intermingled modulatory and neurotoxic effects of thimerosal
and mercuric ions on electrophysiological responses to
GABA and NMDA in hippocampal neurons
Author information
Wyrembek P1, Szczuraszek K, Majewska MD, Mozrzymas JW.
Laboratory of Neuroscience, Department of Biophysics
Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
paulina_wyrembek@op.pl
Abstract
The organomercurial, thimerosal, is at the center of medical controversy as a suspected factor contributing to
neurodevelopmental disorders in children. Many neurotoxic effects of thimerosal have been described, but its interaction with principal excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmiter systems is not known. We examined, using electrophysiological recordings, thimerosal effects on GABA and NMDA-evoked currents in cultured hippocampal
neurons. After brief (3 to 10 min) exposure to thimerosal at concentrations up to 100 μM, there was no significant
effect on GABA or NMDA-evoked currents. However, following exposure for 60-90 min to 1 or 10 μM thimerosal, there was a significant decrease in NMDA-induced currents (p<0.05) and GABAergic currents (p<0.05).
Thimerosal was also neurotoxic, damaging a significant proportion of neurons after 60-90 min exposure; recordings were always conducted in the healthiest looking neurons. Mercuric chloride, at concentrations 1 μM and
above, was even more toxic, killing a large proportion of cells after just a few minutes of exposure. Recordings
from a few sturdy cells revealed that micromolar mercuric chloride markedly potentiated the GABAergic currents
(p<0.05), but reduced NMDA-evoked currents (p<0.05). The results reveal complex interactions of thimerosal
and mercuric ions with the GABA(A) and NMDA receptors. Mercuric chloride act rapidly, decreasing electrophysiological responses to NMDA but enhancing responses to GABA, while thimerosal works slowly, reducing
both NMDA and GABA responses. The neurotoxic effects of both mercurials are interwoven with their modulatory actions on GABA(A) and NMDA receptors, which most likely involve binding to these macromolecules.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21224507

“... results show an association between the apparent level of mercury toxicity
as measured by recognized urinary porphyrin biomarkers of mercury toxicity
and the magnitude of the specific hallmark features of autism ...”
Biometals • December 2010

A biomarker of mercury body-burden correlated with diagnostic domain
specific clinical symptoms of autism spectrum disorder
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA, Adams JB, Geier MR.
Autism Treatment Center, Dallas, TX, USA
jkern@dfwair.net
Abstract
The study purpose was to compare the quantitative results from tests for urinary porphyrins, where some of these
porphyrins are known biomarkers of heavy metal toxicity, to the independent assessments from a recognized
quantitative measurement, the Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC), of specific domains of autistic
disorders symptoms (Speech/Language, Sociability, Sensory/Cognitive Awareness, and Health/Physical/Behavior) in a group of children having a clinical diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). After a Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) evaluation to assess the development of each child in this study and aid in confirming
their classification, and an ATEC was completed by a parent, a urinary porphyrin profile sample was collected and
sent out for blinded analysis. Urinary porphyrins from twenty-four children, 2-13 years of age, diagnosed with
autism or PDD-NOS were compared to their ATEC scores as well as their scores in the specific domains (Speech/
Language, Sociability, Sensory/Cognitive Awareness, and Health/Physical/Behavior) assessed by ATEC. Their
urinary porphyrin samples were evaluated at Laboratoire Philippe Auguste (which is an ISO-approved clinical
laboratory). The results of the study indicated that the participants’ overall ATEC scores and their scores on each
of the ATEC subscales (Speech/Language, Sociability, Sensory/Cognitive Awareness, and Health/Physical/Behavior) were linearly related to urinary porphyrins associated with mercury toxicity. The results show an association between the apparent level of mercury toxicity as measured by recognized urinary porphyrin biomarkers of
mercury toxicity and the magnitude of the specific hallmark features of autism as assessed by ATEC.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20532957

“... there has been a great deal of information
... that repetitive mercury exposure during pregnancy, through thimerosal,
dental amalgam, and fish consumption, and after birth, through thimerosal-containing vaccinations ...
is one potential factor in autism.”
Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities • 2010

Mercury and Autism: A Review
Jie Zhang John J. Wheeler
The College at Brockport, SUNY Tennessee Technological University
Abstract
The prevalence of autism has increased approximately four times in children in nearly one decade (California Health and
Human Services Agency, 2003). It has been reported that explanations such as immigration, shifts in the interpretation of
diagnostic criteria, improved identification, or diagnostic accuracies cannot explain the observed increase (Geier & Geier,
2005). One potential cause that has alarmed many has been the presence of thimersol, the mercury-based preservative
found among immunizations. Although many refute this, concern has been leveled by many families and professionals
concerning the potential impact of mercury poisoning as a causal factor. Researchers have proposed that autism may be
in part caused by mercury, because there was cumulative mercury exposure through dental amalgam, fish consumption,
environment pollution, and additionally, through increased thimerosal-containing vaccines for both mothers and newborns (Mutter, Naumann, Schneider, Walach, & Haley, 2005). The purpose of this study is to review the information from
studies concerning the relationship between mercury exposure and autism.
Conclusion
To sum up, there has been a great deal of information from different studies that seems to indicate that repetitive mercury exposure during pregnancy, through thimerosal, dental amalgam, and fish consumption, and after birth, through
thimerosal-containing vaccinations and pollution, in genetically susceptible individuals is one potential factor in autism.
Certainly this question continues to stir debate among professionals across the medical and behavioral sciences. It serves
as a grey area for many families as they seek to quell their anxiety invoked by this debate by discovering the facts. The
purpose of this article was to synthesize the findings relative to this question to hopefully serve as a resource to educators
as we seek to become more well-informed on this timely issue. As the prevalence rate for autism in children continues
to rise, more research is needed to better understand causal factors. It is also crucial that quality reviews be conducted to
synthesize a body of knowledge pertaining to these questions if the puzzle is to be solved pertaining to the link between
mercury exposure and autism.

http://www.daddcec.org/Portals/0/CEC/Autism_Disabilities/Research/Publications/Education_Training_Development_Disabilities/2010v45_Journals/ETDD_201003v45n1p107-115_Mercury_Autism_A_Review.pdf

Acta Neurobiologiea Experimentalis • 2010

Age-dependent
lower or higher levels of hair mercury
in autistic children than in healthy controls
Author information
Majewska MD1, Urbanowicz E, Rok-Bujko P,
Namyslowska I, Mierzejewski P.
1Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of the Nervous System
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Warsaw, Poland
majewska@ipin.edu.pl
Abstract
An association between autism and early life exposure to mercury is a
hotly debated issue. In this study, 91 autistic Polish children, male and
female, 3-4 and 7-9 years old, were compared to 75 age- and sex-matched
healthy children with respect to: demographic, perinatal, clinical and developmental measures, parental age, birth order, morphometric measures,
vaccination history, and hair mercury content. In demographic and perinatal measures there were no consistent differences between the autistic and
control groups. Autistic children had a significantly greater prevalence
of adverse reactions after vaccinations and abnormal development than
controls. Between 45 and 80% of autistic children experienced developmental regress. Autistic children significantly differed from healthy peers
in the concentrations of mercury in hair: younger autistics had lower levels, while older - higher levels than their respective controls. The results
suggest that autistic children differ from healthy children in metabolism
of mercury, which seems to change with age.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20628443

“The results suggest
that autistic children
differ from healthy children
in metabolism of mercury,
which seems to change with age.”

Acta Neurobiologiea Experimentalis • 2010

Sorting out the spinning of autism:
heavy metals and the question of incidence
Author information
Desoto MC1, Hitlan RT.
1Department of Psychology
University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, Iowa, USA
cathy.desoto@uni.edu
Abstract
The reasons for the rise in autism prevalence are a subject of heated
professional debate. Featuring a critical appraisal of some research
used to question whether rising levels of autism are related to environmental exposure to toxins (Soden et al. 2007, Barbaresi et al. 2009,
Thompson et al. 2007) we aim to evaluate the actual state of scientific knowledge. In addition, we surveyed the empirical research on
the topic of autism and heavy metal toxins. In our opinion empirical
investigations are finding support for a link with heavy metal toxins.
The various causes that have led to the increase in autism diagnosis
are likely multi-faceted, and understanding the causes is one of the
most important health topics today. We argue that scientific research
does not support rejecting the link between the neurodevelopmental
disorder of autism and toxic exposures.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20628440

“In our opinion empirical investigations
are finding support for a link with heavy
metal toxins. We argue that scientific
research does not support rejecting the
link between the neurodevelopmental
disorder of autism and toxic exposures.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • 2010

Delayed acquisition
of neonatal reflexes in newborn primates
receiving a thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccine:
influence of gestational age and birth weight
Author information
Hewitson L1, Houser LA, Stott C, Sackett G,
Tomko JL, Atwood D, Blue L, White ER.
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
lch1@pitt.edu
Abstract
This study examined whether acquisition of neonatal reflexes in newborn rhesus macaques
was influenced by receipt of a single neonatal dose of hepatitis B vaccine containing the
preservative thimerosal (Th). Hepatitis B vaccine containing a weight-adjusted Th dose
was administered to male macaques within 24 h of birth (n = 13). Unexposed animals
received saline placebo (n = 4) or no injection (n = 3). Infants were tested daily for acquisition of nine survival, motor, and sensorimotor reflexes. In exposed animals there was
a significant delay in the acquisition of root, snout, and suck reflexes, compared with
unexposed animals. No neonatal responses were significantly delayed in unexposed animals. Gestational age (GA) and birth weight (BW) were not significantly correlated. Cox
regression models were used to evaluate main effects and interactions of exposure with
BW and GA as independent predictors and time-invariant covariates. Significant main effects remained for exposure on root and suck when controlling for GA and BW, such that
exposed animals were relatively delayed in time-to-criterion. Interaction models indicated
there were various interactions between exposure, GA, and BW and that inclusion of the
relevant interaction terms significantly improved model fit. This, in turn, indicated that
lower BW and/or lower GA exacerbated the adverse effects following vaccine exposure.
This primate model provides a possible means of assessing adverse neurodevelopmental
outcomes from neonatal Th-containing hepatitis B vaccine exposure, particularly in infants of lower GA or BW. The mechanisms underlying these effects and the requirements
for Th requires further study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20711932

“This primate model
provides a possible means of assessing
adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes from
neonatal Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccine
exposure, particularly in infants ...”

Acta Neurobiologia Experimentalis • 2010

Blood mercury levels in autism spectrum disorder:
Is there a threshold level?
Author information
Geier DA1, Audhya T, Kern JK, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc.
Silver Spring, MD, USA
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) may significantly impact the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Lab results generated by Vitamin Diagnostics (CLIA-approved)
from 2003-2007, were examined among subjects diagnosed with an ASD (n=83)
in comparison to neurotypical controls (n=89). Blood Hg levels were determined
by analyzing Hg content in red blood cells (RBC) using cold vapor analysis, and
consistent Hg measurements were observed between Vitamin Diagnostics and
the University of Rochester. Adjusted (age, gender, and date of collection) mean
Hg levels were 1.9-fold significantly (P<.0001) increased among subjects diagnosed with an ASD (21.4 microg/L) in comparison to controls (11.4 microg/L).
Further, an adjusted significant (P<.0005) threshold effect >15 microg/L) was
observed for Hg levels on the risk of a subject being diagnosed with an ASD in
comparison to controls (odds ratio=6.4). The weight of scientific evidence supports Hg as a causal factor in subjects diagnosed with an ASD.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20628441

“The weight of scientific evidence
supports ethyl mercury as a causal factor
in subjects diagnosed with
an Autistic Spectrum Disorder”

“These findings document neurotoxic effects of thimerosal,
at doses equivalent to those used in infant vaccines ...”
Folia Neuropathology • 2010

Lasting neuropathological changes in rat brain
after intermittent neonatal administration of thimerosal
Author information
Olczak M1, Duszczyk M, Mierzejewski P, Wierzba-Bobrowicz T, Majewska MD.
Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of the Nervous System,
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, ul. Sobieskiego 9, Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
Thimerosal, an organomercurial added as a preservative to some vaccines, is a suspected iatrogenic factor, possibly contributing to paediatric neurodevelopmental disorders including autism. We examined the effects of early
postnatal administration of thimerosal (four i.m. injections, 12 or 240 μg THIM-Hg/kg, on postnatal days 7, 9, 11
and 15) on brain pathology in Wistar rats. Numerous neuropathological changes were observed in young adult rats
which were treated postnatally with thimerosal. They included: ischaemic degeneration of neurons and “dark”
neurons in the prefrontal and temporal cortex, the hippocampus and the cerebellum, pathological changes of the
blood vessels in the temporal cortex, diminished synaptophysin reaction in the hippocampus, atrophy of astroglia
in the hippocampus and cerebellum, and positive caspase-3 reaction in Bergmann astroglia. These findings document neurotoxic effects of thimerosal, at doses equivalent to those used in infant vaccines or higher, in developing
rat brain, suggesting likely involvement of this mercurial in neurodevelopmental disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21225508

“... investigators have long recognized that Hg is a neurodevelopmental poison;
it can cause problems in neuronal cell migration and division,
and can ultimately cause cell degeneration and death.”
Acta Neurobiologia Experimentalis • 2010

The biological basis of autism spectrum disorders:
Understanding causation and treatment by clinical geneticists
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, Geier MR.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) also known as pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) are a behaviorally defined
group of neurodevelopmental disorders that are usually diagnosed in early childhood. ASDs disproportionately affect
male children. Mercury (Hg) a heavy metal, is widespread and persistent in the environment. Mercury is a ubiquitous
source of danger in fish, drugs, fungicides/herbicides, dental fillings, thermometers, and many other products. Elevated
Hg concentrations may remain in the brain from several years to decades following exposure. This is important because
investigators have long recognized that Hg is a neurodevelopmental poison; it can cause problems in neuronal cell migration and division, and can ultimately cause cell degeneration and death. Case-reports of patients have described developmental regressions with ASD symptoms following fetal and/or early childhood Hg exposure, and epidemiological studies
have linked exposure to Hg with an elevated risk of a patient being diagnosed with an ASD. Immune, sensory, neurological, motor, and behavioral dysfunctions similar to traits defining or associated with ASDs were reported following Hg
intoxication with similarities extending to neuroanatomy, neurotransmitters, and biochemistry. The sexual dimorphism
of ASDs may result from synergistic neurotoxicity caused by the interaction of testosterone and Hg; in contrast, estrogen
is protective, mitigating the toxicity of Hg. Mercury exposure may significantly increase androgen levels, and as a result,
patients diagnosed with an ASD may significantly benefit from anti-androgen therapy. Finally, the clinical geneticist has
a wealth of biomarkers to evaluate and treat patients diagnosed with an ASD.
Access to full report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20628444

Neurotoxicity Research • January 2011

Correlations Between Gene Expression
and Mercury Levels in Blood of
Boys With and Without Autism
Boryana Stamova,1,9,10 Peter G. Green,2 Yingfang Tian,1,9,10 Irva Hertz-Picciotto,3,9,10 Isaac N. Pessah,4,9,10 Robin Hansen,5,9,10 Xiaowei Yang,3 Jennifer Teng,1 Jeffrey P. Gregg,6,9,10 Paul Ashwood,7,9,10
Judy Van de Water,8,9,10 and Frank R. Sharp1,9,10
1. Department of Neurology, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA USA
3. Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
4. Department of VM: Molecular Biosciences, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
5. Department of Pediatrics, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
6. Department of Pathology, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
7. Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
8. Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA
9. The MIND Institute, University of California at Davis Medical Center, 2805 50th Street, Room 2434, Sacramento, CA USA
10. UC Davis Center for Children’s Environmental Health and Disease Prevention, Sacramento, CA USA

Abstract
Gene expression in blood was correlated with mercury levels in blood of 2- to 5-year-old boys with autism (AU)
compared to age-matched typically developing (TD) control boys. This was done to address the possibility that
the two groups might metabolize toxicants, such as mercury, differently. RNA was isolated from blood and gene
expression assessed on whole genome Affymetrix Human U133 expression microarrays. Mercury levels were
measured using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed and partial correlations between gene expression and mercury levels were calculated, after correcting for
age and batch effects. To reduce false positives, only genes shared by the ANCOVA models were analyzed. Of
the 26 genes that correlated with mercury levels in both AU and TD boys, 11 were significantly different between
the groups (P(Diagnosis*Mercury) ≤ 0.05). The expression of a large number of genes (n = 316) correlated with
mercury levels in TD but not in AU boys (P ≤ 0.05), the most represented biological functions being cell death and
cell morphology. Expression of 189 genes correlated with mercury levels in AU but not in TD boys (P ≤ 0.05), the
most represented biological functions being cell morphology, amino acid metabolism, and antigen presentation.
These data and those in our companion study on correlation of gene expression and lead levels show that AU and
TD children display different correlations between transcript levels and low levels of mercury and lead. These
findings might suggest different genetic transcriptional programs associated with mercury in AU compared to TD
children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3006666/

“These data and those in our companion study
on correlation of gene expression and lead levels
show that Autistic and Typically Developing
children display different correlations between
transcript levels and low levels of mercury and lead.
These findings might suggest different
genetic transcriptional programs associated with
mercury in Autistic compared to Typically
Developing children.”

Journal Of Occupational Medicine And Toxicology • January 2011

Is dental amalgam safe for humans?
The opinion of the scientific committee
of the European Commission
Author information
Mutter J.
Department of Environmental and integrative medicine
Lohnerhofstraße 2, 78467 Constance/Germany
jm@zahnklinik.de.

“The half-life of mercury in the brain
can last from several years to decades,
thus mercury accumulates over time

Abstract
It was claimed by the Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR)) in a report to the EU-Commission that “....
no risks of adverse systemic effects exist and the current use of dental amalgam does not pose a risk of systemic disease...” [1, available from: http://
ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scenihr/docs/scenihr_o_016.
pdf].SCENIHR disregarded the toxicology of mercury and did not include
most important scientific studies in their review. But the real scientific data
show that:(a) Dental amalgam is by far the main source of human total
mercury body burden. This is proven by autopsy studies which found 2-12
times more mercury in body tissues of individuals with dental amalgam.
Autopsy studies are the most valuable and most important studies for examining the amalgam-caused mercury body burden.(b) These autopsy studies
have shown consistently that many individuals with amalgam have toxic
levels of mercury in their brains or kidneys.(c) There is no correlation between mercury levels in blood or urine, and the levels in body tissues or the
severity of clinical symptoms. SCENIHR only relied on levels in urine or
blood.(d) The half-life of mercury in the brain can last from several years
to decades, thus mercury accumulates over time of amalgam exposure in
body tissues to toxic levels. However, SCENIHR state that the half-life of
mercury in the body is only “20-90 days”.(e) Mercury vapor is about ten
times more toxic than lead on human neurons and with synergistic toxicity
to other metals.(f) Most studies cited by SCENIHR which conclude that
amalgam fillings are safe have severe methodical flaws.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3025977/

of amalgam exposure in body tissues
to toxic levels. However, SCENIHR state
that the half-life of mercury in the body
is only “20-90 days”. Mercury vapor is
about ten times more toxic than lead on
human neurons and with synergistic
toxicity to other metals. Most studies
cited by SCENIHR which conclude
that amalgam fillings are safe
have severe methodical flaws.”

Toxicology And Environmental Chemistry • February 2011

Toxicity biomarkers among US children
compared to a similar cohort in France:
a blinded study measuring urinary porphyrins
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA2, Ayzac F3, Adams JB4, Mehta JA5, Geier MR6.
1. Genetic Consultants of Dallas, 408 North Allen Drive, Allen, TX
Autism Treatment Center, 10503 Metric Drive, Dallas, TX
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas
5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX
2. CoMeD, Inc. and Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc.
14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD 20905
3. Autism Research Institute, 4182 Adams Avenue, San Diego, CA 92116
4. Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Arizona State University
7001 East Williams Field Road, Mesa, AZ 85212
5. Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Texas Woman’s University
304 Administration Drive, Denton, Texas 76204, USA
6. Autism Spectrum Disorder Centers, LLC
14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
The purpose of this blinded study was to evaluate potential environmental toxicity in a
cohort of neurotypical children (n = 28) living in a suburban area of north-central Texas
in the United States (US) with a comparable age- and gender-matched cohort of neurotypical children (n = 28) living in a suburban area of southeastern France using urinary
porphyrin testing: uroporphyrin (uP), heptacarboxyporphyrin (7cxP), hexacarboxyporphyrin (6cxP), pentacarboxyporphyrin (5cxP), precoproporphyrin (prcP), and coproporphyrin (cP). Results showed significantly elevated 6cxP, prcP (an atypical, mercury-specific porphyrin), and cP levels, and increasing trends in 5cxP levels, among neurotypical
children in the USA compared to children in France. Data suggest that in US neurotypical
children, there is a significantly increased body-burden of mercury (Hg) compared to the
body-burden of Hg in the matched neurotypical children in France. The presence of lead
contributing to the higher levels of cP also needs to be considered. Further, other factors
including genetics can not be completely ruled out.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898545/

“Data suggest that
in US neurotypical children, there is a significantly
increased body-burden of mercury compared to the
body-burden of mercury in the matched
neurotypical children in France.”

Biometals • April 2011

A significant relationship
between mercury exposure from dental amalgams a
nd urinary porphyrins: a further assessment of the
Casa Pia children’s dental amalgam trial
Author information
Geier DA1, Carmody T, Kern JK, King PG, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
Previous studies noted specific changes in urinary porphyrin excretion patterns
associated with exposure to mercury (Hg) in animals and humans. In our study,
urinary porphyrin concentrations were examined in normal children 8-18 yearsold from a reanalysis of data provided from a randomized, prospective clinical
trial that was designed to evaluate the potential health consequences of prolonged
exposure to Hg from dental amalgam fillings (the parent study). Our analysis examined dose-dependent correlations between increasing Hg exposure from dental amalgams and urinary porphyrins utilizing statistical models with adjustments
for the baseline level (i.e. study year 1) of the following variables: urinary Hg,
each urinary porphyrin measure, gender, race, and the level of lead (Pb) in each
subject’s blood. Significant dose-dependent correlations between cumulative exposure to Hg from dental amalgams and urinary porphyrins associated with Hg
body-burden (pentacarboxyporphyrin, precoproporphyrin, and coproporphyrin)
were observed. Overall, 5-10% increases in Hg-associated porphyrins for subjects
receiving an average number of dental amalgam fillings in comparison to subjects receiving only composite fillings were observed over the 8-year course of the
study. In contrast, no significant correlations were observed between cumulative
exposure to Hg from dental amalgams and urinary porphyrins not associated with
Hg body-burden (uroporphyrin, heptacarboxyporphyrin, and hexacarboxyporphyrin). In conclusion, our study, in contrast to the no-effect results published from the
parent study, further establishes the sensitivity and specificity of specific urinary
porphyrins as a biomarker for low-level Hg body-burden, and also reveals that
dental amalgams are a significant chronic contributor to Hg body-burden.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21053054

“In conclusion, our study,
in contrast to the no-effect results published
from the parent study, further establishes the
sensitivity and specificity of specific urinary
porphyrins as a biomarker for low-level mercury
body-burden, and also reveals that dental
amalgams are a significant chronic
contributor to mercury body-burden.”

“Recent studies suggest that children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder
have significantly increased levels of urinary porphyrins associated with mercury (Hg) toxicity ...”
Pediatrics International • April 2011

Toxicity biomarkers in autism spectrum disorder:
a blinded study of urinary porphyrins
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA, Adams JB, Mehta JA, Grannemann BD, Geier MR.
Research Department, Genetics Consultants of Dallas/ASD Centers, LLC.,
408 N. Allen Dr, Allen, TX 75013, USA
jkern@dfwair.net
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Recent studies suggest that children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have significantly increased levels of urinary porphyrins associated with mercury (Hg) toxicity, including pentacarboxyporphyrin
(5cxP), precoproporphyrin (prcP), and coproporphyrin (cP), compared to typically developing controls. However,
these initial studies were criticized because the controls were not age- and gender-matched to the children diagnosed with an ASD.
METHODS
Urinary porphyrin biomarkers in a group of children (2-13 years of age) diagnosed with an ASD (n= 20) were
compared to matched (age, gender, race, location, and year tested) group of typically developing controls (n=
20).
RESULTS
Participants diagnosed with an ASD had significantly increased levels of 5cxP, prcP, and cP in comparison to
controls. No significant differences were found in non-Hg associated urinary porphyrins (uroporphyrins, hexacarboxyporphyrin, and heptacarboxyporphyrin). There was a significantly increased odds ratio for an ASD diagnosis relative to controls among study participants with precoproporphyrin (odds ratio = 15.5, P < 0.01) and
coproporphyrin (odds ratio = 15.5, P < 0.01) levels in the second through fourth quartiles in comparison to the
first quartile.
CONCLUSION
These results suggest that the levels of Hg-toxicity-associated porphyrins are higher in children with an ASD diagnosis than controls. Although the pattern seen (increased 5cxP, prcP, and cP) is characteristic of Hg toxicity, the
influence of other factors, such as genetics and other metals cannot be completely ruled out.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20626635

“Mercury (Hg) is recognized as a ubiquitous environmental neurotoxin and there is
mounting evidence linking it to neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism.”
Toxicology And Environmental Chemistry • May 2011

The plausibility of a role for mercury
in the etiology of autism: a cellular perspective
Matthew Garrecht and David W. Austin
Swinburne Autism Bio-Research Initiative
Faculty of Life and Social Sciences
Swinburne University of Technology
Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
Abstract
Autism is defined by a behavioral set of stereotypic and repetitious behavioral patterns in combination with social
and communication deficits. There is emerging evidence supporting the hypothesis that autism may result from a
combination of genetic susceptibility and exposure to environmental toxins at critical moments in development.
Mercury (Hg) is recognized as a ubiquitous environmental neurotoxin and there is mounting evidence linking it
to neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism. Of course, the evidence is not derived from experimental trials with humans but rather from methods focusing on biomarkers of Hg damage, measurements of Hg exposure,
epidemiological data, and animal studies. For ethical reasons, controlled Hg exposure in humans will never be
conducted. Therefore, to properly evaluate the Hg-autism etiological hypothesis, it is essential to first establish
the biological plausibility of the hypothesis. This review examines the plausibility of Hg as the primary etiological agent driving the cellular mechanisms by which Hg-induced neurotoxicity may result in the physiological
attributes of autism. Key areas of focus include: (1) route and cellular mechanisms of Hg exposure in autism; (2)
current research and examples of possible genetic variables that are linked to both Hg sensitivity and autism; (3)
the role Hg may play as an environmental toxin fueling the oxidative stress found in autism; (4) role of mitochondrial dysfunction; and (5) possible role of Hg in abnormal neuroexcitory and excitotoxity that may play a role in
the immune dysregulation found in autism. Future research directions that would assist in addressing the gaps in
our knowledge are proposed.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3173748/

Neurochemical Research • June 2011

Integrating experimental (in vitro and in vivo)
neurotoxicity studies of low-dose thimerosal
relevant to vaccines
Author information
Dórea JG.
Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasília
CP 04322, 70919-970, Brasília, DF, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
There is a need to interpret neurotoxic studies to help deal with uncertainties surrounding pregnant mothers, newborns and young children who must receive repeated doses of
Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs). This review integrates information derived from
emerging experimental studies (in vitro and in vivo) of low-dose Thimerosal (sodium ethyl mercury thiosalicylate). Major databases (PubMed and Web-of-science) were searched
for in vitro and in vivo experimental studies that addressed the effects of low-dose Thimerosal (or ethylmercury) on neural tissues and animal behaviour. Information extracted
from studies indicates that: (a) activity of low doses of Thimerosal against isolated human
and animal brain cells was found in all studies and is consistent with Hg neurotoxicity; (b)
the neurotoxic effect of ethylmercury has not been studied with co-occurring adjuvant-Al
in TCVs; (c) animal studies have shown that exposure to Thimerosal-Hg can lead to accumulation of inorganic Hg in brain, and that (d) doses relevant to TCV exposure possess
the potential to affect human neuro-development. Thimerosal at concentrations relevant
for infants’ exposure (in vaccines) is toxic to cultured human-brain cells and to laboratory
animals. The persisting use of TCV (in developing countries) is counterintuitive to global
efforts to lower Hg exposure and to ban Hg in medical products; its continued use in TCV
requires evaluation of a sufficiently nontoxic level of ethylmercury compatible with repeated exposure (co-occurring with adjuvant-Al) during early life.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21350943

“... activity of low doses of Thimerosal
against isolated human and animal
brain cells was found in all studies and
is consistent with mercury neurotoxicity ...
animal studies have shown that exposure to
Thimerosal-Hg can lead to accumulation
of inorganic mercury in brain, and that doses
relevant to Thimerosal-containing vaccine
exposure possess the potential to affect
human neuro-development.”

Biological Trace Elements Research • June 2011

Automated speciation of mercury
in the hair of breastfed infants exposed to ethylmercury
from thimerosal-containing vaccines
Author information
Dórea JG1, Wimer W, Marques RC, Shade C.
Universidade de Brasília, C.P.04322, 70919-970
Brasília, Federal District, Brasil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
A simplified thiourea-based chromatography method, originally developed for methyl
and inorganic mercury, was adapted to separate methylmercury (MeHg), ethylmercury
(EtHg), and inorganic mercury (Hg(II)) in infants’ hair. Samples were weighed and
leached with an acidic thiourea solution. Leachates were concentrated on a polymeric
resin prior to analysis by Hg-thiourea liquid chromatography/cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectrometry. All but one sample showed small amounts of EtHg, and four
of the six analyzed samples had proportionally higher Hg(II) as a percent of total Hg.
Breastfed infants from riverine Amazonian communities are exposed to mercury in
breast milk (from high levels of maternal sources that include both fish consumption
and dental amalgam) and to EtHg in vaccines (from thimerosal). The method proved
sensitive enough to detect and quantify acute EtHg exposure after shots of thimerosalcontaining vaccines. Based on work with MeHg and Hg(II), estimated detection limits
for this method are 0.050, 0.10, and 0.10 ng g∼¹ for MeHg, Hg(II), and EtHg, respectively, for a 20-mg sample. Specific limits depend on the amount of sample extracted
and the amount of extract injected.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20419397

“The method proved
sensitive enough to detect
and quantify acute Ethyl Mercury
exposure after shots of
thimerosal-containing vaccines.”

“... significant elevation in the concentration of copper, lead and mercury ...”
Biological Trace Element Research • August 2011

Level of trace elements (copper, zinc, magnesium and selenium)
and toxic elements (lead and mercury) in the hair and nail of children with autism
Author information
Lakshmi Priya MD1, Geetha A.
Department of Biochemistry, Bharathi Women’s College
Chennai, 600 108 Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
Autism is a multi-factorial pathology observed in children with altered levels of essential and elevated levels of toxic elements.
There are also studies reporting a decrease in nutritional trace elements in the hair and nail of autistic children with healthy controls; moreover, bioelements have been shown to play an important role in the central nervous system. Therefore, the purpose of the
present study was to assess the levels of trace elements like copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), magnesium (Mg), and selenium (Se) and toxic
elements like mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) in the hair and nail samples of autistic children and to evaluate whether the level of these
elements could be correlated with the severity of autism. The subjects of the study were 45 autistic children with different grades
of severity (low (LFA), medium (MFA), and high (HFA) functioning autism) according to Childhood Autism Rating Scale, n = 15
children in each group and 50 healthy children (age and sex matched). The boys and girls ratio involved in this study was 4:1, and
they were 4-12 years of age. The study observed a valid indication of Cu body burden in the autistic children. The children with
different grades of autism showed high significance (p < 0.001) in the level of copper in their hair and nail samples when compared
to healthy controls. The level of Cu in the autistic children could be correlated with their degree of severity (more the Cu burden
severe is autism). The study showed a significant elevation (p < 0.001) in the levels of toxic metals Pb and Hg in both hair and nail
samples of autistic children when compared to healthy control group. The elevation was much pronounced in LFA group subjects
when compared among autistic groups MFA and HFA. The levels of trace elements Mg and Se were significantly decreased (p <
0.001) in autistic children when compared to control. The trace element Zn showed significant variation in both hair and nails of
LFA group children when compared to control group and other study groups. The significant elevation in the concentration of Cu,
Pb, and Hg and significant decrease in the concentration of Mg and Se observed in the hair and nail samples of autistic subjects
could be well correlated with their degrees of severity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20625937

The Science Of The Total Environment • September 2011

Mercury exposure and risks
from dental amalgam in the US population
post-2000
Author information
Richardson GM1, Wilson R,
Allard D, Purtill C, Douma S, Gravière J.
SNC-Lavalin Environment, Suite 110
20 Colonnade Road, Ottawa, ON Canada
mark.richardson@snclavalin.com
Abstract
Dental amalgam is 50% metallic mercury (Hg) by weight and Hg vapour continuously evolves from in-place dental amalgam, causing increased Hg content
with increasing amalgam load in urine, faeces, exhaled breath, saliva, blood, and
various organs and tissues including the kidney, pituitary gland, liver, and brain.
The Hg content also increases with maternal amalgam load in amniotic fluid, placenta, cord blood, meconium, various foetal tissues including liver, kidney and
brain, in colostrum and breast milk. Based on 2001 to 2004 population statistics,
181.1 million Americans carry a grand total of 1.46 billion restored teeth. Children as young as 26 months were recorded as having restored teeth. Past dental
practice and recently available data indicate that the majority of these restorations are composed of dental amalgam. Employing recent US population-based
statistics on body weight and the frequency of dentally restored tooth surfaces,
and recent research on the incremental increase in urinary Hg concentration per
amalgam-filled tooth surface, estimates of Hg exposure from amalgam fillings
were determined for 5 age groups of the US population. Three specific exposure
scenarios were considered, each scenario incrementally reducing the number of
tooth surfaces assumed to be restored with amalgam. Based on the least conservative of the scenarios evaluated, it was estimated that some 67.2 million
Americans would exceed the Hg dose associated with the reference exposure
level (REL) of 0.3 μg/m(3) established by the US Environmental Protection
Agency; and 122.3 million Americans would exceed the dose associated with
the REL of 0.03 μg/m(3) established by the California Environmental Protection
Agency. Exposure estimates are consistent with previous estimates presented
by Health Canada in 1995, and amount to 0.2 to 0.4 μg/day per amalgam-filled
tooth surface, or 0.5 to 1 μg/day/amalgam-filled tooth, depending on age and
other factors.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21782213

“Based on the least conservative of the
scenarios evaluated, it was estimated that
some 67.2 million Americans would exceed
the mercury dose associated with the reference
exposure level (REL) of 0.3 μg/m(3) established
by the US Environmental Protection Agency;
and 122.3 million Americans would exceed
the dose associated with the REL of 0.03 μg/m(3)
established by the California Environmental
Protection Agency.”

“These data document that early postnatal Thimerosal administration
causes lasting neurobehavioral impairments and neurochemical alterations in the brain ...”
Behavioral Brain Research • September 2011

Persistent behavioral impairments
and alterations of brain dopamine system
after early postnatal administration of thimerosal in rats
Author information
Olczak M1, Duszczyk M, Mierzejewski P, Meyza K, Majewska MD.
Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of the Nervous System
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, 02-957 Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
The neurotoxic organomercurial thimerosal (THIM), used for decades as vaccine preservative, is a suspected factor in the pathogenesis of some neurodevelopmental disorders. Previously we showed that neonatal administration of THIM at doses equivalent to those used in infant vaccines or higher, causes lasting alterations in the brain
opioid system in rats. Here we investigated neonatal treatment with THIM (at doses 12, 240, 1440 and 3000 μg
Hg/kg) on behaviors, which are characteristically altered in autism, such as locomotor activity, anxiety, social
interactions, spatial learning, and on the brain dopaminergic system in Wistar rats of both sexes. Adult male and
female rats, which were exposed to the entire range of THIM doses during the early postnatal life, manifested
impairments of locomotor activity and increased anxiety/neophobia in the open field test. In animals of both sexes
treated with the highest THIM dose, the frequency of prosocial interactions was reduced, while the frequency of
asocial/antisocial interactions was increased in males, but decreased in females. Neonatal THIM treatment did
not significantly affect spatial learning and memory. THIM-exposed rats also manifested reduced haloperidol-induced catalepsy, accompanied by a marked decline in the density of striatal D2 receptors, measured by immunohistochemical staining, suggesting alterations to the brain dopaminergic system. Males were more sensitive than
females to some neurodisruptive/neurotoxic actions of THIM. These data document that early postnatal THIM
administration causes lasting neurobehavioral impairments and neurochemical alterations in the brain, dependent
on dose and sex. If similar changes occur in THIM/mercurial-exposed children, they could contribute do neurodevelopmental disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21549155

Neuroscience Letters • October 2011

Chronic inorganic mercury exposure
induces sex-specific changes in central TNF expression:
importance in autism?
Author information
Thomas Curtis J1, Chen Y, Buck DJ, Davis RL.
Department of Pharmacology/Physiology
Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences
1111 West 17th Street, Tulsa, OK 74107, United States
Abstract
Mercury is neurotoxic and increasing evidence suggests that environmental exposure
to mercury may contribute to neuropathologies including Alzheimer’s disease and
autism spectrum disorders. Mercury is known to disrupt immunocompetence in the
periphery, however, little is known about the effects of mercury on neuroimmune
signaling. Mercury-induced effects on central immune function are potentially very
important given that mercury exposure and neuroinflammation both are implicated in
certain neuropathologies (i.e., autism). Furthermore, mounting evidence points to the
involvement of glial activation in autism. Therefore, we utilized an in vivo model to
assess the effects of mercury exposure on neuroimmune signaling. In prairie voles, 10
week mercury exposure (60ppm HgCl(2) in drinking water) resulted in a male-specific increase in TNF protein expression in the cerebellum and hippocampus. These
findings are consistent with our previously reported male-specific mercury-induced
deficits in social behavior and further support a role for heavy metals exposure in neuropathologies such as autism. Subsequent studies should further evaluate the mechanism of action and biological consequences of heavy metals exposure. Additionally,
these observations highlight the potential of neuroimmune markers in male voles as
biomarkers of environmental mercury toxicity.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3443965/

“These findings are consistent
with our previously reported male-specific
mercury-induced deficits in social behavior
and further support a role for heavy metals
exposure in neuropathologies such as autism.”

“... statistically significant differences in the mean urine levels of aluminum, barium, cerium, mercury ...”
Maedica Bucharest • October 2011

Heavy metals and trace elements in hair and urine
of a sample of arab children with autistic spectrum disorder
Author information
Blaurock-Busch E1, Amin OR, Rabah T.
Lecturer and Advisor
International Board of Clinical Metal Toxicology & German Medical Association of Clinical Metal Toxicology
Abstract
General information: Autism is a severe developmental disorder which involves social
withdrawal, communication deficits, and stereotypic/repetitive behavior. The pathophysiological etiologies which precipitate autism symptoms remain elusive and controversial in
many cases, but both genetic and environmental factors (and their interactions) have been
implicated. While autism is considered multicausal, environmental factors have received
significant attention. International discussion has ocused on neurotoxins such as mercury
and lead, suggesting that these and other toxic metals contribute to the development of the
disorder. An epidemiological study released in 2006 (Palmer et al.) linking Toxic Release
Inventory (TRI) data on mercury to special education data in Texas reported a 61% increase in autism prevalence rates (or 17% adjusted) per 1000 pounds of mercury released
into the environment (1). We attempted to further evaluate whether exposure to variable
environmental contributes to the genesis of autistic spectrum disorder, and thus is a factor
increasing the risk for developing autism symptoms in utero or in early childhood.

Hospital in Jeddah, KSA. Samples were collected during the period of June 2006 to March
2008. A control group of 25 children without any psychiatric or medical disorders was agematched and sex-matched. All parents signed informed consent forms. All autistic children
were subjected to a full clinical child psychiatric sheet for the diagnosis of autism spectrum
disorder and exclusion of other psychiatric disorders according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM IV). The severity of autistic symptomatology was measured by the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and Autism
Behavior Checklist (ABC) using the Arabic versions. Both groups were subjected to the
Questionnaire on Exposure to Heavy Metals, Physical Symptoms, and Child Development.
Hair and baseline urine samples (i.e. unprovoked urine) were taken from both groups and
sent to the German clinical and environmental laboratory Micro Trace Minerals Gmbh, for
the detection of heavy metals and trace elements levels where metal testing was performed
via ICP-MS spectroscopy utilizing cell technique.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to examine possible environmental risk factors and sources
of exposure to mercury and other heavy metals in children with autism spectrum disorder
versus controls. Through laboratory diagnostics we are able to distinguish between present
and past exposure (i.e. hair analysis measurements reflect past exposure), urinary excretion
levels of unprovoked urine represent immediate exposure. By assessing a spectrum of trace
elements and heavy metals in hair and urine of both autistic and control groups, we focused
on the participants≈ past and present exposure.

RESULTS
By comparing the ASD Group to the Control Group, we found a statistically significant
difference in the mean hair levels of arsenic, cadmium, barium, cerium and lead (p=0.01,
0.03, 0.003, 0.003, and 0.03 respectively), and in the mean hair levels of magnesium and
zinc (p=0.001 and 0.003 respectively). There were also statistically significant differences
in the mean urine levels of aluminum, barium, cerium, mercury, and lead (p=0.004, 002,
0.014, 0.006 and 0.004 respectively), and in the mean urine levels of copper and germanium (p=0.049 and 0.02 respectively). An agreement was found in both specimen (hair and
urine) for barium and lead. The statistically significant differences in mean hair levels of
arsenic, cadmium, and cerium were not supported by urine baseline levels. Also, the statistically significant magnesium and zinc levels of hair were not supported by urine levels. A
disagreement was also found with copper and germanium concentrations.

METHODOLOGY
The participants were 25 Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) children (22 boys and 3 girls)
between the age of 3 and 9 years. They were either diagnosed previously by other psychiatrist, psychologist, and developmental pediatrician or suspected by their parents as being
autistic. All children were attendants to the Child Psychiatric Clinic in Erfan Psychiatric

Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3391939/

Journal Of Toxicology • 2011

Toxicity of volatile methylated species
of bismuth, arsenic, tin, and mercury
in Mammalian cells in vitro
Author information
Dopp E1, von Recklinghausen U, Hippler J,
Diaz-Bone RA, Richard J, Zimmermann U,
Rettenmeier AW, Hirner AV.
Institute of Hygiene and Occupational Medicine
University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstraße 55
45122 Essen, Germany
Abstract
The biochemical transformation of mercury, tin, arsenic and bismuth
through formation of volatile alkylated species performs a fundamental role in determining the environmental processing of these elements.
While the toxicity of inorganic forms of most of these compounds are
well documented (e.g., arsenic, mercury) and some of them are of relatively low toxicity (e.g., tin, bismuth), the more lipid-soluble organometals can be highly toxic. In the present study we investigated the cyto- and
genotoxicity of five volatile metal(loid) compounds: trimethylbismuth,
dimethylarsenic iodide, trimethylarsine, tetramethyltin, and dimethylmercury. As far as we know, this is the first study investigating the toxicity of volatile metal(loid) compounds in vitro. Our results showed that
dimethylmercury was most toxic to all three used cell lines (CHO-9 cells,
CaCo, Hep-G2) followed by dimethylarsenic iodide. Tetramethyltin was
the least toxic compound; however, the toxicity was also dependend upon
the cell type. Human colon cells (CaCo) were most susceptible to the
toxicity of the volatile compounds compared to the other cell lines. We
conclude from our study that volatile metal(loid) compounds can be toxic
to mammalian cells already at very low concentrations but the toxicity
depends upon the metal(loid) species and the exposed cell type.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3189616/

“We conclude from our study
that volatile metal(loid) compounds
can be toxic to mammalian cells already
at very low concentrations but the toxicity
depends upon the metal(loid) species
and the exposed cell type.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • 2011

Ancestry of pink disease (infantile acrodynia)
identified as a risk factor for autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Shandley K1, Austin DW.
Swinburne Autism Bio-Research Initiative (SABRI)
Brain and Psychological Sciences Research Centre
Swinburne University of Technology
Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
Abstract
Pink disease (infantile acrodynia) was especially prevalent in the first half of the 20th
century. Primarily attributed to exposure to mercury (Hg) commonly found in teething
powders, the condition was developed by approximately 1 in 500 exposed children.
The differential risk factor was identified as an idiosyncratic sensitivity to Hg. Autism
spectrum disorders (ASD) have also been postulated to be produced by Hg. Analogous to the pink disease experience, Hg exposure is widespread yet only a fraction of
exposed children develop an ASD, suggesting sensitivity to Hg may also be present
in children with an ASD. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that
individuals with a known hypersensitivity to Hg (pink disease survivors) may be more
likely to have descendants with an ASD. Five hundred and twenty-two participants who
had previously been diagnosed with pink disease completed a survey on the health outcomes of their descendants. The prevalence rates of ASD and a variety of other clinical
conditions diagnosed in childhood (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, epilepsy,
Fragile X syndrome, and Down syndrome) were compared to well-established general
population prevalence rates. The results showed the prevalence rate of ASD among
the grandchildren of pink disease survivors (1 in 22) to be significantly higher than
the comparable general population prevalence rate (1 in 160). The results support the
hypothesis that Hg sensitivity may be a heritable/genetic risk factor for ASD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21797771

“Pink disease was especially prevalent
in the first half of the 20th century. Primarily
attributed to exposure to mercury commonly found
in teething powders, the condition was developed
by approximately 1 in 500 exposed children.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health • 2011

A positive association found
between autism prevalence and childhood vaccination
uptake across the U.S. population
Author information
Delong G.
Department of Economics and Finance
Baruch College/City University of New York
New York, New York, USA
gayle.delong@baruch.cuny.edu
Abstract
The reason for the rapid rise of autism in the United States that began in the 1990s is
a mystery. Although individuals probably have a genetic predisposition to develop
autism, researchers suspect that one or more environmental triggers are also needed. One of those triggers might be the battery of vaccinations that young children
receive. Using regression analysis and controlling for family income and ethnicity,
the relationship between the proportion of children who received the recommended
vaccines by age 2 years and the prevalence of autism (AUT) or speech or language
impairment (SLI) in each U.S. state from 2001 and 2007 was determined. A positive and statistically significant relationship was found: The higher the proportion
of children receiving recommended vaccinations, the higher was the prevalence of
AUT or SLI. A 1% increase in vaccination was associated with an additional 680
children having AUT or SLI. Neither parental behavior nor access to care affected
the results, since vaccination proportions were not significantly related (statistically) to any other disability or to the number of pediatricians in a U.S. state. The
results suggest that although mercury has been removed from many vaccines, other
culprits may link vaccines to autism. Further study into the relationship between
vaccines and autism is warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21623535

“The results suggest
that although mercury has been
removed from many vaccines, other
culprits may link vaccines to autism.”

“Our data supports the historic evidence that heavy metals
play a role in the development of Autistic Spectrum Disorder.”
Maedica Bucharest • January 2012

Toxic Metals and Essential Elements in Hair
and Severity of Symptoms among Children with Autism
Author information
Blaurock-Busch E1, Amin OR, Dessoki HH, Rabah T.
Lecturer and Advisor
International Board of Clinical Metal Toxicology and
German Medical Association of Clinical Metal Toxicology Hersbruck, Germany
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to assess the levels of ten toxic metals and essential elements in hair samples of children with
autism, and to correlate the level of these elements with the severity of autism.
METHOD
The participants were 44 children, age 3 to 9 years, with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th Edition, (DSM-IV). The severity of autistic symptomatology was measured by the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). Hair analysis was performed to evaluate the long term metal exposure and mineral level.
RESULTS
By comparing hair concentration of autistic vs nonautistic children, elevated hair concentrations were noted for aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, antimony, nickel, lead, and vanadium. Hair levels of calcium, iron, iodine, magnesium, manganese,
molybdenum, zinc, and selenium were considered deficient. There was a significant positive correlation between lead & verbal
communication (p = 0.020) and general impression (p = 0.008). In addition, there was a significant negative correlation between
zinc & fear and nervousness (p = 0.022).
CONCLUSION
Our data supports the historic evidence that heavy metals play a role in the development of ASD. In combination with an inadequate nutritional status the toxic effect of metals increase along with the severity of symptoms.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3484795/

Neurochemical Research • February 2012

Administration of thimerosal
to infant rats increases overflow of glutamate
and aspartate in the prefrontal cortex:
protective role of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
Author information
Duszczyk-Budhathoki M1, Olczak M, Lehner M, Majewska MD.
Marie Curie Chairs Program
Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of Nervous System
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, 02-957, Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
Thimerosal, a mercury-containing vaccine preservative, is a suspected factor in
the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. We previously showed that its
administration to infant rats causes behavioral, neurochemical and neuropathological abnormalities similar to those present in autism. Here we examined,
using microdialysis, the effect of thimerosal on extracellular levels of neuroactive amino acids in the rat prefrontal cortex (PFC). Thimerosal administration
(4 injections, i.m., 240 μg Hg/kg on postnatal days 7, 9, 11, 15) induced lasting
changes in amino acid overflow: an increase of glutamate and aspartate accompanied by a decrease of glycine and alanine; measured 10-14 weeks after
the injections. Four injections of thimerosal at a dose of 12.5 μg Hg/kg did not
alter glutamate and aspartate concentrations at microdialysis time (but based
on thimerosal pharmacokinetics, could have been effective soon after its injection). Application of thimerosal to the PFC in perfusion fluid evoked a rapid
increase of glutamate overflow. Coadministration of the neurosteroid, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS; 80 mg/kg; i.p.) prevented the thimerosal
effect on glutamate and aspartate; the steroid alone had no influence on these
amino acids. Coapplication of DHEAS with thimerosal in perfusion fluid also
blocked the acute action of thimerosal on glutamate. In contrast, DHEAS alone
reduced overflow of glycine and alanine, somewhat potentiating the thimerosal
effect on these amino acids. Since excessive accumulation of extracellular glutamate is linked with excitotoxicity, our data imply that neonatal exposure to
thimerosal-containing vaccines might induce excitotoxic brain injuries, leading to neurodevelopmental disorders. DHEAS may partially protect against
mercurials-induced neurotoxicity.
Abstract: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22015977
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3264864/

“Since excessive accumulation
of extracellular glutamate is linked
with excitotoxicity, our data imply that
neonatal exposure to thimerosal-containing
vaccines might induce excitotoxic brain injuries,
leading to neurodevelopmental disorders.”

PLoS One • 2012

Thimerosal-induced apoptosis
in mouse C2C12 myoblast cells occurs through suppression of
the PI3K/Akt/survivin pathway
Author information
Li WX1, Chen SF, Chen LP,
Yang GY, Li JT, Liu HZ, Zhu W.
Department of Toxicology
Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention
Guangzhou, China
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Thimerosal, a mercury-containing preservative, is one of the most widely used preservatives and
found in a variety of biological products. Concerns over its possible toxicity have reemerged recently
due to its use in vaccines. Thimerosal has also been reported to be markedly cytotoxic to neural tissue. However, little is known regarding thimerosal-induced toxicity in muscle tissue. Therefore, we
investigated the cytotoxic effect of thimerosal and its possible mechanisms on mouse C2C12 myoblast cells.
METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS
The study showed that C2C12 myoblast cells underwent inhibition of proliferation and apoptosis after exposure to thimerosal (125-500 nM) for 24, 48 and 72 h. Thimerosal caused S phase arrest and induced apoptosis as assessed by flow cytometric analysis, Hoechst staining and immunoblotting. The
data revealed that thimerosal could trigger the leakage of cytochrome c from mitochondria, followed
by cleavage of caspase-9 and caspase-3, and that an inhibitor of caspase could suppress thimerosalinduced apoptosis. Thimerosal inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt(ser473) and survivin expression.
Wortmannin, a PI3K inhibitor, inhibited Akt activity and decreased survivin expression, resulting in
increased thimerosal-induced apoptosis in C2C12 cells, while the activation of PI3K/Akt pathway
by mIGF-I (50 ng/ml) increased the expression of survivin and attenuated apoptosis. Furthermore,
the inhibition of survivin expression by siRNA enhanced thimerosal-induced cell apoptosis, while
overexpression of survivin prevented thimerosal-induced apoptosis. Taken together, the data show
that the PI3K/Akt/survivin pathway plays an important role in the thimerosal-induced apoptosis in
C2C12 cells.
CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE
Our results suggest that in C2C12 myoblast cells, thimerosal induces S phase arrest and finally causes
apoptosis via inhibition of PI3K/Akt/survivin signaling followed by activation of the mitochondrial
apoptotic pathway.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3492179/

“Our results suggest that in C2C12
myoblast cells, thimerosal induces
S phase arrest and finally causes
apoptosis via inhibition of PI3K/Akt/survivin
signaling followed by activation of the
mitochondrial apoptotic pathway.”

Journal On Developmental Disabilities • 2012

A Link Between mercury exposure,
Autism Spectrum Disorder,
and other neurodevelopmental Disorders?
Implications for thimerosal-containing Vaccines
Lucija Tomljenovic,1 José G. Dórea,2
Christopher A. Shaw,1
1. Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC
2. Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
Abstract
Autism is a multisystem developmental disorder characterized by dysfunctional immunity and impaired brain function. Although autism is partly determined by genetic susceptability factors, reported dramatic increases in the prevalence of autism in developed countries have intensified scientific focus on environmental exposures. Pre and perinatal immunotoxic insults are now strongly
suspected as contributors to this increase. Mercury (Hg) is both a neuro and an immuno toxin and
continues to be used in some pediatric vaccines in the form of the preservative thimerosal. Although
currently there are no direct human studies on the risks of Hg exposure from thimerosalcontaining
vaccines (TCVs), animal studies show that doses relevant to human TCV exposure can result in adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. To date, TCVs continue to be administered on a regular basis
to potentially the most vulnerable populations: pregnant women and children. In light of existing
experimental evidence, the rationale for using this known immunotoxic and neurotoxic substance in
human vaccines should be reconsidered.
Given the dramatic and rapidly-growing reported prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
(Newschaffer, Falb, & Gurney, 2005), a clear answer to the etiology of this apparent epidemic would
serve parents as well as the medical community entrusted with the health of all children. The focus
of this commentary is on the possible involvement of thimerosal (49% ethylmercury (EtHg)) in neurodevelopmental disorders. In the past, thimerosal was used worldwide as a preservative in vaccines.
Although this practice has largely been discontinued due to safety concerns (Offit & Jew, 2003),
thimerosal continues to be used in less-developed and developing countries (Dórea, Marques, &
Brandao, 2009)), as well as in the preservation of multi-dose vaccine vials in Canada and the United
States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011; Public Health Agency of Canada, 2011).
The use of thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs) continues to be a highly contentious issue. The
fact that a causal link between thimerosal exposure and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is
not supported by many studies (Andrews et al., 2004; Hviid, Stellfeld, Wohlfahrd, & Melbye, 2003;
Parker, Schwartz, Todd, & Pickering, 2004; Verstraeten et al., 2003) fails to put this issue at rest.
Full Report: http://www.oadd.org/docs/41011_JoDD_18-1_34-42_Tomljenovic_et_al.pdf

“Given the dramatic and rapidly-growing reported prevalence of
autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Newschaffer, Falb, & Gurney, 2005),
a clear answer to the etiology of this apparent epidemic would serve
parents as well as the medical community entrusted with the health
of all children. The fact that a causal link between thimerosal
exposure and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is not
supported by many studies fails to put this issue at rest.”
Environmental Sources Of Mercury
Mercury Concentration

Form

Biological Significance

0.4ppb

MetHg

Median chronic intake of contaminated fish (0.4ug/kg body weight)
causes delayed speech and autistic-like symptoms in male children
(Corbett & Poor, 2008)

1.6ppb

MetHg

Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) based on body weight for
infants and pregnant women (1.6ug/kg; Food & Agricultural Association/World Health Organization 2006)

2.0ppb

Inorganic
Mercury

US EPA limit for drinking water (US EPA, 2011)

200ppb

Various Types
Of Mercury

Level in liquid that the US EPA classifies as hazardous waste based on
toxocity characteristics (US EPA, 2010)

600ppb

EtHg

Concentration of mercury in vaccines containing trace amounts of
thimerosal (0.3ug/0.5 ml. dose, or 600ug/L;Halsey, 1999)

25,000-50,000ppb

EtHg

Concentration in Thimerosal containing multi-dose influenza, meningococcal pneumococcal polysaccharide and diphtheria-tetanus vaccines
(Offit & Jew, 2003)

Journal Of Toxicology • June 2012

Thimerosal-Derived Ethylmercury
Is a Mitochondrial Toxin in Human Astrocytes:
Possible Role of Fenton Chemistry
in the Oxidation and Breakage of mtDNA
Martyn A. Sharpe, * Andrew D. Livingston, and David S. Baskin
Department of Neurosurgery, The Methodist Hospital
6565 Fannin Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
Abstract
Thimerosal generates ethylmercury in aqueous solution and is widely used
as preservative. We have investigated the toxicology of Thimerosal in normal human astrocytes, paying particular attention to mitochondrial function and the generation of specific oxidants. We find that ethylmercury not
only inhibits mitochondrial respiration leading to a drop in the steady state
membrane potential, but also concurrent with these phenomena increases
the formation of superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and Fenton/Haber-Weiss
generated hydroxyl radical. These oxidants increase the levels of cellular
aldehyde/ketones. Additionally, we find a five-fold increase in the levels
of oxidant damaged mitochondrial DNA bases and increases in the levels
of mtDNA nicks and blunt-ended breaks. Highly damaged mitochondria
are characterized by having very low membrane potentials, increased superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production, and extensively damaged mtDNA and proteins. These mitochondria appear to have undergone a permeability transition, an observation supported by the five-fold increase in
Caspase-3 activity observed after Thimerosal treatment.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3395253/

“We find that ethylmercury not only
inhibits mitochondrial respiration leading
to a drop in the steady state membrane
potential, but also concurrent with these
phenomena increases the formation of
superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and
Fenton/Haber-Weiss generated hydroxyl
radical. These oxidants increase the levels of
cellular aldehyde/ketones. Additionally, we
find a five-fold increase in the levels of
oxidant damaged mitochondrial DNA
bases and increases in the levels of
mtDNA nicks and blunt-ended breaks.”

Cerebellum • June 2012

Maternal thimerosal exposure
results in aberrant cerebellar oxidative stress,
thyroid hormone metabolism, and motor behavior
in rat pups; sex- and strain-dependent effects
Author information
Sulkowski ZL1, Chen T, Midha S,
Zavacki AM, Sajdel-Sulkowska EM.
Department of Psychiatry
Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Boston, MA, USA
Abstract
Methylmercury (Met-Hg) and ethylmercury (Et-Hg) are powerful toxicants with a
range of harmful neurological effects in humans and animals. While Met-Hg is a
recognized trigger of oxidative stress and an endocrine disruptor impacting neurodevelopment, the developmental neurotoxicity of Et-Hg, a metabolite of thimerosal (TM), has not been explored. We hypothesized that TM exposure during the
perinatal period impairs central nervous system development, and specifically the
cerebellum, by the mechanism involving oxidative stress. To test this, spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) or Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat dams were exposed to
TM (200 μg/kg body weight) during pregnancy (G10-G15) and lactation (P5-P10).
Male and female neonates were evaluated for auditory and motor function; cerebella
were analyzed for oxidative stress and thyroid metabolism. TM exposure resulted
in a delayed startle response in SD neonates and decreased motor learning in SHR
male (22.6%), in SD male (29.8%), and in SD female (55.0%) neonates. TM exposure also resulted in a significant increase in cerebellar levels of the oxidative stress
marker 3-nitrotyrosine in SHR female (35.1%) and SD male (14.0%) neonates. The
activity of cerebellar type 2 deiodinase, responsible for local intra-brain conversion of thyroxine to the active hormone, 3’,3,5-triiodothyronine (T3), was significantly decreased in TM-exposed SHR male (60.9%) pups. This coincided with an
increased (47.0%) expression of a gene negatively regulated by T3, Odf4 suggesting
local intracerebellar T3 deficiency. Our data thus demonstrate a negative neurodevelopmental impact of perinatal TM exposure which appears to be both strain- and
sex-dependent.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22015705

“Our data thus demonstrate
a negative neurodevelopmental impact
of perinatal Thimerosal exposure which appears
to be both strain- and sex-dependent.”

Journal Of Biomedics And Biotechnology • July 2012

Toxic effects of mercury
on the cardiovascular and
central nervous systems
Author information
Fernandes Azevedo B1, Barros Furieri L, Peçanha FM,
Wiggers GA, Frizera Vassallo P, Ronacher Simões M, Fiorim J,
Rossi de Batista P, Fioresi M, Rossoni L, Stefanon I, Alonso MJ,
Salaices M, Valentim Vassallo D.
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas
Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo
29042-755 Vitória, ES, Brazil
Abstract
Environmental contamination has exposed humans to various metal
agents, including mercury. This exposure is more common than expected, and the health consequences of such exposure remain unclear. For
many years, mercury was used in a wide variety of human activities,
and now, exposure to this metal from both natural and artificial sources
is significantly increasing. Many studies show that high exposure to
mercury induces changes in the central nervous system, potentially resulting in irritability, fatigue, behavioral changes, tremors, headaches,
hearing and cognitive loss, dysarthria, incoordination, hallucinations,
and death. In the cardiovascular system, mercury induces hypertension
in humans and animals that has wide-ranging consequences, including
alterations in endothelial function. The results described in this paper
indicate that mercury exposure, even at low doses, affects endothelial
and cardiovascular function. As a result, the reference values defining
the limits for the absence of danger should be reduced.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3395437/

“The results described
in this paper indicate
that mercury exposure,
even at low doses,
affects endothelial and
cardiovascular function.”

Journal Of Biomedicine And Biotechnology • September 2012

Mercury Toxicity
João B. T. Rocha, Michael Aschner, José G. Dórea,
Sandra Ceccatelli, Marcelo Farina and Luiz Carlos L. Silveira
Abstract

Mercury (Hg) is one of the most toxic elements in the periodic table. Although Hg is
present in nature, it has also been released into the environment for centuries as a result
of anthropogenic activities. Nowadays, there are efforts to reduce its anthropogenic use;
however, its environmental presence is significant and will persist. We are pleased to present this special issue on mercury toxicity. The objective of collecting research findings in
a single issue devoted to the toxicology of mercury was to compile reports on the latest
findings on Hg’s toxicity from renowned research groups across the world. This special
issue affords the opportunity to bring together a wide range of review and research papers
devoted both to basic and applied toxicity associated with various exposure scenarios
and Hg species (dental material, iatrogenic ethylmercury, fish-methylmercury) along with
comprehensive description on experimental models. While human studies demonstrated
the noxious effects of these forms of Hg, experimental studies have assisted in defining
mechanistic pathways central to Hg’s toxicity in various tissues and organ systems.
The volume is dedicated in part to articles that provide new insights on important considerations of subtle effects of exposure to multiple forms of organic mercury (ethylmercury
in thimerosal-containing vaccines and methylmercury (MeHg) derived from maternal fish
consumption) and neurological outcomes in infants (J. G. Dórea et al.). In addition, hypersensitivity to low-dose Hg exposure from dental amalgam fillings is detailed, showing
exquisite sensitivity to amalgam-derived Hg in sensitized individuals (H. McParland and
S. Warnakulasuriya). Local effects of amalgam and Hg dental restoration represent the
most important nonoccupational exposure to inorganic mercury, while fish consumption
represents the most common source of MeHg exposure.
The impacts of exposure to fish-derived MeHg at levels below those considered to pose
neurological risk (hair level: 50 μg/g) were explored by Japanese researchers in subjects
of the Niigata mercury poisoning (K. Maruyama et al.). Experimental research papers
from this issue confirmed and extended observations that exposure of immature rodents
to different chemical forms of Hg is associated with differential bodily distribution Hg
(M. Blanuša et al.; C.-F. Huang et al.). C.-F. Huang et al. demonstrated that exposure of
developing rats to cinnabar (HgS) caused long-lasting neurobehavioral and neurochemical toxic effect, indicating that the use of this millenary component of traditional Chinese
medicine continues to represent a toxicological concern. Using an important, yet little
explored experimental mouse model, J. P. Bourdineaud and colleagues demonstrated that
the ingestion of MeHg-adulterated fish led to higher neurotoxicity in comparison to the

ingestion of the “free salt” of methylmercury chloride (MeHgCl). The scarcity of studies
on this subject highlights the need for future studies to address these persistent toxicological issues.
The molecular, subcellular, cellular, and systemic toxicity of Hg was also addressed here
in this volume. The cardiovascular toxicity of Hg in humans and rodents was reviewed
by B. F. Azevedo et al. The impact of Hg exposure on endothelial cell physiology is well
established; however, the limit of dietary-derived Hg needed to trigger cardiotoxic effects
is still debatable. The negative impact of oral exposure to Hg(II) on reproductive performance of male rats was demonstrated by J. C. Heath and collaborators, highlighting the
need for detailed studies to determine the nonobservable adverse effect level (NOAEL)
of Hg(II) in the male reproductive system, as well as Hg deposition in target tissues. The
comparative renal and hepatic toxicity of Hg(II) and MeHg in fish was addressed by V.
Branco et al., demonstrating that both forms of mercury targeted the antioxidant selenoenzyme thioredoxin-reductase (TrxR) and reinforcing the central role of disrupted selenoprotein function in mercurial toxicity. The in vitro and in vivo targeting of the critical
sulfhydryl-containing enzyme, Na+, K+-ATPase was reviewed by I. Kade and addressed
by T. S. Huang et al., noting divergent effects in vitro and in vivo. The role of mitochondria and calcium in the neurotoxicity of MeHg was reviewed by D. Roos et al., providing
evidence that Ca2+, glutamate, oxidative stress, and mitochondria play a central role in its
neurotoxicity. The efficacy of the marine n-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in attenuating MeHg-induced toxicity was studied in fish
and mammalian cell cultures. O. J. Nøstbakken et al. demonstrated that DHA decreased
MeHg uptake into mammalian cells but increased MeHg-induced apoptosis in fish cells.
We hope that the new findings on the subtle effects of combined exposure to iatrogenic
ethylmercury (from thimerosal-containing vaccines) and maternal MeHg (from fish consumption), as well as the results of experimental studies and the critical reviews presented
herein can shed novel information on mercury’s absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion, as well as its ill effects at the cellular, molecular, and organismal levels. Understanding of these facets of research is required for derivation on environmental and health
policies as well as guidance for the most promising future research venues. Finally, we
would like to thank all the reviewers that have contributed their time and insight to this
special issue as well as the journal’s personnel (particularly Doaa Hassan) for their support
and making possible the publication of this special issue.

www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2012/831890/

Neurotoxicology And Teratology • November 2012

Neonatal exposure to Thimerosal from vaccines
and child development in the first 3 years of life
Author information
Mrozek-Budzyn D1, Majewska R, Kieltyka A, Augustyniak M.
Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine
Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
dorota.mrozek-budzyn@uj.edu.pl
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Despite the common use of Thimerosal as a preservative in childhood vaccines since
the 1930s, there are not many studies on ethylmercury toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics in infants. The knowledge of ethylmercury’s potential adverse effects is derived
mostly from parallel methylmercury research or from animal and theoretical models.
AIM OF THE STUDY:
This study was designed to examine the relationship between neonatal exposure to
Thimerosal-containing vaccine (TCV) and child development.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
The study sample consisted of 196 infants born between January 2001 and March 2003
to mothers attending ambulatory prenatal clinics in the first and second trimesters of
pregnancy in Krakow. Vaccination history (date and the type of the vaccine) was extracted from physicians’ records. Child development was assessed using the Bayley
Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II) measured in one-year intervals over 3years.
General Linear Model (GLM) and Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) models
adjusted for potential confounders were used to assess the association.
RESULTS:
An adverse effect of neonatal TCV exposure was observed for the psychomotor development index (PDI) only in the 12th and 24th months of life (ß=-6.44, p<0.001
and ß=-5.89, p<0.001). No significant effect of neonatal TCV exposure was found in
the 36th month. The overall deficit in the PDI attributable to neonatal TCV exposure
measured over the course of the three-year follow-up (GEE) was significantly higher in
TCV group (ß=-4.42, p=0.001). MDI scores did not show the adverse association with
neonatal TCV exposure.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23069197

“Despite the common use of Thimerosal
as a preservative in childhood vaccines since the 1930s,
there are not many studies on ethylmercury
toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics in infants.
An adverse effect of neonatal TCV exposure was
observed for the psychomotor development index ...”

American Journal Of Epidemiology • November 2012

Re: “Prenatal Exposure to Mercury and Infant Neurodevelopment in a Multicenter Cohort in Spain:
Study of Potential Modifiers”
Author Information
José G. Dórea
Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasilia, 70919-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br)
Abstract
In an interesting study, Llop et al. (1) addressed the vulnerability of the
central nervous system to mercury during early development. Their findings
suggested a negative association between total cord blood mercury levels
and psychomotor development at approximately 14 months of age only in
girls. Although I welcome these interesting findings, I would like to raise
the issue of a source of organic mercury exposure during the perinatal period, namely ethylmercury in vaccines that contain Thimerosal (Noah Technologies Corporation, San Antonio, Texas). During recruitment of mothers
(in November 2003) and infants born in 2004 in the study by Llop et al.,
Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs) were still used in some European
Union countries and probably in Spain (2). Therefore, it is reasonable to
assume that additional mercury exposure could have occurred, at least for
some of the sampled subjects. According to Spain’s vaccination schedule,
some children could be exposed to TCV ethylmercury (mainly in diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis and hepatitis B vaccines); furthermore, during pregnancy, some mothers were also likely to be exposed to TCVs. Neither infant
vaccines nor maternal exposure to TCVs, anti- Rho(D) immune globulin
(to Rh-negative participants), or dental amalgams during pregnancy were
mentioned in the otherwise assiduous study of Llop et al.
Assuming that there was a gradual discontinuation of TCVs in Spain, readers familiar with the changes occurring in vaccine type used in European
Union countries during the early 2000s could benefit from a post hoc discussion of this confounding mercury source. The pertinence of this discussion is
further justified by the recent reports that a subtle but significant association
with psychomotor development can be shown in young children as a result
of exposure to TCVs in Poland (3), Korea (4), and Brazil (5). Indeed, ecologic and epidemiologic studies in the United States, United Kingdom, and

Italy (6) that addressed children’s neurodevelopment associated with ethylmercury exposure in TCVs indicated collectively that “a) there is ambiguity
in some studies reporting neurodevelopment outcomes that seem to depend
on confounding variables; b) the risk of neurotoxicity due to low doses of
Thimerosal is plausible at least for susceptible infants” (6, p. 1580). Furthermore, recent findings have shown that neurologic responses in animals
(mice, rats, and rhesus monkeys) exposed to ethylmercury from the hepatitis
B vaccine in the early postnatal life presented statistically significant differences when compared with controls (7); there is also strong in vitro evidence
of Thimerosal neurotoxicity in small doses relevant to TCVs (7).
Ethylmercury has a shorter half-life than does methylmercury; therefore, it is unlikely that it could contribute to total mercury levels in cord
blood measured by Llop et al. (1). Nevertheless, ethylmercury exposure
can be ascertained from vaccination cards (3–5). Information on the
association of neurodevelopment and coexposure to multiple forms of
mercury is limited, and despite the current widespread use of TCVs
(in most countries), it is even scarcer for specific exposure to small
amounts of ethylmercury (8). Therefore, only studies like that of Llop
et al. (1) can offer the opportunity to explore possible cumulative insults resulting from maternal environmental (methylmercury) exposure
and additional infant ethylmercury exposure due to differential (TCV)
immunization. Although I do not question the statistical model, results,
or interpretation of the study by Llop et al. (1), I hope to provoke a post
hoc discussion highlighting possible ethylmercury exposure during
pregnancy and postnatal periods via TCVs. Without proper testing, we
will never discover whether additional TCV-related mercury exposure
in early life can affect neurodevelopment tests.

www.http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/11/15/aje.kws386

“... a subtle but significant
association with psychomotor
development can be shown in
young children as a result of
exposure to Thimerosal containing vaccines in Poland, Korea, and
Brazil ... there is also strong in vitro
evidence of Thimerosal neurotoxicity in small doses relevant to
Thimerosal containing vaccines.”

Brain Development • March 2013

Prenatal exposure to organomercury, thimerosal,
persistently impairs the serotonergic and dopaminergic
systems in the rat brain: implications for
association with developmental disorders
Author information
Ida-Eto M1, Oyabu A, Ohkawara T,
Tashiro Y, Narita N, Narita M.
Department of Anatomy II
Mie University Graduate School of Medicine
Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
etom@doc.medic.mie-u.ac.jp
Abstract
Thimerosal, an organomercury compound, has been widely used as a preservative.
Therefore, concerns have been raised about its neurotoxicity. We recently demonstrated perturbation of early serotonergic development by prenatal exposure to thimerosal (Ida-Eto et al. (2011) [11]). Here, we investigated whether prenatal thimerosal exposure causes persistent impairment after birth. Analysis on postnatal day 50
showed significant increase in hippocampal serotonin following thimerosal administration on embryonic day 9. Furthermore, not only serotonin, striatal dopamine was
significantly increased. These results indicate that embryonic exposure to thimerosal
produces lasting impairment of brain monoaminergic system, and thus every effort
should be made to avoid the use of thimerosal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22658806

“These results indicate that
embryonic exposure to thimerosal
produces lasting impairment of brain
monoaminergic system, and thus every effort
should be made to avoid the use of thimerosal.”

“... dental amalgams contribute to ongoing kidney damage ... in a dose-dependent fashion.”
Human Experiments In Toxicology • April 2013

A significant dose-dependent relationship between mercury exposure from dental amalgams and kidney integrity biomarkers:
a further assessment of the Casa Pia children’s dental amalgam trial
Author information
Geier DA1, Carmody T, Kern JK, King PG, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, USA
Abstract
Dental amalgams are a commonly used dental restorative material. Amalgams are about 50% mercury (Hg), and
Hg is known to significantly accumulate in the kidney. It was hypothesized that because Hg accumulates in the
proximal tubules (PTs), glutathione-S-transferases (GST)-a (suggestive of kidney damage at the level of PT)
would be expected to be more related to Hg exposure than GST-π (suggestive of kidney damage at the level of
the distal tubules). Urinary biomarkers of kidney integrity were examined in children of 8-18 years old, with and
without dental amalgam fillings, from a completed clinical trial (parent study). Our study determined whether
there was a significant dose-dependent correlation between increasing Hg exposure from dental amalgams and
GST-a and GST-π as biomarkers of kidney integrity. Overall, the present study, using a different and more sensitive statistical model than the parent study, revealed a statistically significant dose-dependent correlation between
cumulative exposure to Hg from dental amalgams and urinary levels of GST-a, after covariate adjustment; where
as, a nonsignificant relationship was observed with urinary levels of GST-π. Furthermore, it was observed that
urinary GST-a levels increased by about 10% over the 8-year course of the study among individuals with an average exposure to amalgams among the study subjects from the amalgam group, in comparison with study subjects
with no exposure to dental amalgams. The results of our study suggest that dental amalgams contribute to ongoing
kidney damage at the level of the PTs in a dose-dependent fashion.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22893351

“This suggests certain individuals with a mild mitochondrial defect
may be highly susceptible to mitochondrial specific toxins like the vaccine preservative thimerosal.”
Journal Of Toxicology • June 2013

B-lymphocytes from a population of children
with autism spectrum disorder and their unaffected siblings
exhibit hypersensitivity to thimerosal
Author information
Sharpe MA1, Gist TL, Baskin DS.
Department of Neurosurgery, The Methodist Neurological Institute
6560 Fannin Street, Scurlock Tower No. 944, Houston, TX 77030, USA
Abstract
The role of thimerosal containing vaccines in the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been an
area of intense debate, as has the presence of mercury dental amalgams and fish ingestion by pregnant mothers.
We studied the effects of thimerosal on cell proliferation and mitochondrial function from B-lymphocytes taken
from individuals with autism, their nonautistic twins, and their nontwin siblings. Eleven families were examined
and compared to matched controls. B-cells were grown with increasing levels of thimerosal, and various assays
(LDH, XTT, DCFH, etc.) were performed to examine the effects on cellular proliferation and mitochondrial
function. A subpopulation of eight individuals (4 ASD, 2 twins, and 2 siblings) from four of the families showed
thimerosal hypersensitivity, whereas none of the control individuals displayed this response. The thimerosal concentration required to inhibit cell proliferation in these individuals was only 40% of controls. Cells hypersensitive
to thimerosal also had higher levels of oxidative stress markers, protein carbonyls, and oxidant generation. This
suggests certain individuals with a mild mitochondrial defect may be highly susceptible to mitochondrial specific
toxins like the vaccine preservative thimerosal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23843785

“... decreased glutathione reserve capacity in children with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder
could make them more susceptible to the toxic effects of Thimerosal routinely administered
as part of mandated childhood immunization schedules.”
International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health • August 2013

Thimerosal exposure and the role of sulfation chemistry and thiol availability in autism
Author information
Kern JK1, Haley BE, Geier DA, Sykes LK, King PG, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
jKern@dfwair.net
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder in which a significant number of the children experience a developmental
regression characterized by a loss of previously acquired skills and abilities. Typically reported are losses of verbal, nonverbal, and
social abilities. Several recent studies suggest that children diagnosed with an ASD have abnormal sulfation chemistry, limited thiol
availability, and decreased glutathione (GSH) reserve capacity, resulting in a compromised oxidation/reduction (redox) and detoxification capacity. Research indicates that the availability of thiols, particularly GSH, can influence the effects of thimerosal (TM) and other
mercury (Hg) compounds. TM is an organomercurial compound (49.55% Hg by weight) that has been, and continues to be, used as a
preservative in many childhood vaccines, particularly in developing countries. Thiol-modulating mechanisms affecting the cytotoxicity of TM have been identified. Importantly, the emergence of ASD symptoms post-6 months of age temporally follows the administration of many childhood vaccines. The purpose of the present critical review is provide mechanistic insight regarding how limited
thiol availability, abnormal sulfation chemistry, and decreased GSH reserve capacity in children with an ASD could make them more
susceptible to the toxic effects of TM routinely administered as part of mandated childhood immunization schedules.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3774468/

Journal Of Applied Toxicology • August 2013

Toxicity of ethylmercury (and Thimerosal):
a comparison with methylmercury
José G. Dórea1,*, Marcelo Farina2 andJoão B. T. Rocha3
Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
Departamento de Química, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
Abstract
Ethylmercury (etHg) is derived from the metabolism of thimerosal (o-carboxyphenyl-thio-ethyl-sodium salt), which is the most widely used form of organic
mercury. Because of its application as a vaccine preservative, almost every human
and animal (domestic and farmed) that has been immunized with thimerosal-containing vaccines has been exposed to etHg. Although methylmercury (meHg) is
considered a hazardous substance that is to be avoided even at small levels when
consumed in foods such as seafood and rice (in Asia), the World Health Organization considers small doses of thimerosal safe regardless of multiple/repetitive
exposures to vaccines that are predominantly taken during pregnancy or infancy.
We have reviewed in vitro and in vivo studies that compare the toxicological parameters among etHg and other forms of mercury (predominantly meHg) to assess
their relative toxicities and potential to cause cumulative insults. In vitro studies
comparing etHg with meHg demonstrate equivalent measured outcomes for cardiovascular, neural and immune cells. However, under in vivo conditions, evidence indicates a distinct toxicokinetic profile between meHg and etHg, favoring
a shorter blood half-life, attendant compartment distribution and the elimination of
etHg compared with meHg. EtHg’s toxicity profile is different from that of meHg,
leading to different exposure and toxicity risks. Therefore, in real-life scenarios, a
simultaneous exposure to both etHg and meHg might result in enhanced neurotoxic effects in developing mammals. However, our knowledge on this subject is still
incomplete, and studies are required to address the predictability of the additive or
synergic toxicological effects of etHg and meHg (or other neurotoxicants).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23401210

“the World Health Organization
considers small doses of thimerosal safe
regardless of multiple/repetitive exposures to vaccines
that are predominantly taken during pregnancy or
infancy ... in real-life scenarios, a simultaneous
exposure to both etHg and meHg might result in
enhanced neurotoxic effects in developing mammals.
However, our knowledge on this subject is still
incomplete, and studies are required to address
the predictability of the additive or synergic
toxicological effects of etHg and meHg
(or other neurotoxicants).”

“Ethylmercury (EtHg) ... has received significant toxicological attention
due to its presence in thimerosal-containing vaccines.”
Neuro Toxicology • September 2013

Comparative study on methyl- and ethylmercury-induced toxicity in C6 glioma cells
and the potential role of LAT-1 in mediating mercurial-thiol complexes uptake
Luciana T. Zimmermanna, Danúbia B. Santosa, Aline A. Naimea, Rodrigo B. Leala, José G. Dóreab,
Fernando Barbosa Jr.c, Michael Aschnerd, João Batista T. Rochae, Marcelo Farinaa
a. Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
b. Departamento de Nutrição, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
c. Laboratório de Toxicologia e Essencialidade de Metais, Faculdade de Ciências, Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
d. Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
e. Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Abstract
Various forms of mercury possess different rates of absorption, metabolism and excretion, and consequently,
toxicity. Methylmercury (MeHg) is a highly neurotoxic organic mercurial. Human exposure is mostly due to ingestion of contaminated fish. Ethylmercury (EtHg), another organic mercury compound, has received significant
toxicological attention due to its presence in thimerosal-containing vaccines. This study was designed to compare
the toxicities induced by MeHg and EtHg, as well as by their complexes with cysteine (MeHg-S-Cys and EtHg-SCys) in the C6 rat glioma cell line. MeHg and EtHg caused significant (p < 0.0001) decreases in cellular viability
when cells were treated during 30 min with each mercurial following by a washing period of 24 h (EC50 values of
4.83 and 5.05 μM, respectively). Significant cytotoxicity (p < 0.0001) was also observed when cells were treated
under the same conditions with MeHg-S-Cys and EtHg-S-Cys, but the respective EC50 values were significantly
increased (11.2 and 9.37 μM). l-Methionine, a substrate for the l-type neutral amino acid carrier transport (LAT)
system, significantly protected against the toxicities induced by both complexes (MeHg-S-Cys and EtHg-S-Cys).
However, no protective effects of l-methionine were observed against MeHg and EtHg toxicities. Corroborating
these findings, l-methionine significantly decreased mercurial uptake when cells were exposed to MeHg-S-Cys
(p = 0.028) and EtHg-S-Cys (p = 0.023), but not to MeHg and EtHg. These results indicate that the uptake of
MeHg-S-Cys and EtHg-S-Cys into C6 cells is mediated, at least in part, through the LAT system, but MeHg and
EtHg enter C6 cells by mechanisms other than LAT system.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0161813X13000922

Biological Trace Element Research • September 2013

Mercury transfer during pregnancy and breastfeeding:
hair mercury concentrations as biomarker
Author information
Marques RC1, Bernardi JV, Dórea JG, Leão RS, Malm O.
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Campus Macaé, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
Abstract
Hair mercury (HHg) concentration is a biomarker of exposure that is widely used to
assess environmental contamination by fish methylmercury and neurodevelopment in
children. In the Rio Madeira basin (Brazilian Amazon), total HHg concentrations in
649 mother-infant pairs were measured at birth (prenatal exposure) and after 6 months
of exclusive breastfeeding; these mother-infant pairs were from high fish-eating communities (urban, n = 232; rural, n = 35; and Riverine, n = 262) and low fish-eating tinminer settlers (n = 120). Differences in kinetics were seen between Hg exposure from
fish consumption and environmental exposure to a tin-ore mining environment. Overall maternal HHg concentrations (at childbirth and after 6 months of lactation) were
higher than those of infant HHg. However, the relative change in HHg after 6 months
of lactation showed that mothers decreased HHg while infants increased HHg. The
relative change showed a consistently higher increase for girls than boys with a statistical significance only in high fish-eating mothers. The correlation coefficients between
maternal and newborn hair were high and statistically significant for mothers living in
urban (r = 0.66, p < 0.001), rural (r = 0.89, p < 0.001), and Riverine (r = 0.89, p < 0.001)
communities not for tin miner settlers (r = 0.07, p = 0.427). After 6 months of exclusive
breastfeeding, correlation coefficients showed high correlation coefficients and statistical significance for all groups (urban, r = 0.73, p < 0.001; rural, r = 0.88, p < 0.001; Riverine, r = 0.91, p < 0.001) except for Tin miners (r = -0.07, p = 0.428). A linear model
analysis was used to assess the longitudinal associations of maternal total HHg and total
HHg at birth (0 days) and 6 months of age in exclusively breastfed infants. Regression
analysis significantly predicted HHg in newborn from maternal HHg for high fish-eating maternal-infant pairs.
CONCLUSION:
The concentration of mercury accumulated in newborn tissues
(in utero and during breastfeeding) relevant to both, maternal sources
and infant exposure, can be reliably assessed from maternal hair.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23836367

“The concentration of mercury
accumulated in newborn tissues
(in utero and during breastfeeding)
relevant to both, maternal sources
and infant exposure, can be reliably
assessed from maternal hair.”

Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry • September 2013

Thimerosal in childhood vaccines contributes to
accumulating mercury toxicity in the kidney
Maria Fernanda Hornos Carneiro,
Christudas Morais, Fernando Barbosa Jr, Glenda C Gobe
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is a hazardous chemical that accumulates in many cells and tissues,
thereby producing toxicity. The kidney is a key target organ for Hg accumulation
and toxicity. The contributing factors to Hg accumulation in humans include: (1)
elemental and inorganic Hg exposure, often occurring by inhalation of Hg vapors;
(2) exposure to methyl Hg (meHg), for example, through contaminated seafood;
and (3) exposure to ethyl mercury (etHg) via thimerosal-containing vaccines. Systematic investigations on the toxic effects of etHg/thimerosal on the nervous system
were carried out, and etHg/thimerosal emerged as a possible risk factor for autism
and other neurodevelopmental disorders. There is, however, little known about the
mechanisms and molecular interactions underlying toxicity of etHg/thimerosal in
the kidney, which is the focus of the current review. Susceptible populations such
as infants, pregnant women, and the elderly are exposed to etHg through thimerosal-containing vaccines, and in-depth study of the potential adverse effects on the
kidney is needed. In general, toxicity occurring in association with different forms
of Hg is related to: intracellular thiol metabolism and oxidative stress reactions; mitochondrial function; intracellular distribution and build-up of calcium; apoptosis;
expression of stress proteins; and also interaction with the cytoskeleton. Available
evidence for the etHg-induced toxicity in the kidney was examined, and the main
mechanisms and molecular interactions of cytotoxicity of etHg/thimerosal exposure
in kidney described. Such accumulating knowledge may help to indicate molecular
pathways that, if modulated, may better handle Hg-mediated toxicity.

“Systematic investigations on the
toxic effects of ethyl mercury/thimerosal
on the nervous system were carried out,
and ethyl mercury/thimerosal emerged as
a possible risk factor for autism and other
neurodevelopmental disorders.”

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260943204_Thimerosal_in_childhood_vaccines_contributes_to_accumulating_mercury_toxicity_in_the_kidney

International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health • October 2013

The kinetic signature of toxicity
of four heavy metals and their mixtures
on MCF7 breast cancer cell line
Author information
Egiebor E1, Tulu A, Abou-Zeid N, Aighewi IT, Ishaque A.
Abstract
This study evaluated the kinetic signature of toxicity of four heavy metals known to
cause severe health and environmental issues--cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) lead (Pb)
arsenic (As)--and the mixture of all four metals (Mix) on MCF7 cancer cells, in the presence and absence of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH). The study was carried out using
real time cell electronic sensing (RT-CES). RT-CES monitors in real time the electrical
impedance changes at the electrode/culture medium interface due to the number of adhered cells, which is used as an index of cell viability. Cells were seeded for 24 h before
exposure to the metals and their mixtures. The results showed that in the presence and
absence of cellular glutathione, arsenic was the most cytotoxic of all five treatments, inducing cell death after 5 h of exposure. Lead was the least cytotoxic in both scenarios. In
the presence of cellular GSH, the cytotoxic trend was As > Cd > MIX > Hg > Pb, while
in the absence of GSH, the cytotoxic trend was As > Hg > MIX > Cd > Pb. The findings
from this study indicate the significance of glutathione-mediated toxicity of the metals
examined--particularly for mercury--and may be clinically relevant for disorders such as
autism spectrum disorder where decreased glutathione-based detoxification capacity is
associated with increased mercury intoxication.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3822392/

“The findings from this study
indicate the significance of glutathione-mediated
toxicity of the metals examined—particularly for
mercury—and may be clinically relevant for
disorders such as autism spectrum disorder
where decreased glutathione-based
detoxification capacity is associated
with increased mercury intoxication.”

World Journal Of Pediatrics • November 2013

Effect of thimerosal on
the neurodevelopment of premature rats
Author information
Chen YN1, Wang J, Zhang J, Li SJ, He L, Shao DD, Du HY.
The Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering
of Ministry of Education and Institute of Biomedical Engineering
School of Life Science and Technology
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049, China
Abstract
BACKGROUND
This study was undertaken to determine the effect of thimerosal on the neurodevelopment of premature rats.
METHODS
Thimerosal was injected into premature SD rats at a dose of 32.8, 65.6, 98.4 or
131.2 μg/kg on postnatal day 1. Expression of dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4)
and serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR), apoptosis in the prefrontal cortex on postinjection day 49, and learning and memory function were studied and compared
with those in a control group injected with saline.
RESULTS
Expression of DRD4 and 5-HT2AR and learning function decreased, and apoptosis increased significantly in the 131.2 μg/kg group (P<0.001). Memory function
was significantly impaired by 65.6 (P<0.05), 98.4 and 131.2 μg/kg (P<0.001).
CONCLUSIONS
The negative adverse consequences on neurodevelopment observed in the present study are consistent with previous studies; this study raised serious concerns
about adverse neurodevelopmental disorder such as autism in humans following
the ongoing worldwide routine administration of thimerosalcontaining vaccines
to infants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24235069

“The negative adverse consequences on
neurodevelopment observed in the present study
are consistent with previous studies; this study
raised serious concerns about adverse
neurodevelopmental disorder such as autism in
humans following the ongoing worldwide
routine administration of thimerosal containing
vaccines to infants.”

International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health • December 2013

Proposed toxic and hypoxic impairment
of a brainstem locus in autism
Author information
McGinnis WR1, Audhya T, Edelson SM.
Autism Research Institute, 4182 Adams Avenue, San Diego, CA 92116, USA
woody.mcginnis@gmail.com
Abstract
Electrophysiological findings implicate site-specific impairment of the nucleus tractus
solitarius (NTS) in autism. This invites hypothetical consideration of a large role for this
small brainstem structure as the basis for seemingly disjointed behavioral and somatic
features of autism. The NTS is the brain’s point of entry for visceral afference, its relay for
vagal reflexes, and its integration center for autonomic control of circulatory, immunological, gastrointestinal, and laryngeal function. The NTS facilitates normal cerebrovascular
perfusion, and is the seminal point for an ascending noradrenergic system that modulates
many complex behaviors. Microvascular configuration predisposes the NTS to focal hypoxia. A subregion--the “pNTS”--permits exposure to all blood-borne neurotoxins, including those that do not readily transit the blood-brain barrier. Impairment of acetylcholinesterase (mercury and cadmium cations, nitrates/nitrites, organophosphates, monosodium
glutamate), competition for hemoglobin (carbon monoxide, nitrates/nitrites), and higher
blood viscosity (net systemic oxidative stress) are suggested to potentiate microcirculatory
insufficiency of the NTS, and thus autism.

“A subregion—the “pNTS”—permits exposure
to all blood-borne neurotoxins, including those
that do not readily transit the blood-brain barrier.
Impairment of acetylcholinesterase (mercury and
cadmium cations, nitrates/nitrites, organophosphates, monosodium glutamate), competition for
hemoglobin (carbon monoxide, nitrates/nitrites),
and higher blood viscosity (net systemic oxidative
stress) are suggested to potentiate microcircula-

Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3881151/

tory insufficiency of the NTS, and thus autism.”

“... the present study provides new epidemiological evidence
supporting an association between increasing organic-mercury exposure
from Thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines and the subsequent risk of an Autistic Spectrum Disorder diagnosis.”
Translational Neurodegeneration • December 2013

A two-phase study evaluating the relationship between Thimerosal-containing vaccine administration
and the risk for an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis in the United States
Author information
Geier DA, Hooker BS, Kern JK, King PG, Sykes LK, Geier MR1.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses Inc, 14 Redgate Ct, Silver Spring, MD, USA
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is defined by standardized criteria of qualitative impairments in social interaction, qualitative impairments in communication, and restricted and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests,
and activities. A significant number of children diagnosed with ASD suffer
a loss of previously-acquired skills, which is suggestive of neurodegeneration or a type of progressive encephalopathy with an etiological pathogenic basis occurring after birth. To date, the etiology of ASD remains under
debate, however, many studies suggest toxicity, especially from mercury
(Hg), in individuals diagnosed with an ASD. The present study evaluated
concerns about the toxic effects of organic-Hg exposure from Thimerosal
(49.55% Hg by weight) in childhood vaccines by conducting a two-phased
(hypothesis generating/hypothesis testing) study with documented exposure
to varying levels of Thimerosal from vaccinations.
METHODS
A hypothesis generating cohort study was undertaken to evaluate the relationship between exposure to organic-Hg from a Thimerosal-containing
Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular-Pertussis (DTaP) vaccine in comparison to a
Thimerosal-free DTaP vaccine administered, from 1998 through 2000, for
the risk of ASD as reported in the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
(VAERS) database (phase I). A hypothesis testing case-control study was
undertaken to evaluate the relationship between organic-Hg exposure from

Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines administered at specific intervals in the first six months of life among cases diagnosed with an ASD and
controls born between 1991 through 1999 in the Vaccine Safety Datalink
(VSD) database (phase II).
RESULTS
In phase I, it was observed that there was a significantly increased risk ratio for the incidence of ASD reported following the Thimerosal-containing
DTaP vaccine in comparison to the Thimerosal-free DTaP vaccine. In phase
II, it was observed that cases diagnosed with an ASD were significantly
more likely than controls to receive increased organic-Hg from Thimerosalcontaining hepatitis B vaccine administered within the first, second, and
sixth month of life.
CONCLUSIONS
Routine childhood vaccination is an important public health tool to reduce
the morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases, but the
present study provides new epidemiological evidence supporting an association between increasing organic-Hg exposure from Thimerosal-containing
childhood vaccines and the subsequent risk of an ASD diagnosis.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3878266/

Current Medical Chemistry • 2013

Low-dose mercury exposure in early life:
relevance of thimerosal to fetuses, newborns and infants
Author information
Dórea JG.
Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasilia
70919-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil
jg.dorea@gmail.com
Abstract
This review explores the different aspects of constitutional factors in early life that modulate toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of low-dose mercury resulting from acute ethylmercury (etHg) exposure in Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCV). Major databases
were searched for human and experimental studies that addressed issues related to early
life exposure to TCV. It can be concluded that: a) mercury load in fetuses, neonates, and
infants resulting from TCVs remains in blood of neonates and infants at sufficient concentration and for enough time to penetrate the brain and to exert a neurologic impact and
a probable influence on neurodevelopment of susceptible infants; b) etHg metabolism related to neurodevelopmental delays has been demonstrated experimentally and observed
in population studies; c) unlike chronic Hg exposure during pregnancy, neurodevelopmental effects caused by acute (repeated/cumulative) early life exposure to TCV-etHg
remain unrecognized; and d) the uncertainty surrounding low-dose toxicity of etHg is
challenging but recent evidence indicates that avoiding cumulative insults by alkyl-mercury forms (which include Thimerosal) is warranted. It is important to a) maintain trust
in vaccines while reinforcing current public health policies to abate mercury exposure in
infancy; b) generally support WHO policies that recommend vaccination to prevent and
control existing and impending infectious diseases; and c) not confuse the ‘need’ to use
a specific ‘product’ (TCV) by accepting as ‘innocuous’ (or without consequences) the
presence of a proven ‘toxic alkyl-mercury’ (etHg) at levels that have not been proven to
be toxicologically safe.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23992327

“... mercury load in fetuses, neonates, and infants
resulting from TCVs remains in blood of neonates
and infants at sufficient concentration and for
enough time to penetrate the brain and to exert
a neurologic impact and a probable influence on
neurodevelopment of susceptible infants ...”

Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology • February 2014

The retention time of inorganic mercury in the brain
a systematic review of the evidence
Author information
Rooney JP.
Academic Unit of Neurology
Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute
Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse Street
Dublin 2, Ireland
jrooney@rcsi.ie
Abstract
Reports from human case studies indicate a half-life for inorganic mercury in the
brain in the order of years-contradicting older radioisotope studies that estimated
half-lives in the order of weeks to months in duration. This study systematically
reviews available evidence on the retention time of inorganic mercury in humans
and primates to better understand this conflicting evidence. A broad search strategy was used to capture 16,539 abstracts on the Pubmed database. Abstracts were
screened to include only study types containing relevant information. 131 studies
of interest were identified. Only 1 primate study made a numeric estimate for the
half-life of inorganic mercury (227-540 days). Eighteen human mercury poisoning cases were followed up long term including autopsy. Brain inorganic mercury
concentrations at death were consistent with a half-life of several years or longer.
5 radionucleotide studies were found, one of which estimated head half-life (21
days). This estimate has sometimes been misinterpreted to be equivalent to brain
half-life-which ignores several confounding factors including limited radioactive
half-life and radioactive decay from surrounding tissues including circulating
blood. No autopsy cohort study estimated a half-life for inorganic mercury, although some noted bioaccumulation of brain mercury with age. Modelling studies
provided some extreme estimates (69 days vs 22 years). Estimates from modelling studies appear sensitive to model assumptions, however predications based
on a long half-life (27.4 years) are consistent with autopsy findings. In summary,
shorter estimates of half-life are not supported by evidence from animal studies,
human case studies, or modelling studies based on appropriate assumptions. Evidence from such studies point to a half-life of inorganic mercury in human brains
of several years to several decades. This finding carries important implications for
pharmcokinetic modelling of mercury and potentially for the regulatory toxicology of mercury.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24368178

“Evidence from such studies point
to a half-life of inorganic mercury
in human brains of several years to
several decades. This finding carries
important implications for pharmcokinetic
modelling of mercury and potentially
for the regulatory toxicology of mercury.”

“These and other studies suggest that susceptibility to mercury toxicity differs
among individuals based on multiple genes, not all of which have been identified.
These studies further suggest that the levels of exposure to mercury vapor from
dental amalgams may be unsafe for certain subpopulations.”
Biometals • February 2014

New science challenges old notion that mercury dental amalgam is safe
Author information
Homme KG1, Kern JK, Haley BE, Geier DA, King PG, Sykes LK, Geier MR.
International Academy of Oral Medicine and Toxicology
Champions Gate, FL, 33896, USA
khomme@sbcglobal.net
Abstract
Mercury dental amalgam has a long history of ostensibly safe use despite its continuous release of mercury vapor.
Two key studies known as the Children’s Amalgam Trials are widely cited as evidence of safety. However, four
recent reanalyses of one of these trials now suggest harm, particularly to boys with common genetic variants.
These and other studies suggest that susceptibility to mercury toxicity differs among individuals based on multiple genes, not all of which have been identified. These studies further suggest that the levels of exposure to mercury vapor from dental amalgams may be unsafe for certain subpopulations. Moreover, a simple comparison of
typical exposures versus regulatory safety standards suggests that many people receive unsafe exposures. Chronic
mercury toxicity is especially insidious because symptoms are variable and nonspecific, diagnostic tests are often
misunderstood, and treatments are speculative at best. Throughout the world, efforts are underway to phase down
or eliminate the use of mercury dental amalgam.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3905169/

Current Neuropharmacology • March 2014

Redox Regulation
and the Autistic Spectrum:
Role of Tryptophan Catabolites, Immuno-inflammation,
Autoimmunity and the Amygdala
Author information
Anderson G1, Maes M2.
1. CRC, Rm:30, 57 Laurel Street, Glasgow, Scotland
2. Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
Department of Psychiatry, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
Abstract
The autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) form a set of multi-faceted disorders with significant genetic, epigenetic and environmental determinants. Oxidative and nitrosative
stress (O&NS), immuno-inflammatory pathways, mitochondrial dysfunction and dysregulation of the tryptophan catabolite (TRYCATs) pathway play significant interactive
roles in driving the early developmental etiology and course of ASD. O&NS interactions with immuno-inflammatory pathways mediate their effects centrally via the regulation of astrocyte and microglia responses, including regional variations in TRYCATs
produced. Here we review the nature of these interactions and propose an early developmental model whereby different ASD genetic susceptibilities interact with environmental and epigenetic processes, resulting in glia biasing the patterning of central
interarea interactions. A role for decreased local melatonin and N-acetylserotonin production by immune and glia cells may be a significant treatment target.
Perinatal Mercury
Maternal prenatal mercury levels have sharply increased in recent decades, with foetal
cord blood levels being significantly increased versus maternal levels [61,62]. This suggests that prenatal mercury, which can induce many of the changes evident in ASD, including increased O&NS and immuno-inflammation, as well as decreased endogenous
anti-oxidants and mitochondrial functioning, may play a significant role in the etiology
of ASD. As to whether mercury interacts with the consequences of prenatal infection in
the offspring is unknown, although not unlikely given that mercury significantly modulates murine viral immune response [63,64] and viral infection increases brain mercury
levels [65]. SNPs in genes involved in mercury regulation associate with ASD [66]. It
also requires testing as to whether mercury has any impact on the development of foetal
gamma-delta (∼∼) T cells and prenatal epigenetic regulation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24669209

“Maternal prenatal mercury levels
have sharply increased in recent decades,
with foetal cord blood levels being significantly increased
versus maternal levels. This suggests that prenatal mercury,
which can induce many of the changes evident in Autistic
Spectrum Disorder, including increased O&NS and
immuno-inflammation, as well as decreased endogenous
anti-oxidants and mitochondrial functioning, may play a
significant role in the etiology of Autistic Spectrum Disorder.”

PLoS One • April 2014

Suppression by Thimerosal
of Ex-Vivo CD4+ T Cell Response to
Influenza Vaccine and Induction of
Apoptosis in Primary Memory T Cells
Emily Loison,1 Béatrice Poirier-Beaudouin,1 Valérie Seffer,1
Audrey Paoletti,2 Vered Abitbol,3 Eric Tartour,4 Odile
Launay,5 and Marie-Lise Gougeon1,*
Jon C.D. Houtman, Editor
1. Antiviral Immunity Biotherapy and Vaccine Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
2. Inserm U1030, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
3. Gastroenterology Department, Hôpital Cochin, AP-HP, Paris, France
4. Inserm U970, Université Paris Descartes, PARCC/HEGP, Paris, France
5. Centre d’Investigation Clinique BT-505, Hôpital Cochin, AP-HP, Paris, France
University of Iowa, United States of America
Competing Interests

“Overall these results underline
the proapoptotic effect of thimerosal
on primary human lymphocytes at
concentrations 100 times less to those

CrossJect provided the academic research/private research partnership to fund a CIFRE fellowship used in this study. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products to declare. This does not alter the authors’ adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on
sharing data and materials.

contained in the multidose vaccine, and

Abstract

preservative on T-cell proliferation and

Thimerosal is a preservative used widely in vaccine formulations to prevent bacterial and
fungal contamination in multidose vials of vaccine. Thimerosal was included in the multidose non-adjuvanted pandemic 2009 H1N1 vaccine Panenza. In the context of the analysis
of the ex-vivo T cell responses directed against influenza vaccine, we discovered the in vitro
toxicity Panenza, due to its content in thimerosal. Because thimerosal may skew the immune
response to vaccines, we investigated in detail the ex-vivo effects of thimerosal on the fate
and functions of T cells in response to TCR ligation. We report that ex-vivo exposure of
quiescent or TCR-activated primary human T cells to thimerosal induced a dose-dependent
apoptotic cell death associated with depolarization of mitochondrial membrane, generation
of reactive oxygen species, cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and caspase-3 activation. Moreover, exposure to non-toxic concentrations of thimerosal induced cell cycle
arrest in G0/G1 phase of TCR-activated T cells, and inhibition of the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as IFN gamma, IL-1 beta, TNF alpha, IL-2, as well as the chemokine
MCP1. No shift towards Th2 or Th17 cells was detected. Overall these results underline
the proapoptotic effect of thimerosal on primary human lymphocytes at concentrations 100
times less to those contained in the multidose vaccine, and they reveal the inhibitory effect
of this preservative on T-cell proliferation and functions at nanomolar concentrations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3972181/

they reveal the inhibitory effect of this

functions at nanomolar concentrations.”

Environmental Toxicology And Chemistry • June 2014

Ecogenetics of mercury:
from genetic polymorphisms and epigenetics
to risk assessment and decision-making
Author information
Basu N1, Goodrich JM, Head J.
Department of Environmental Health Sciences
University of Michigan School of Public Health
Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Abstract
The risk assessment of mercury (Hg), in both humans and wildlife, is made
challenging by great variability in exposure and health effects. Although disease risk arises following complex interactions between genetic (“nature”)
and environmental (“nurture”) factors, most Hg studies thus far have focused
solely on environmental factors. In recent years, ecogenetic-based studies have
emerged and have started to document genetic and epigenetic factors that may
indeed influence the toxicokinetics or toxicodynamics of Hg. The present study
reviews these studies and discusses their utility in terms of Hg risk assessment,
management, and policy and offers perspectives on fruitful areas for future
research. In brief, epidemiological studies on populations exposed to inorganic Hg (e.g., dentists and miners) or methylmercury (e.g., fish consumers) are
showing that polymorphisms in a number of environmentally responsive genes
can explain variations in Hg biomarker values and health outcomes. Studies on
mammals (wildlife, humans, rodents) are showing Hg exposures to be related
to epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation. Such findings are beginning to
increase understanding of the mechanisms of action of Hg, and in doing so they
may help identify candidate biomarkers and pinpoint susceptible groups or life
stages. Furthermore, they may help refine uncertainty factors and thus lead to
more accurate risk assessments and improved decision-making.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24038486

“In recent years,
ecogenetic-based studies
have emerged and have started
to document genetic and epigenetic
factors that may indeed influence the
toxicokinetics or toxicodynamics of mercury.”

Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics • June 2014

Thimerosal compromises human dendritic cell
maturation, IL-12 production, chemokine release,
and T-helper polarization
by Emily Loison & Marie-Lise Gougeon
Abstract
In conclusion, our study indicates that ex-vivo exposure of human immature dendritic cells to very low nontoxic concentrations of thimerosal alters the LPS-induced
maturation process and dampens their proinflammatory response, in particular the
production of the T-helper polarizing cytokine IL-12. Moreover, thimerosal exposure
of DCs corrupts their interaction with naïve CD4+ T cells, leading to a decreased production of IFN-∼ IP10 and GM-CSF and increased levels of IL-8, IL-9, and MIP-1∼.
Today, except for some flu vaccines in multi-dose vials, no recommended childhood
vaccines contain thimerosal as a preservative. It must be stressed that the toxicity and
immunomodulatory effects of thimerosal that we report ex-vivo on human monocytederived DCs may occur in vivo and induce an alteration of the immune response to
the vaccine. These observations highlight the need to use this preservative with caution and avoid it if possible.
Full Report
https://app.box.com/s/0dg5ksp3f377qes3m5qsp16rl1gxws8l

“These observations
highlight the need to use
this preservative with caution
and avoid it if possible.”

“Our results indicate that higher dose of neonatal thimerosal-mercury
is capable of inducing long-lasting substantial dysregulation of neurodevelopment,
synaptic function, and endocrine system, which could be the causal involvements of autistic-like behavior in mice.”
Toxicology Science • June 2014

Transcriptomic analyses of neurotoxic effects in mouse brain
after intermittent neonatal administration of thimerosal
Author information
Li X1, Qu F, Xie W, Wang F, Liu H, Song S,
Chen T, Zhang Y, Zhu S, Wang Y, Guo C, Tang TS.
State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology
Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
Abstract
Thimerosal is a vaccine antimicrobial preservative which has long been suspected an iatrogenic factor possibly contributing to neurodevelopmental disorders including autism. The association between infant vaccine thimerosal exposure and autism remains an open question. Although thimerosal has been removed from mandatory childhood vaccines in the United States, thimerosal-preserved vaccines are still widely used outside of the
United States especially in developing countries. Notably, thimerosal-containing vaccines are being given to the
newborns within the first 12-24 h after birth in some countries. To examine the possible neurotoxic effects of
early neonatal exposure to a higher level of thimerosal, FVB mice were subcutaneously injected with thimerosal-mercury at a dose which is 20× higher than that used for regular Chinese infant immunization during the
first 4 months of life. Thimerosal-treated mice exhibited neural development delay, social interaction deficiency,
and inclination of depression. Apparent neuropathological changes were also observed in adult mice neonatally
treated with thimerosal. High-throughput RNA sequencing of autistic-behaved mice brains revealed the alternation of a number of canonical pathways involving neuronal development, neuronal synaptic function, and the
dysregulation of endocrine system. Intriguingly, the elevation of anterior pituitary secreting hormones occurred
exclusively in male but not in female thimerosal-treated mice, demonstrating for the first time the gender bias of
thimerosal-mercury toxicity with regard to endocrine system. Our results indicate that higher dose of neonatal
thimerosal-mercury (20× higher than that used in human) is capable of inducing long-lasting substantial dysregulation of neurodevelopment, synaptic function, and endocrine system, which could be the causal involvements of
autistic-like behavior in mice.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24675092

Environmental Toxicology And Chemistry • June 2014

Ecogenetics of mercury:
From genetic polymorphisms and epigenetics
to risk assessment and decision-making
Author Information
Niladri Basu, Jaclyn M. Goodrich and Jessica Head
Cooperative Institute for Limnology and Ecosystems Research
School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

Abstract
The risk assessment of mercury (Hg), in both humans and wildlife, is made challenging by great variability in exposure and health effects. Although disease risk
arises following complex interactions between genetic (“nature”) and environmental (“nurture”) factors, most Hg studies thus far have focused solely on environmental factors. In recent years, ecogenetic-based studies have emerged and
have started to document genetic and epigenetic factors that may indeed influence the toxicokinetics or toxicodynamics of Hg. The present study reviews these
studies and discusses their utility in terms of Hg risk assessment, management,
and policy and offers perspectives on fruitful areas for future research. In brief,
epidemiological studies on populations exposed to inorganic Hg (e.g., dentists
and miners) or methylmercury (e.g., fish consumers) are showing that polymorphisms in a number of environmentally responsive genes can explain variations
in Hg biomarker values and health outcomes. Studies on mammals (wildlife, humans, rodents) are showing Hg exposures to be related to epigenetic marks such
as DNA methylation. Such findings are beginning to increase understanding of
the mechanisms of action of Hg, and in doing so they may help identify candidate
biomarkers and pinpoint susceptible groups or life stages. Furthermore, they may
help refine uncertainty factors and thus lead to more accurate risk assessments
and improved decision-making.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/etc.2375/abstract

“In brief, epidemiological studies
on populations exposed to inorganic mercury
(e.g., dentists and miners) or methylmercury (e.g., fish
consumers) are showing that polymorphisms in a number of
environmentally responsive genes can explain variations
in mercury biomarker values and health outcomes.”

[polymorphosms explain why some individuals injected with
an aluminum containing vaccine will become autistic and
others will not. Polymorphism is the genetic variant]

Pediatric Neurology • July 2014

Effect of low-level prenatal mercury exposure
on neonate neurobehavioral development in China
Author information
Wu J1, Ying T2, Shen Z2, Wang H2.
Zhoushan Women’s & Children’s Health Hospital
Zhoushan, Zhejiang, China
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
This study aimed to assess the effects of low-level prenatal mercury exposure on neonate neurobehavioral development in China.
METHODS:
In total, 418 mother-neonate pairs were included in the study. Maternal urine, hair,
and blood samples and cord blood samples were used to document prenatal exposure
to mercury. The Neonatal Behavioral Neurological Assessment was used to estimate
neurobehavioral development in the neonates at 3 days of age.
RESULTS:
Total mercury level was significantly higher in cord blood than that in maternal blood.
A strong correlation was found between total mercury levels in maternal blood and
those in cord blood (r = 0.7431; P < 0.0001). Trend analysis revealed that mothers who
consumed more fish had higher blood and cord blood mercury levels (all P < 0.0001).
Significant differences were also found between male and female cord blood mercury levels among groups with different fish consumption frequencies (all P < 0.0001).
Cord blood mercury level was significantly associated with total Neonatal Behavioral
Neurological Assessment scores (ß = 0.03; standard error = 0.01; P = 0.0409), passive
muscle tone (odds ratio = 1.07; 95% confidence interval = 1.12-1.13; P = 0.0071),
and active muscle tone (odds ratio = 1.06; 95% confidence interval = 1.01-1.11; P =
0.0170) scores after adjustment, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS:
Neonatal neurodevelopment was associated with prenatal exposure to mercury. Women
with high mercury levels should avoid intake seafood excessively during pregnancy.
Long-term effects of exposure to mercury on childhood development need to be further explored.
Full Report
http://www.pedneur.com/article/S0887-8994(14)00195-7/fulltext

“Neonatal neurodevelopment
was associated with prenatal exposure to mercury.
Women with high mercury levels should avoid
intake seafood excessively during pregnancy.”

International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health • September 2014

A Dose-Response Relationship
between Organic Mercury Exposure from
Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines and
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
David A. Geier,1 Brian S. Hooker,2
Janet K. Kern,1,3 Paul G. King,4
Lisa K. Sykes,4 and Mark R. Geier1
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
2. Department of Biology, Simpson University, 2211 College View Dr., Redding, CA 96003, USA
3. Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas
5353 Harry Hine Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390, USA
4. CoMeD, Inc., 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
A hypothesis testing case-control study evaluated concerns about the toxic effects of organic-mercury (Hg) exposure from thimerosal-containing (49.55% Hg by weight) vaccines on the risk of
neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs). Automated medical records were examined to identify cases
and controls enrolled from their date-of-birth (1991–2000) in the Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD)
project. ND cases were diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), specific developmental delay, tic disorder or hyperkinetic syndrome of childhood. In addition, putative nonthimerosal-related outcomes of febrile seizure, failure to thrive and cerebral degenerations were
examined. The cumulative total dose of Hg exposure from thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccine (T-HBV) administered within the first six months of life was calculated. On a per microgram
of organic-Hg basis, PDD (odds ratio (OR) = 1.054), specific developmental delay (OR = 1.035),
tic disorder (OR = 1.034) and hyperkinetic syndrome of childhood (OR = 1.05) cases were significantly more likely than controls to receive increased organic-Hg exposure. By contrast, none of the
non-thimerosal related outcomes were significantly more likely than the controls to have received
increased organic-Hg exposure. Routine childhood vaccination may be an important public health
tool to reduce infectious disease-associated morbidity/mortality, but the present study significantly
associates organic-Hg exposure from T-HBV with an increased risk of an ND diagnosis.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4199012/

“Routine childhood vaccination
may be an important public health tool
to reduce infectious disease-associated
morbidity/mortality, but the present study
significantly associates organic-mercury
exposure from thimerosal-containing
hepatitis B vaccine with an increased risk of
an neurodevelopmental disorder diagnosis.”

“... the present study supports an association between increasing organic-mercury exposure from
Thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines and the subsequent risk of specific delays in development ...”
North American Journal Of Medical Science • October 2014

Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccination and the risk for diagnosed specific delays in development in the United States:
a case-control study in the vaccine safety datalink
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK2, Hooker BS3, King PG4, Sykes LK4, Geier MR1.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
2. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
3. Biology Department, Simpson University, Redding, California, USA
4. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Within the first 3 years of life, the brain develops rapidly. Its development is characterized by critical developmental periods for speech, vision,
hearing, language, balance, etc.; and alteration in any of the processes occurring in those critical periods can lead to specific delays in development.
AIMS
The present study evaluated the potential toxic effects of organic-mercury exposure from Thimerosal (49.55% mercury by weight) in childhood
vaccines and its hypothesized possible relationship with specific delays in development.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A hypothesis testing case-control study was undertaken to evaluate the relationship between exposure to Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines administered at specific intervals in the first 6 months among cases diagnosed with specific delays in development and controls born between
1991-2000, utilizing data in the Vaccine Safety Datalink database.
RESULTS
Cases were significantly more likely than controls to have received increased organic-mercury from Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccine
administered in the first, second, and sixth month of life.
CONCLUSION
Though routine childhood vaccination may be an important public health tool to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with infectious
diseases, the present study supports an association between increasing organic-mercury exposure from Thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines
and the subsequent risk of specific delays in development among males and females.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25489565

Indian Journal Of Medical Ethics • October 2014

Thimerosal as discrimination:
vaccine disparity in the UN Minamata Convention on mercury
Author information
Sykes LK1, Geier DA2, King PG1, Kern JK3, Haley BE1,
Chaigneau CG1, Megson MN4, Love JM5, Reeves RE1, Geier MR2.
1. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, MD USA
2. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, MD; Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, MD USA
3. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, MD USA
4. Pediatric and Adolescent Ability Center, Richmond, VA USA
5. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, MD USA
Abstract
When addressing toxins, one unmistakable parallel exists between biology and politics: developing
children and developing nations are those most vulnerable to toxic exposures. This disturbing parallel is the subject of this critical review, which examines the use and distribution of the mercury (Hg)based compound, thimerosal, in vaccines. Developed in 1927, thimerosal is 49.55% Hg by weight
and breaks down in the body into ethyl-Hg chloride, ethyl-Hg hydroxide and sodium thiosalicylate.
Since the early 1930s, there has been evidence indicating that thimerosal poses a hazard to the health
of human beings and is ineffective as an antimicrobial agent. While children in the developed and
predominantly western nations receive doses of mostly no-thimerosal and reduced-thimerosal vaccines, children in the developing nations receive many doses of several unreduced thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs). Thus, thimerosal has continued to be a part of the global vaccine supply
and its acceptability as a component of vaccine formulations remained unchallenged until 2010,
when the United Nations (UN), through the UN Environment Programme, began negotiations to
write the global, legally binding Minamata Convention on Hg. During the negotiations, TCVs were
dropped from the list of Hg-containing products to be regulated. Consequently, a double standard
in vaccine safety, which previously existed due to ignorance and economic reasons, has now been
institutionalised as global policy. Ultimately, the Minamata Convention on Hg has sanctioned the
inequitable distribution of thimerosal by specifically exempting TCVs from regulation, condoning a
two-tier standard of vaccine safety: a predominantly no-thimerosal and reduced-thimerosal standard
for developed nations and a predominantly thimerosal-containing one for developing nations. This
disparity must now be evaluated urgently as a potential form of institutionalised discrimination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25101548

“While children in the developed
and predominantly western nations
receive doses of mostly no-thimerosal
and reduced-thimerosal vaccines, children
in the developing nations receive many doses
of several unreduced thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs).”

“... the preponderance of evidence suggests that mercury exposure from
dental amalgams may cause or contribute to many chronic conditions.”
Neuro Endocrinology Letters • 2014

Evidence supporting a link between dental amalgams
and chronic illness, fatigue, depression, anxiety, and suicide
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA1, Bjørklund G2, King PG3, Homme KG4, Haley BE5, Sykes LK3, Geier MR1.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
2. Council for Nutritional and Environmental Medicine, Mo i Rana, Norway
3. CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
4. International Academy of Oral Medicine and Toxicology, ChampionsGate, FL, USA
5. University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to examine the evidence for a relationship between mercury (Hg) exposure from
dental amalgams and certain idiopathic chronic illnesses--chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), fibromyalgia (FM),
depression, anxiety, and suicide. Dental amalgam is a commonly used dental restorative material that contains
approximately 50% elemental mercury (Hg0) by weight and releases Hg0 vapor. Studies have shown that chronic
Hg exposure from various sources including dental amalgams is associated with numerous health complaints,
including fatigue, anxiety, and depression--and these are among the main symptoms that are associated with CFS
and FM. In addition, several studies have shown that the removal of amalgams is associated with improvement in
these symptoms. Although the issue of amalgam safety is still under debate, the preponderance of evidence suggests that Hg exposure from dental amalgams may cause or contribute to many chronic conditions. Thus, consideration of Hg toxicity may be central to the effective clinical investigation of many chronic illnesses, particularly
those involving fatigue and depression.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25617876

Reviews Of Environmental Contamination And Toxicology • 2014

Mercury toxicity and neurodegenerative effects
Author information
Carocci A1, Rovito N, Sinicropi MS, Genchi G.
Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco
Università degli Studi di Bari “A. Moro”
Bari, 70125, Italia
Abstract
Mercury is among the most toxic heavy metals and has no known physiological role in humans. Three
forms of mercury exist: elemental, inorganic and organic. Mercury has been used by man since ancient
times. Among the earliest were the Chinese and Romans, who employed cinnabar (mercury sulfide) as
a red dye in ink (Clarkson et al. 2007). Mercury has also been used to purify gold and silver minerals
by forming amalgams. This is a hazardous practice, but is still widespread in Brazil’s Amazon basin,
in Laos and in Venezuela, where tens of thousands of miners are engaged in local mining activities to
find and purify gold or silver. Mercury compounds were long used to treat syphilis and the element
is still used as an antiseptic,as a medicinal preservative and as a fungicide. Dental amalgams, which
contain about 50% mercury, have been used to repair dental caries in the U.S. since 1856.Mercury still
exists in many common household products around the world.Examples are: thermometers, barometers, batteries, and light bulbs (Swain et al.2007). In small amounts, some organo mercury-compounds
(e.g., ethylmercury tiosalicylate(thimerosal) and phenylmercury nitrate) are used as preservatives in
some medicines and vaccines (Ballet al. 2001).Each mercury form has its own toxicity profile. Exposure to Hg0 vapor and MeHg produce symptoms in CNS, whereas, the kidney is the target organ when
exposures to the mono- and di-valent salts of mercury (Hg+ and Hg++, respectively)occur. Chronic
exposure to inorganic mercury produces stomatitis, erethism and tremors. Chronic MeHg exposure
induced symptoms similar to those observed in ALS, such as the early onset of hind limb weakness
(Johnson and Atchison 2009).Among the organic mercury compounds, MeHg is the most biologically available and toxic (Scheuhammer et al. 2007). MeHg is neurotoxic, reaching high levels of
accumulation in the CNS; it can impair physiological function by disrupting endocrine glands (Tan et
al. 2009).The most important mechanism by which mercury causes toxicity appears to bemitochondrial damage via depletion of GSH (Nicole et al. 1998), coupled with binding to thiol groups (-SH),
which generates free radicals. Mercury has a high affinity for thiol groups (-SH) and seleno groups
(-SeH) that are present in amino acids as cysteine and N-acetyl cysteine, lipoic acid, proteins, and
enzymes. N-acetylcysteine and cysteine are precursors for the biosynthesis of GSH, which is among
the most powerful intracellular antioxidants available to protect against oxidative stress and inflammation.Mercury and methylmercury induce mitochondrial dysfunction, which reduces ATP synthesis
and increases lipid, protein and DNA peroxidation. The content of metallothioneines, GSH, selenium
and fish high in omega-3 fatty acids appear to be strongly related with degree of inorganic and organic
mercury toxicity, and with the protective detoxifying mechanisms in humans. In conclusion, depletion
of GSH, breakage of mitochondria, increased lipid peroxidation, and oxidation of proteins and DNA
in the brain, induced by mercury and his salts, appear to be important factors in conditions such as
ALS and AD (Bains and Shaw 1997; Nicole et al. 1998;Spencer et al. 1998; Alberti et al. 1999).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24515807

“In conclusion,
depletion of GSH,
breakage of mitochondria,
increased lipid peroxidation,
and oxidation of proteins and DNA in the brain,
induced by mercury and his salts,
appear to be important factors in
conditions such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
and Alzheimers Disease ...”

“These findings suggest that the epidemiological link between environmental mercury exposure
and an increased risk of developing autism may be mediated through mitochondrial dysfunction ...”
Journal of Toxicology • January 2015

Increased Susceptibility to Ethylmercury-Induced
Mitochondrial Dysfunction in a Subset of
Autism Lymphoblastoid Cell Lines
Shannon Rose, Rebecca Wynne, Richard E. Frye, Stepan Melnyk, and S. Jill James
Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
Arkansas Children’s Hospital Research Institute
13 Children’s Way, Slot 512-41B
Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
Abstract
The association of autism spectrum disorders with oxidative stress, redox imbalance, and mitochondrial dysfunction has become increasingly recognized. In this study, extracellular flux analysis was used to compare mitochondrial respiration in lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) from individuals with autism and unaffected controls
exposed to ethylmercury, an environmental toxin known to deplete glutathione and induce oxidative stress and
mitochondrial dysfunction. We also tested whether pretreating the autism LCLs with N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to
increase glutathione concentrations conferred protection from ethylmercury. Examination of 16 autism/control
LCL pairs revealed that a subgroup (31%) of autism LCLs exhibited a greater reduction in ATP-linked respiration, maximal respiratory capacity, and reserve capacity when exposed to ethylmercury, compared to control
LCLs. These respiratory parameters were significantly elevated at baseline in the ethylmercury-sensitive autism
subgroup as compared to control LCLs. NAC pretreatment of the sensitive subgroup reduced (normalized) baseline respiratory parameters and blunted the exaggerated ethylmercury-induced reserve capacity depletion. These
findings suggest that the epidemiological link between environmental mercury exposure and an increased risk of
developing autism may be mediated through mitochondrial dysfunction and support the notion that a subset of
individuals with autism may be vulnerable to environmental influences with detrimental effects on development
through mitochondrial dysfunction.
http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jt/2015/573701/

“... the present study provides new epidemiological evidence of a significant relationship between
increasing organic ethyl mercury exposure from Thimerosal-containing vaccines
and the subsequent risk of pervasive developmental disorder diagnosis ...”
Biological Trace Element Research • February 2015

A case-control study
evaluating the relationship between thimerosal-containing haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine administration
and the risk for a pervasive developmental disorder diagnosis in the United States
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, King PG, Sykes LK, Geier MR.
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, 14 Redgate Ct, Silver Spring, MD, 20905, USA
Abstract
Thimerosal is an organic mercury (Hg)-containing compound (49.55 % Hg by weight) historically added to many
multi-dose vials of vaccine as a preservative. A hypothesis testing case-control study evaluated automated medical records in the Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) for organic Hg exposure from Thimerosal in Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)-containing vaccines administered at specific times within the first 15 months of life among
subjects diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) (n = 534) in comparison to controls. The generally accepted biologically non-plausible linkage between Thimerosal exposure and subsequent diagnosis of
febrile seizure (n = 5886) was examined as a control outcome. Cases diagnosed with PDD received significantly
more organic Hg within the first 6 months of life (odds ratio (OR) = 1.97, p < 0.001) and first 15 months of life
(OR = 3.94, p < 0.0001) than controls, whereas cases diagnosed with febrile seizure were no more likely than controls to have received increased organic Hg. On a per microgram of organic Hg basis, cases diagnosed with a PDD
in comparison to controls were at significantly greater odds (OR = 1.0197, p < 0.0001) of receiving increasing organic Hg exposure within the first 15 months of life, whereas cases diagnosed febrile seizure were no more likely
than controls (OR = 0.999, p > 0.20) to have received increasing organic Hg exposure within the first 15 months
of life. Routine childhood vaccination is an important public health tool to reduce the morbidity and mortality
associated with infectious diseases, but the present study provides new epidemiological evidence of a significant
relationship between increasing organic Hg exposure from Thimerosal-containing vaccines and the subsequent
risk of PDD diagnosis in males and females.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25382662

Clinica Chimica Acta • April 2015

Thimerosal: clinical, epidemiologic and biochemical studies
Author information
Geier DA1, King PG2, Hooker BS3, Dórea JG4, Kern JK5, Sykes LK6, Geier MR7.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
2. CoMeD, Inc., 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
3. Biology Department, Simpson University, 2211 College View Drive, Redding, CA 96001, USA
4. Health Sciences, Universidade de Brasilia, 70919-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil. Electronic address: jg.dorea@gmail.com.
5. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA. Electronic address: jkern@dfwair.net.
6. CoMeD, Inc., 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA. Electronic address: syklone5@verizon.net.
7. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., 14 Redgate Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA. Electronic address: mgeier@comcast.net

Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Thimerosal (or Thiomersal) is a trade name for an organomercurial compound (sodium ethyl-mercury (Hg) thiosalicylate) that is 49.55% Hg by weight, which rapidly decomposes in aqueous saline solutions into ethyl-Hg
hydroxide and ethyl-Hg chloride. Developed in 1927, it has been and is still being used as a preservative in some
cosmetics, topical pharmaceuticals, and biological drug products, including vaccines. Concerns have been voiced
about its use because it is toxic to human cells. Although it is banned in several countries, it continues to be added
to some vaccines in the United States and many vaccines in the developing world.
DISCUSSION
This critical review focuses on the clinical, epidemiological, and biochemical studies of adverse effects from
Thimerosal in developing humans. This review will include research that examines fetal, infant, and childhood
death; birth defects; neurodevelopmental testing deficits in children; and neurodevelopmental disorders (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, tic disorder, and specific developmental delays).
The review will also look at the research that examined the outcomes of acute accidental ethyl-Hg poisoning in
humans. The studies that examine the underlying biochemical insights into the neuronal cellular damage will also
be explored.
CONCLUSION
The culmination of the research that examines the effects of Thimerosal in humans indicates that it is a poison at
minute levels with a plethora of deleterious consequences, even at the levels currently administered in vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25708367

“The culmination of the research
that examines the effects of Thimerosal
in humans indicates that it is a poison
at minute levels with a plethora of deleterious
consequences, even at the levels currently
administered in vaccines.”

“During the decade in which Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines were routinely recommended
and administered to US infants, an estimated 0.5-1 million additional US children were diagnosed with specific delays
in development as a consequence of 25μg or 37.5μg organic mercury from Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines ...
The resulting lifetime costs to the United States may exceed $1 trillion.”
Journal Of Epidemiology And Global Health • July 2015

A longitudinal cohort study of the relationship between Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccination
and specific delays in development in the United States:
Assessment of attributable risk and lifetime care costs
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK2, Hooker BS3, King PG4, Sykes LK4, Geier MR1.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, MD, USA.
2. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, MD, USA. Electronic address: jkern@dfwair.net.
3 .Biology Department, Simpson University, Redding, CA, USA.
4. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, MD, USA.
Abstract
Epidemiological evidence suggests a link between mercury (Hg) exposure from Thimerosal-containing vaccines
and specific delays in development. A hypothesis-testing longitudinal cohort study (n=49,835) using medical records in the Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) was undertaken to evaluate the relationship between exposure to Hg
from Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines (T-HBVs) administered at specific intervals in the first 6months
of life and specific delays in development [International Classification of Disease, 9th revision (ICD-9): 315.xx]
among children born between 1991 and 1994 and continuously enrolled from birth for at least 5.81years. Infants
receiving increased Hg doses from T-HBVs administered within the first month, the first 2 months, and the first
6 months of life were significantly more likely to be diagnosed with specific delays in development than infants
receiving no Hg doses from T-HBVs. During the decade in which T-HBVs were routinely recommended and
administered to US infants (1991-2001), an estimated 0.5-1 million additional US children were diagnosed with
specific delays in development as a consequence of 25μg or 37.5μg organic Hg from T-HBVs administered within
the first 6 months of life. The resulting lifetime costs to the United States may exceed $1 trillion.
Full Report
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210600615000647

[an epidemic with a multi-trillion-dollar cost]

Science And Engineering Ethics • October 2015

Systematic Assessment of Research
on Autism Spectrum Disorder and Mercury Reveals Conflicts of Interest and
the Need for Transparency in Autism Research
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA2, Deth RC3, Sykes LK4,
Hooker BS5, Love JM6, Bjørklund G7, Chaigneau CG8,
Haley BE9, Geier MR10.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., 14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD, 20905
2. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., 14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD, 20905
3. Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA. rdeth@nova.edu.
4. CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA. syklone5@verizon.net.
5. Simpson University, Redding, CA, USA. bhooker@simpsonu.edu.
6. CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA. jlove@titushillis.com.
7. Council for Nutritional and Environmental Medicine, Mo i Rana, Norway. bjorklund@conem.org.
8. CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA. mamadelchinito@gmail.com.
9. University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA. behaley@ctiscience.com.
10. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., 14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD, 20905
mgeier@comcast.net
Abstract
Historically, entities with a vested interest in a product that critics have suggested is harmful have consistently used
research to back their claims that the product is safe. Prominent examples are: tobacco, lead, bisphenol A, and atrazine.
Research literature indicates that about 80-90 % of studies with industry affiliation found no harm from the product, while
only about 10-20 % of studies without industry affiliation found no harm. In parallel to other historical debates, recent
studies examining a possible relationship between mercury (Hg) exposure and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show a
similar dichotomy. Studies sponsored and supported by industry or entities with an apparent conflict of interest have most
often shown no evidence of harm or no “consistent” evidence of harm, while studies without such affiliations report positive evidence of a Hg/autism association. The potentially causal relationship between Hg exposure and ASD differs from
other toxic products since there is a broad coalition of entities for whom a conflict of interest arises. These include influential governmental public health entities, the pharmaceutical industry, and even the coal burning industry. This review
includes a systematic literature search of original studies on the potential relationship between Hg and ASD from 1999
to date, finding that of the studies with public health and/or industry affiliation, 86 % reported no relationship between
Hg and ASD. However, among studies without public health and/or industry affiliation, only 19 % find no relationship
between Hg and ASD. The discrepancy in these results suggests a bias indicative of a conflict of interest.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26507205

This review includes a systematic
literature search of original studies
on the potential relationship between Hg [ethyl mercury] and
ASD [Autisitic Spectrum Disorder] from 1999 to date, finding
that of the studies with public health and/or industry
affiliation, 86% reported no relationship between
Hg [ethyl mercury] and ASD [Autisitic Spectrum Disorder].
However, among studies without public health and/or
industry affiliation, only 19% find no relationship between
Hg [ethyl mercury] and ASD [Autisitic Spectrum Disorder].
The discrepancy in these results suggests
a bias indicative of a conflict of interest.”

Journal of Toxicology • 2015

Increased Susceptibility
to Ethylmercury-Induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction
in a Subset of Autism Lymphoblastoid Cell Lines
Shannon Rose, Rebecca Wynne,
Richard E. Frye, Stepan Melnyk, and S. Jill James
Department of Pediatrics
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
Arkansas Children’s Hospital Research Institute
13 Children’s Way, Slot 512-41B, Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
Abstract
The association of autism spectrum disorders with oxidative stress, redox imbalance, and mitochondrial dysfunction has become increasingly recognized. In this
study, extracellular flux analysis was used to compare mitochondrial respiration
in lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) from individuals with autism and unaffected
controls exposed to ethylmercury, an environmental toxin known to deplete glutathione and induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. We also tested
whether pretreating the autism LCLs with N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to increase
glutathione concentrations conferred protection from ethylmercury. Examination
of 16 autism/control LCL pairs revealed that a subgroup (31%) of autism LCLs
exhibited a greater reduction in ATP-linked respiration, maximal respiratory capacity, and reserve capacity when exposed to ethylmercury, compared to control
LCLs. These respiratory parameters were significantly elevated at baseline in
the ethylmercury-sensitive autism subgroup as compared to control LCLs. NAC
pretreatment of the sensitive subgroup reduced (normalized) baseline respiratory
parameters and blunted the exaggerated ethylmercury-induced reserve capacity
depletion. These findings suggest that the epidemiological link between environmental mercury exposure and an increased risk of developing autism may be mediated through mitochondrial dysfunction and support the notion that a subset of
individuals with autism may be vulnerable to environmental influences with detrimental effects on development through mitochondrial dysfunction.
http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jt/2015/573701/

“These findings suggest that
the epidemiological link between
environmental mercury exposure and an
increased risk of developing autism may be
mediated through mitochondrial
dysfunction and support the notion
that a subset of individuals with autism
may be vulnerable to environmental
influences with detrimental effects on
development through mitochondrial
dysfunction.”

Eli Lilly And The History of Thimerosal
The following is a summary of the history of thimerosal. It is not a complete list, as there is much more information out there but we hit the high points and we give a good frame of reference for where the discussion of the
safety of this product and its relationship to autism and neurodevelopmental disorders should begin.
Invented in the 1920’s by Eli Lilly, thimerosal is 49.6% ethlymercury by weight, a neurotoxin known to be more
than a hundreds times more lethal to tissue than lead.
Eli Lilly’s safety testing of the product consists of a 1930 study of 22 patients dieing from mengiococcal meningitis in an Indiana hospital. Patients are injected with the solutions and followed until their death, which is within
days. Because the patients die of meningitis, they are declared to show no adverse reaction to thimerosal and the
product is declared safe for use. Thimerosal is subsequently introduced for use in vaccines and in over the counter
remedies as a preservative to kill bacteria in the product.
When the FDA is created, Thimerosal is grandfathered in and is not subjected to any additional safety testing. The
1930 study remains the only safety testing done on the substance even after being in use for over 75 years.

ing a baby, seek the advice of a health professional before using this product.” The FDA orders the withdrawal of
over the counter thimerosal containing products within a 6 month period. It does not order removal from vaccines,
but recommends that the issue be studied and that the incidence of neurological problems in unvaccinated populations like the Amish be compared to the vaccinated population. [22 years later no such study has yet been done.
On July 19, 2005 Dr. Julie Gerberding, head of the CDC says that such a study would be difficult to undertake
because of genetic confounders. This seems contrary to the scientific process because if indeed such a study is
done and it is found that the Amish have a lower incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders, the next step would
be to undertake genetic studies to see if their genes differ dramatically from the general population and if their
differences can help us locate the genetic component of autism. In addition studies designed to see if the small
number of vaccinated Amish differ in their risk for NDDs to the larger Amish population would offer information
about increased risk from thimerosal.]
In the 1930’s the average child only received three vaccines in their young life. Many vaccines are added to the
schedule over the years, with an increase in the 1980’s and with 3 vaccines added to the schedule in 1991 alone.
The current vaccine schedule calls for 31 vaccines in the first 18 months of life, 48 with full flu vaccination by 72
months of life.

Through FOIA requests and documents acquired as a part of discovery process in lawsuits against Lilly, it is clear
that they have been warned about, and have been aware of the dangers of the product since at least 1947.

A Merck internal memo is obtained during discovery discloses that in 1991 a Merck researcher added up the
amount of mercury that is in the new vaccine schedule and sounded an alarm at the company that children who
are vaccinated according to it would receive amounts of mercury far and above that considered to be safe by the
EPA. Merck takes no action in regard to the information.

The use of thimerosal in teething powders for infants leads to a fatal out break of Acrodynia, or “Pink’s Disease”,
a form of mercury poisoning. This illness has many symptoms in common with Autism. The link to mercury
powders was found in the 1940’s and by the 1950’s Pink’s disease was disappearing.

During the 1990’s, autism rates begin to rise dramatically. Parents complain to the health authorities that they
believe that their children’s developmental disorders are related to their vaccines.

In 1963 Eli Lilly was forwarded an article that read in part: “There is another point of practical significance: does
the parenteral injection of thimerosal - containing fluids cause disturbances in thimerosal-sensitive patients?”
“It is known that persons that are contact sensitive to a drug may tolerate the same medications internally, but it
seems advisable to use a preservative other than thimerosal for injections in thimerosal-sensitive people.”

In 1998, a researcher at the CDC does the same math that Merck did 7 years previously. She finds that children are
getting as much as 125 times the EPA limit of mercury for their weight. The EPA limit is based on the ingestion
of methlymercury in food by a healthy adult. Because 90% of ingested mercury is excreted in the digestive track
and never enters the blood stream, so even the EPA limit may be drastically lacking considering that thimerosal is
injected directly into the blood stream and is not subject to the bodies natural defenses against toxic poisoning.

On August 17, 1967 the Medical/Science department requests that the claim “non-toxic” on thimerosal labels
be deleted in next printing run. Two weeks later the label is changed to “non-irritating to body tissues,” and the
phrase non-toxic omitted.
In 1972 The British Medical Journal reports case of skin burns resulting from the chemical interaction of thimerosal and aluminum. “Mercury is known to act as a catalyst and to cause aluminum to oxidize rapidly, with the
production of heat.” The manufacturers who supply us with thimerosal have been informed.” [Thimerosal is being
used in vaccines which also contain aluminum].
In the 1970’s six newborns at one hospital die as a result of having a thimerosal containing antiseptic wiped on
their wounds.
In 1982 the FDA reviews the use of thimerosal. Their statement reads in part: “At the cellular level, thimerosal
has been found to be more toxic for human epithelial cells in vitro than mercuric chloride, mercuric nitrate, and
merbromim (mercurichrom). “It was found to be 35.3 times more toxic for embryonic chick heart tissue than for
staphylococcus areus.” [a pathogen that the thimerosal is intended to kill]. A 1950 study showed that thimerosal
was no better than water in protecting mice from potential fatal streptococcal infection.” “The Panel concludes
that thimerosal is not safe for over the counter topical use because of its potential for cell damage if applied to
broken skin and its allergy potential. It is not effective as a topical antimicrobial because its bacteriastatic action
can be reversed.” Additional language added to some Lilly labels: “As with any drug, if you are pregnant or nurs-

In 1999, the CDC and the American Association of Pediatrics issue a joint statement saying that although they find
no “evidence of harm” from the mercury exposure that children are getting in their vaccines, they are calling on
vaccine manufacturers to remove it from vaccines on a voluntary basis as a precautionary measure because “some
children may” get more than the EPA limit for mercury at their 6 month visits. Manufactures begin the process in
1999, but do not remove it from all vaccines.
No legal ban on thimerosal is issued.
No recall of the mercury laden vaccines is issued and companies continue to sell lots already manufactured. Some
of these vaccines containing full doses of thimerosal have been found in doctors’ offices by parents who request
to read package inserts with expiration dates as late as 2007.
No independent or government testing of vaccines is done to confirm that thimerosal has been removed. FDA
denies parents request that they set up a system to verify manufacturers claims of low dose or thimerosal free
vaccines. No statement is issued to pediatricians to alert them to the symptoms of mercury poisoning. No recommendation is made to pediatricians to screen children who suffered the onset of neurological impairment after
vaccination for mercury toxicity.
Vaccines with 25mcg of thimerosal are still shipped to developing countries. Most flu shots still contain a full dose

of thimerosal. The EPA estimates that a person must weigh 550 lbs. to safely tolerate this amount of mercury.
In November of 1999, the CDC commissions one of its new employees, a Belgian named Thomas Verstraten, to
study the Vaccine Safety Datalink to find the risk of autism and other NDDs in relation to thimerosal exposure.
Verstraten’s first draft of the study finds a relative risk above 7 for children who receive the highest dose of thimerosal to develop autism. In simple terms, such children have more than a 600% higher chance of developing
autism than children who don’t receive any thimerosal. A relative risk of 2 is sufficient proof in U.S. courts to find
for vaccine injury. Verstraten and other scientists at the CDC spend 4 years trying to change the study so that the
relationship between the preservative and NDD’s is significantly reduced or eliminated. The Center for Disease
Control will later describe these changes to the study as “improvements”. When the study is published in 2003,
it concludes that “no consistent significant associations are found between thimerosal containing vaccines and
neurodevelopmental outcomes.” By this time Thomas Verstraten, who is listed as a CDC employee on the study,
has been an employee of GlaxoSmithKlein (a defendant in thimerosal law suits) for more than 2 years.
In November of 2000, despite being born almost two months prematurely and despite the assurance of my pediatrician that thimerosal had been removed from vaccines, my son Webster is injected with a DTaP vaccine that was
74.5 times the EPA limit for mercury exposure for his weight, just two weeks past his due date. He will go on to
develop verbal apraxia and sensory integration disorder.
In 2001 Bernard et. al. publish their hypothesis: Autism: A Novel Form of Mercury Poisoning. It reads in part:
“Exposure to mercury can cause immune, sensory, neurological, motor, and behavioral dysfunctions similar to
traits defining or associated with autism, and the similarities extend to neuroanatomy, neurotransmitters, and
biochemistry. Thimerosal, a preservative added to many vaccines, has become a major source of mercury in children who, within their first two years, may have received a quantity of mercury that exceeds safety guidelines.
A review of medical literature and US government data suggests that: (i) many cases of idiopathic autism are
induced by early mercury exposure from thimerosal; (ii) this type of autism represents an unrecognized mercurial syndrome; and (iii) genetic and non-genetic factors establish a predisposition whereby thimerosal’s adverse
effects occur only in some children.”
In 2001 the Institute of Medicine is commissioned by the CDC to undertake a comprehensive review of all research into the thimerosal/autism connection. At their first meeting, Dr Stratton, head of the commission, when
discussing what the process and product of the working group would be states that, “We said this before you got
here, and I think we said this yesterday, the point of no return, the line we will not cross in public policy is to pull
the vaccine, change the schedule. We could say it is time to revisit this, but we would never recommend that level.
Even recommending research is recommendations for policy. We wouldn’t say compensate, we wouldn’t say
pull the vaccine, we wouldn’t say stop the program”. When the transcript of the meeting is made public through
a FOIA request, many interpret this to mean that no matter what they find, they will not publicly say that there is
any link between the thimerosal and autism. Dr. Harvey Fineberg, head of the IOM, states that this is an incorrect
interpretation of the comments, but will not offer any alternate interpretation of what else they could mean.

GFCF diet. He will go on to be diagnosed with both Autism and mercury poisoning at age 2. I later discover that
the “trace amount” of thimerosal is still just over the EPA limit of mercury for his weight.
In 2003 the Verstraten Study is published in Pediatrics with no mention of the conflict of interest of the lead
researcher. Later a private contractor would testify before congress that he was ordered to destroy the original
data sets used in the 1999 version of the study that found the dramatic link between thimerosal and autism in the
interest of “patient confidentiality”. The entire Vaccine Safety Datalink is eventually moved to an offshore private
company and can no longer be accessed by FOIA request.
In February of 2004, the IOM rushes to hold public hearings where researchers on both sides of the issues present
their studies. The meeting is considered to be a “draw” between the two sides by many of those in attendance. A
link is neither proved nor disproved, but new research in to the mechanism of how mercury can trigger autism and
NDDs in a genetically vulnerable sub population is presented, along with case studies of successful treatment of
autistic symptoms based on the new research.
In May of the same year, the IOM issues their final conclusion on the link between Thimerosal and NDDs. They
state that, “the body of epidemiological evidence favors rejection of a causal relationship between thimerosalcontaining vaccines and autism. The committee further finds that potential biological mechanisms for vaccineinduced autism that have been generated to date are theoretical only.” They then go on to take the unusual step
of recommending that research into a link between the two be abandoned and funds be spent on other lines of
inquiry. The conclusion relies heavily on Verstraten and several other epidemiological studies that are considered
to implement fatally flawed methods and to be riddled with conflict of interest by members of the autism community. Parent groups are enraged. The IOM panel disbands.
Later that year, Thomas Verstraten publishes a letter in Pediatrics in response to those who criticize his study and
his conflict of interest. His letter does not address the substance of the charges made against the study and the
changes that were made to it over it’s 4 year evolution, but instead says that continuing to debate the validity of the
1999 study would be a “waste of scientific energy and not to the benefit of the safety of US children or of all the
children world wide that have the privilege of being vaccinated.” He goes on to say that any suggestion of impropriety on the part of himself, the CDC or GSK is an insult and accuses his critics of having “pitiable attitudes”.
In July of 2005, in the face of continuing criticism of the IOM findings, the head of the IOM, Dr. Harvey Fineberg,
issues a letter stating that Dr. Stratton’s 2001 comments that they would not say “pull the vaccine” or “change the
schedule” were taken out of context and did not suggest that the IOM decision was compromised. Dr. Fineberg
has not, despite requests, offered an alternative interpretation of what her comments meant in context.
In March of 2005, Author David Kirby released his book, “Evidence of Harm - Mercury in Vaccines and the
Autism Epidemic: A Medical Controversy” detailing the history of thimerosal in vaccines and its relationship to
autism. In April of 2005 the CDC posts a notice on their web site stating that they were in the process of reviewing
“Evidence of Harm” and would be responding to the book.

In 2001 Verstraten presents a version of his study to the IOM. He begins his presentation by telling the panel that
as of 8 am that morning, he had become an employee of Glaxo Smith Klein. Despite the conflict of interest and
the drastic changes made over the course of the study, the IOM will rely heavily on the study in making their determination. Dr. Verstraten returns to Belgium and except for a letter published in Pediatrics, little is heard from
him again.

In June of 2005 Robert F. Kennedy Jr. echoed the information found in the book and charged the CDC and Eli
Lilly of malfeasance in covering up evidence of a causal effect between thimerosal and autism in an article published in Rolling Stone and Salon.com. It is entitled “Deadly Immunity: Robert F. Kennedy Jr. investigates the
government cover-up of a mercury/autism scandal”.

In March of 2002 my son Chandler, who was born one month early, is injected with Hepatitis B vaccine containing a “trace amount” of thimerosal (currently still on the schedule), despite the fact that he has no risk factors for
Hepatitis B, and he is still two weeks from reaching his due date. Within days he develops fevers and uncontrollable crying that lasts for three months and bowel problems that persist for two years until he is placed on the

July 19, 2005. The CDC holds a press conference to: “communicate the importance of infants and children receiving their recommended vaccinations on time, and reassure parents that vaccines are safe. The renewed attention
to the potential causal link between thimerosal, a vaccine preservative, and autism will also be addressed during
the press conference.” Vaccine safety groups are not informed of the press conference nor invited. The conference

presents no new information and does not answer important questions raised in Evidence of Harm or Deadly Immunity about the conduct of the CDC the IOM or the reliability of the research that continues to be used to show
no link between thimerosal and autism.
In June of 2007 the first vaccinated v. unvaccinated study is finally done ... by parents. Generation Rescue funded
a survey using the CDC’s techniques for determining incidence of a disorder and found that vaccinated children
are two and a half times more likely to have a neurodevelopmental disorder. CDC spokesman Curtis Allen said,
“We look forward to learning more about the survey.”
On June 25, 2007 Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney (D-NY) introduced the “Comprehensive Comparative Study
of Vaccinated and Unvaccinated Populations Act of 2007” (H.R. 2832), legislation that would require the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to conduct a comprehensive comparative study of vaccinated and unvaccinated
populations. Her stated purpose is to resolve the controversy about the possible link between autism and mercury
or other vaccine components. The study is never done.
Today, January 2016, autism, ADHD and learning disabilities are at truly epidemic levels with one in six children
presenting. The government and the pharmaceutical companies will claim that mercury has not been used in the
manufacture of most vaccines for some time now, is used only in influenza vaccines and appears only in trace
amounts in others. In the next chapter you’ll read about aluminum which is even more deadly than mercury.

Chapter Three
Aluminum • Alum
1911 - 2015
Aluminum rescued Big Pharma from the mercury-autism connection. Not
only does aluminum cause the symptoms found on the autistic spectrum, it
also causes nearly 100 more disorders. Big Pharma can rest easy. Vaccines
no longer contain mercury and the autism epidemic continues to grow.
Obviously it couldn’t have been the mercury ...

JAMA • September 2, 1911

Some Objections To The Use Of
Alum Baking Powder
by William J. Gies, Ph.D.
Abstract
During a period of about seven years I have occasionally conducted experiments on the effects of aluminum salts. These studies have convinced me that the use in food of alum or any other
aluminum compound is a dangerous practice. That the aluminum
ion is very toxic is well known. That “aluminized” food yields
soluble aluminum compounds to gastric juice (and stomach contents) has been demonstrated. That such soluble aluminum is in
part absorbed and carried to all parts of the body by the blood
can no longer be doubted. That the organism can “tolerate” such
treatment without suffering harmful consequences has not been
shown. It is believed that the facts in this paper will give emphasis
to my conviction that aluminum should be excluded from food.
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=448038

“That the aluminum ion is very toxic is well known.

That “aluminized” food yields soluble aluminum compounds
to gastric juice (and stomach contents) has been demonstrated.

That such soluble aluminum is in part absorbed and carried
to all parts of the body by the blood can no longer be doubted.

That the organism can “tolerate” such treatment without
suffering harmful consequences has not been shown.”

“I was recently called to see a man ...”
The Lancet • June 18, 1921

Case Of Aluminum Poisoning
by Dr. John Spofforth
L.R.C.P.EDIN., Membership At The Royal College Of Surgeons, England
Abstract
I was recently called to see a man, aged 46, who was then employed at a firm of metalworkers. He was in a state
of great exhaustion and suffering from very severe and persistent vomiting. The pulse was slow and irregular. I
suspected metallic poisoning and later sent a specimen of his urine to …, analytical chemists, who reported that
it contained a large amount of aluminium, also of phosphates. The patient said he had been dipping red-hot metal
articles, contained in an aluminium holder, into concentrated nitric acid. Aluminium produces a rather slow intoxication. In this case it caused loss of memory, tremor, jerking movements and impaired co-ordination. There
was also a chronic constipation and incontinence of urine.
http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(01)24927-7/abstract

JAMA • February 17, 1945

Early immunization against Pertussis
with Alum precipitated vaccine
by Wallace Sako, MD., Ph.D., W. L. Treuting, MD., MPH.,
David B. Witt, Samuel J. Nichamin
Abstract
According to the recent mortality records the majority of deaths from pertussis
occur in infants. Between 1938 and 1940 inclusive almost 67 per cent of the
10,730 deaths from whooping cough reported in the United States occurred
during the first year of life and 47 per cent of these deaths were in infants under
7 months of age (table 1 and fig. 1). The exceptionally high mortality which
pertussis exacts in the first half year of life calls for thorough investigation of
the possibility of increasing the resistance of young infants to the disease by
immunizing them shortly after birth. This procedure has been objected to chiefly because of the belief that young infants do not possess the ability to develop
active immunity. No extensive study has been carried out, however, to establish
the earliest age at which immunity to pertussis can be acquired.
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=272944&resultClick=3

“This procedure has been objected to
chiefly because of the belief that young
infants do not possess the ability to develop
active immunity. No extensive study has
been carried out, however, to establish
the earliest age at which immunity to
pertussis can be acquired.”

“Aluminium intoxication ... is associated with periorbital bleeding, lethargy, anorexia, and death.
It is recommended that aluminium salts should be withdrawn from use in patients with renal failure
and their use restricted in normal persons pending clarification of the issue.”
The Lancet • Volume 299, No. 7750, p564–568 • March 1972

Aluminium Toxicity In Rats
G.M. Berlyne, J. Ben Ari, E. Knopf, R.
Yagil, G. Weinberger, G.M. Danovitch
Department of Nephrology
Negev Central Hospital and Division of Life Sciences
Negev Arid Zone Research Institute and Faculty of Natural Science
University of Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
Abstract
Aluminium intoxication has been demonstrated in the uræmic and non-uræmic rat after modest doses of oral and
parenteral aluminium salts. The clinical syndrome is associated with periorbital bleeding, lethargy, anorexia, and
death. Plasma-levels of aluminium were greatly raised, as were tissue levels in liver, heart, striated muscle, brain,
and bone. Histological changes were found in the cornea. Liver oxygen consumption was reduced by giving the
animals aluminium salts before death or by adding aluminium in vitro to normal liver homogenates. It is recommended that aluminium salts should be withdrawn from use in patients with renal failure and their use restricted
in normal persons pending clarification of the issue.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4110051

Science • May 1973

Brain aluminum distribution
in Alzheimer’s disease and
experimental neurofibrillary degeneration
Crapper DR, Krishnan SS, Dalton AJ.
Abstract
Neurofibrillary degeneration is an important pathological finding
in senile and presenile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Experimentally, aluminum induces neurofibrillary degeneration in neurons of higher mammals. Aluminum concentrations approaching
those used experimentally have been found in some regions of the
brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4735595

“Experimentally,
aluminum induces neurofibrillary degeneration
in neurons of higher mammals.”

Physiology & Behavior • May 1973

Alterations in short-term retention,
conditioned avoidance response acquisition and
motivation following aluminum induced
neurofibrillary degeneration
D.R. Crapper
Departments of Physiology and Medicine
Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada
A.J. Dalton
Department of Psychology
Mental Retardation Centre, Toronto, Canada
Abstract
Aluminum chloride induced neurofibrillary degeneration may provide a useful
model for the study of a human dementia process. This possibility was assessed
in cats trained to perform on a delayed-response task, a conditioned avoidance
task, visual and temporal discrimination tasks and a motivational task involving rewarding intracranial electrical stimulation. After an initial asymptomatic
period short term retention and acquisition of a conditioned avoidance response
were selectively impaired. The associated ultrastructural abnormalities plausibly
implicate the cytoplasmic streaming mechanism in the cellular substrate for some
retention and acquisition phenomena.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0031938473900632

“Aluminum chloride induced
neurofibrillary degeneration
may provide a useful model for the
study of a human dementia process.”

“... exerted selective and differential effects on the transport systems
of neurotransmitter substances in the synaptosomal membrane.”
Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry • 1981

Selective inhibition of L-glutamate and gammaaminobutyrate
transport in nerve ending particles by aluminium, manganese,
and cadmium chloride
Patrick C.L. Wong, James C.K. Lai, Louis Lim, Alan N. Davison
Abstract
AlCl3, MnCl2, and CdCl2 inhibited the rates of accumulation of 14C] L-glutamate and 3H] gammaaminobutyrate (GABA) in purified rat forebrain nerve-ending particles in a dose-dependent fashion. The concentrations that
would give 50% inhibition (IC50) of GABA transport were 316 μM, 7.4 mM, and 1.4 mM, respectively. Ca2+
(1 mM) enhanced the inhibitory effect of Al3+ (IC50 decreased to 149 μM) but antagonized that of Mn2+ (IC50
= 10 mM) and Cd2+ (IC50 = 2.1 mM). For glutamate transport 1 mM Ca2+ changed the IC50 values from 299
to 224 μm for Al3+, 7.1 to 10 mM for Mn2+, and 2 to 3 mM for Cd2+. In contrast, the rates of accumulation of
14C] 2-deoxy-glucose and 3H] L-phenylalanine were mostly unaffected by these metal ions. The results indicate
that Al3+, Mn2+, and Cd2+ exerted selective and differential effects on the transport systems of neurotransmitter
substances in the synaptosomal membrane.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0162013400800057

Journal Of Neurochemistry • February 1984

Inhibition of brain glycolysis by aluminum
Lai JC, Blass JP.
Abstract
Aluminum inhibited both the cytosolic and mitochondrial hexokinase activities in
rat brain. The IC50 values were between 4 and 9 microM. Aluminum was effective at mildly acidic (pH 6.8) or slightly alkaline (pH 7.2-7.5) pH, in the presence
of a physiological level of magnesium (0.5 mM). However, saturating (8 mM)
magnesium antagonized the effect of aluminum on both forms of hexokinase activity. Other enzymes examined were considerably less sensitive to inhibition by
aluminum. The IC50 of aluminum for phosphofructokinase was 1.8 mM and for
lactate dehydrogenase 0.4 mM. At 10-600 microM, aluminum actually stimulated
pyruvate kinase. Aluminum also inhibited lactate production by rat brain extracts:
this effect was much more marked with glucose as substrate than with glucose-6phosphate. However, the IC50 for inhibiting lactate production using glucose as
substrate was 280 microM, higher than that required to inhibit hexokinase. This
concentration of aluminum is comparable to those reportedly found in the brains
of patients who had died with dialysis dementia and in the brains of some of the
patients who had died with Alzheimer disease. Inhibition of carbohydrate utilization may be one of the mechanisms by which aluminum can act as a neurotoxin.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6229606

“This concentration of aluminum
is comparable to those reportedly found
in the brains of patients who had died
with dialysis dementia and in the brains
of some of the patients who had died with
Alzheimer disease. Inhibition of carbohydrate utilization may be one of the
mechanisms by which aluminum
can act as a neurotoxin.”

Journal Of Neurology, Neurosurgery And Psychiatry • February 1984

Experimental aluminium encephalopathy:
quantitative EEG analysis of aluminium bioavailability
Cutrufo C, Caroli S, Delle Femmine P, Ortolani E,
Palazzesi S, Violante N, Zapponi GA, Loizzo A.
Abstract
Single oral doses of aluminium hydroxide (50 to 200 mg/kg) were found to induce
in mice a dose-dependent diminution of the power of the 7.5 to 12 Hz frequency
band, with a parallel dose-dependent increase of aluminium content in the brain,
as early as 45 min after administration, and indicated that aluminium hydroxide
is readily absorbed through an empty stomach or duodenum and is able to induce
alterations of background EEG rhythms at doses equivalent to the ones used in human therapy. These data suggest that the EEG disturbances of the background type,
(which are observed during the early stage of dialysis encephalopathy in man), may
be partly due to a pharmacological and therefore reversible effect induced by an
increase in aluminium level in the brain.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1027694/

“Single oral doses of aluminium hydroxide
were found to induce in mice a dose-dependent
diminution of the power of the 7.5 to 12 Hz frequency
band, with a parallel dose-dependent increase of
aluminium content in the brain, as early as 45 min
after administration, and indicated that aluminium
hydroxide is readily absorbed through an empty
stomach or duodenum and is able to induce alterations
of background EEG rhythms at doses equivalent
to the ones used in human therapy.”

Acta Neuropathology • 1985

Histochemical localization of aluminum
in the rabbit Central Nervous System
Wen GY, Wisniewski HM.
Abstract
Aluminum was observed in the nucleolus, interchromatin granules, rough endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, euchromatin, and the heterochromatin of
the neuron. The association of aluminum with the first four r-RNA-containing
cellular components and with the last two DNA-containing chromatins suggests the association of aluminum with the nucleic acids. The aluminum may
interfere with the normal mechanism of the protein synthesis of r-RNA and of
the transcription or gene modulation of DNA. Aluminum was also observed in
the astrocytic process and in the nuclei of endothelial cells, pericytes, and the
muscle cells of the blood vessels. The detection of aluminum in the pyrimidal
cells of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus and in the spinal cord neurons,
was observed 1 h after i.v. injection, indicating a rapid entry of aluminum from
the injection site through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to the neurons. Using
Morin stain, pyramidal neurons of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, motoneurons of spinal cord, ganglion cells, and bipolar cells of retina and Purkinje
cells of cerebellum, exhibited yellow fluorescence, with peak intensity at 560
nm. Tangles were observed in these six types of neurons. The granule cells
of hippocampus and cerebellum and the photoreceptors of the retina exhibited
green fluorescence with the peak intensity at 490-500 nm. Tangles were not
observed in these three types of neurons.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=2417440

“The detection of aluminum in the pyrimidal cells
of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus and in the
spinal cord neurons, was observed 1-hour after i.v. injection,
indicating a rapid entry of aluminum from the injection site
through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to the neurons.”

Environmental Health Perspectives • March 1986

Metabolism and possible health effects
of aluminum
by P. O. Ganrot
Abstract
Literature regarding the biochemistry of aluminum and eight similar ions is
reviewed. Close and hitherto unknown similarities were found. A hypothetical
model is presented for the metabolism, based on documented direct observations of Al3+ and analogies from other ions. Main characteristics are low
intestinal absorption, rapid urinary excretion, and slow tissue uptake, mostly
in skeleton and reticuloendothelial cells. Intracellular Al3+ is probably first
confined in the lysosomes but then slowly accumulates in the cell nucleus
and chromatin. Large, long-lived cells, e.g., neurons, may be the most liable
to this accumulation. In heterochromatin, Al3+ levels can be found comparable to those used in leather tannage. It is proposed that an accumulation
may take place at a subcellular level without any significant increase in the
corresponding tissue concentration. The possible effects of this accumulation
are discussed. As Al3+ is neurotoxic, the brain metabolism is most interesting.
The normal and the lethally toxic brain levels of Al3+ are well documented
and differ only by a factor of 3-10. The normal brain uptake of Al3+ is estimated from data on intestinal uptake of Al3+ and brain uptake of radionuclides
of similar ions administered intravenously. The uptake is very slow, 1 mg in
36 years, and is consistent with an assumption that Al3+ taken up by the brain
cannot be eliminated and is therefore accumulated. The possibility that Al3+
may cause or contribute to some specific diseases, most of them related to aging, is discussed with the proposed metabolic picture in mind.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1474689/

“The uptake is very slow,
1 mg in 36 years, and is
consistent with an assumption
that Al3+ taken up by the brain
cannot be eliminated and is
therefore accumulated.”

The Society of Toxicology • May 1987

Maternal and Developmental Toxicity
of Chronic Aluminum Exposure in Mice
Author Information
Mari S. Golub*, M. Eric Gershwin*,
James M. Donald*, Scott Negri, Carl L. Keen*

	
Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Davis, California 95616

a Department of Nutrition, University of California Davis, California 95616
Abstract
The present study demonstrated aluminum-induced neurotoxicity in mouse dams and developmental retardation in their offspring following oral exposure to several dose levels
during gestation and lactation. Female mice fed aluminum lactate (AL) at levels of 500 or
1000 ppm in their diet from Day 0 gestation to Day 21 postpartum were compared to mice
which received a 100 ppm aluminum diet either ad libitum or pair-fed to the 1000 ppm AL
group. Dams receiving the 500 and 1000 ppm AL diets showed signs of neurotoxicity beginning at Days 12–15 postpartum and showed significant weight loss. Offspring showed
dose-dependent decreases in body weight (F = 6.47, p < 0.001), crown-rump length (F =
1.11, p < 0.0001), and ponderal index (F = 6.90, p < 0.0002), at birth and preweaning. Absolute and relative liver and spleen weights were lower in pups from the high AL groups
compared to controls (F = 3.34, p < 0.025 and F = 15.54, p < 0.001, respectively). Neurobehavioral development was somewhat delayed in aluminum-treated pups, but not in
their pair-fed controls (F = 5.52, p < 0.005). In addition to showing oral toxicity of excess
AL during development dose-dependent toxic effects of parenteral aluminum exposure
were demonstrated in pregnant mice which were injected subcutaneously with aluminum
lactate solution at 10, 20, or 40 mg Al/kg body wt on Days 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, and 15 of
gestation. Maternal spleen and liver weights were significantly increased in aluminum
treated animals (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05, respectively). Fetal crown-rump lengths were
significantly reduced in the 20 mg/kg aluminum group (F = 9.79, p < 0.001).
http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/8/3/346

“The present study demonstrated
aluminum-induced neurotoxicity
in mouse dams and developmental
retardation in their offspring following
oral exposure to several dose levels
during gestation and lactation.”

Neurotoxicology • Fall 1988

Neuropathologic, neurochemical and
immunocytochemical characteristics
of aluminum-induced neurofilamentous degeneration
Author information
Pendlebury WW1, Beal MF,
Kowall NW, Solomon PR.
Department of Pathology
University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington
Abstract
Inoculation of aluminum salts or metallic aluminum into the central nervous system
of rabbits produces an encephalomyelopathy accompanied by widespread neurofibrillary degeneration (NFD) affecting restricted neuronal populations. Some investigators have suggested that this preparation may serve as an animal model for human
neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), in which neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) formation is a prominent histopathologic finding. However, neurochemical, immunocytochemical and behavioral features of the model are largely unknown and its neuropathology only partially described. We have undertaken a series
of experiments designed to further characterize these aspects of the model. We have
used an intraventricular route of injection of aluminum chloride and found that the
distribution of NFD in rabbit brain is similar to the distribution of NFT formation in
AD. Immunocytochemical probes demonstrate that phosphorylated neurofilaments
accumulate in neuronal perikarya containing NFD, and double labelling techniques
suggest that NFD affects primarily projection type neurons. The neurochemical profile of aluminum intoxicated rabbits shows both similarities and discrepancies to that
of AD. Finally, as reported in a companion article in this issue of Neurotoxicology
(Solomon and Pendlebury, 1988), aluminum-exposed rabbits develop learning and
memory deficits which are strongly correlated with the degree of whole brain NFD
but not with motor, sensory or motivational factors. We conclude that aluminum-induced NFD may have relevance for understanding NFT formation in AD and other
neurodegenerative disorders in which abnormalities of the neuronal cytoskeletal architecture are present.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=3200512

“... aluminum-induced neurofibrillary degeneration
may have relevance for understanding neurofibrillary
tangle formation in Alzheimer’s disease and
other neurodegenerative disorders ...”

Neuroscience And Biobehavioral Reviews • Spring 1989

Aluminum-induced neurotoxicity:
alterations in membrane function
at the blood-brain barrier
Author information
Banks WA1, Kastin AJ.
1Veterans Administration Medical Center
New Orleans, LA
Abstract
Aluminum is established as a neurotoxin, although the basis for its toxicity is unknown. It recently has been shown to alter the function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which regulates
exchanges between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral circulation. The BBB
owes its unique properties to the integrity of the cell membranes that comprise it. Aluminum
affects some of the membrane-like functions of the BBB. It increases the rate of transmembrane diffusion and selectively changes saturable transport systems without disrupting the
integrity of the membranes or altering CNS hemodynamics. Such alterations in the access to
the brain of nutrients, hormones, toxins, and drugs could be the basis of CNS dysfunction.
Aluminum is capable of altering membrane function at the BBB; many of its effects on the
CNS as well as peripheral tissues can be explained by its actions as a membrane toxin.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2671833

“Aluminum is established as a neurotoxin ...
Aluminum affects some of the membrane-like
functions of the BBB ... many of its effects on
the CNS as well as peripheral tissues can be
explained by its actions as a membrane toxin.”

Kidney International • May 1989

Micromolar aluminum levels
reduce 3H-thymidine incorporation
by cell line UMR 106-01
Author information
Blair HC1, Finch JL, Avioli R,
Crouch EC, Slatopolsky E, Teitelbaum SL.
Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
Jewish Hospital, Washington University Medical Center
St. Louis, Missouri
Abstract
Aluminum-induced osteomalacia is a frequent complication observed in patients on
maintenance hemodialysis. However, it is not known whether there are direct effects
of aluminum on osteoblasts, or alternatively, whether the observed changes are due to
changes in PTH or other factors. We sought to determine the effect of micromolar levels
of aluminum on osteoblasts using a well-defined cell line derived from a 32P induced
osteosarcoma of rat, UMR 106-01, which is alkaline-phosphatase positive, responds to
PTH, and synthesizes type I collagen. Aluminum exposure was controlled using tissue
culture media with [Al ] less than 1 microgram/liter (40 nM), produced by precipitation
of aluminum salts at pH 8.5. The effect of defined [Al ], from 20 to 800 micrograms/liter
(0.7 to 30 microM), was then determined by adding back aluminum while measuring
DNA and protein synthesis. We found that aluminum depressed DNA synthesis, as determined by 3H-thymidine incorporation, by 60%, with half maximal effect at 20 micrograms/liter (740 nM) in cells at a density of 20,000/cm2. Alternatively, protein synthesis,
as determined by 3H-leucine incorporation, did not decline, and in some cases increased.
However, qualitative analysis of matrix proteins produced with and without 800 micrograms/liter (30 mM) [Al ] showed no differences. Direct measurements of cell number
and protein synthesis confirmed these findings. Al does not alter the PTH-induced cAMP
response of these cells. Thus, aluminum has a direct effect on cell division, and probably on protein synthesis, in this osteoblast-like cell line. These effects occur at levels of
aluminum below those commonly contaminating tissue culture media, and thus are seen
reproducibly only in media of defined [Al ].
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2549294

“... aluminum has a direct effect
on cell division, and probably on protein synthesis ...”

Clinical Science • London England • November 1989

Effect of aluminium on superoxide dismutase
Author information
Shainkin-Kestenbaum R1,
Adler AJ, Berlyne GM, Caruso C.
Nephrology Section
Brooklyn VA Medical Center
New York 11209
Abstract
1. The effect of Al3+ on superoxide dismutase in vitro was studied, since in
uraemia there is excessive superoxide production and frequently an elevated serum Al3+ level. Thus, the protective role of superoxide dismutase is particularly
important.

“The combination of

2. Al3+ in concentrations similar to those found in the serum of uraemic patients
inhibits superoxide dismutase activity. The degree of inhibition is directly proportional to the Al3+ level.

with an increased aluminum level may contribute

3. The combination of excessive oxygen free radical production with an increased Al3+ level may contribute to a variety of complications, including aluminium dementia or initiation and promotion of carcinogenic processes, which
are known to be more common in uraemic patients.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2582719

excessive oxygen free radical production

to a variety of complications, including aluminium
dementia or initiation and promotion
of carcinogenic processes ...”

Environmental Geochemistry And Health • March 1990

Aluminum neurotoxicity
in mammals
Author information
Wisniewski HM1, Moretz RC,
Sturman JA, Wen GY, Shek JW.
Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities
Departments of Pathological and Neurobiology
New York State Office of Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, USA
Abstract
Although aluminum comprises a large percentage of the Earth’s crust, it is excluded
from body tissues, and especially from the central nervous system. When aluminum is
experimentally introduced to the central nervous system, several neurotoxic effects are
observed: i.e. neurofibrillary changes, behavioral and cognitive deficits and enzymatic
and neurotransmitter changes, as well as certain types of epileptic seizures. The localization of relatively high levels of aluminum in Alzheimer disease, Guamanian amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis and Parkinsonism-dementia has led to the implication of aluminum as
a pathogenic factor in these diseases. Recent studies have shown that microtubule-associated proteins are part of the paired helical filaments which make up the intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangle. Other studies have identified the protein making the vascular
and neuritic (senile) plaque amyloid and located the gene responsible for this protein to
chromosome 21.Our electron microprobe analysis studies have not found the levels of
aluminum or silicon in either the neurofibrillary tangles or amyloid cores reported elsewhere, nor have the levels of aluminum been elevated in approximately one half of the
tangles and plaque cores examined to date.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24202577

“When aluminum is experimentally
introduced to the central nervous system,
several neurotoxic effects are observed: i.e.
neurofibrillary changes, behavioral and
cognitive deficits and enzymatic and
neurotransmitter changes, as well as certain
types of epileptic seizures.”

Biofactors • July 1990

Aluminum, a neurotoxin
which affects diverse metabolic reactions
Author information
Joshi JG.
Department of Biochemistry
University of Tennessee
Knoxville 37996-0840
Abstract
Experimental evidence is summarized to support the hypothesis that chronic exposure to
low levels of aluminum may lead to neurological disorders. These disorders result from
defective phosphorylation--dephosphorylation reactions, reduced glucose utilization
and site-specific damage inflicted by free radicals produced by altered iron metabolism.
The brain is a highly compartmentalized organ. Therefore, a co-localization of critical
mass of metabolic errors rather than a single event may be essential to precipitate a neural disease. Aluminum appears to participate in formulating this critical mass. Patients
with dialysis dementia get partial relief by desferroxamine which chelates aluminum.
However, it also chelates iron and therefore limits its applicability. While the specific
chelator for aluminum is yet to be made available, exercising a caution in aluminum
intake appears prudent.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=2198876

“Experimental evidence is summarized
to support the hypothesis that chronic exposure
to low levels of aluminum may lead to
neurological disorders.”

Journal Of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics • July 1990

Mechanism of aluminum-induced inhibition
of hepatic glycolysis: inactivation of phosphofructokinase
Author information
Xu ZX1, Fox L, Melethil S, Winberg L, Badr M.
School of Pharmacy
University of Missouri-Kansas City
Abstract
Aluminum, an abundant element in the earth’s crust, has been implicated in various pathological disorders and low concentrations of this element have recently been shown to inhibit
brain glycolysis. However, despite the fact that aluminum accumulates in high concentrations
in the liver, potential effects of this metal on hepatic intermediary metabolism have not been
explored. In perfused livers from untreated rats, maximal rates of production of lactate plus
pyruvate (glycolysis) were 93 +/- 15 mumols/g/hr. Glycolysis was severely inhibited in livers
from aluminum-treated rats (0.5 mg/kg, 6 hr before experiment) with maximal rates of only
23 +/- 4 mumols/g/hr. In contrast, glucose production (glycogenolysis) and hepatic oxygen
uptake were not altered significantly by prior treatment with aluminum. In livers from fasted
rats, pretreatment with aluminum did not influence gluconeogenesis or production of lactate
and pyruvate from fructose (5 mM). This finding indicates that pyruvate kinase is not inhibited by aluminum and implicates phosphofructokinase, hexokinase and/or glucokinase as sites
for the inhibitory effect of aluminum on glycolysis. In liver homogenates from untreated rats,
increasing concentrations of aluminum did not show any appreciable effect on hexokinase
or glucokinase activity but did cause progressive decreases in phosphofructokinase activity.
Therefore, aluminum-induced inhibition of liver phosphofructokinase, an important control
site in the glycolytic pathway, is most likely responsible for aluminum-induced inhibition of
hepatic glycolysis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2142221

“Aluminum, an abundant element
in the earth’s crust, has been implicated in
various pathological disorders and low
concentrations of this element have recently
been shown to inhibit brain glycolysis.”

“These studies clearly demonstrate the philosophy that chronic rather than acute
experimental models of toxicity are necessary in order to enhance our understanding of human neurodegenerative disorders
with long-latency and slow progression.”
Neurotoxicology • Fall 1991

Pacific paradigms of environmentally-induced neurological disorders:
clinical, epidemiological and molecular perspectives
Author information
Garruto RM
Laboratory of Central Nervous System Studies
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
Abstract
During the past quarter century biomedical scientists have begun to recognize the unique opportunities for studying disease etiology and mechanisms of pathogenesis in non-Western anthropological populations with focal, endemic diseases. Such natural experiments as they are called, are
important paradigms for solving etiological and epidemiological problems of widespread medical significance, with an ultimate goal towards
treatment and prevention. The systematic search for etiological factors and mechanisms of pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders is perhaps
nowhere better exemplified than in the western Pacific. During the past three decades, the opportunistic and multidisciplinary study of hyperendemic foci of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia which occur in different cultures, in different ecological zones and among
genetically divergent populations have served as natural models that have had a major impact on our thinking and enhanced our understanding of
these and other neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer disease and the process of early neuronal aging. Our cross-disciplinary approach
to these intriguing neurobiological problems and the accumulated epidemiological, genetic, cellular and molecular evidence strongly implicates
environmental factors in their causation, specifically the role of aluminum and its interaction with calcium in neuronal degeneration. As a direct
consequence of our studies in these Pacific populations, we have undertaken the long-term development of experimental models of neuronal degeneration, in an attempt to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which these toxicants affect the central nervous system. Our
experimental studies have resulted in the establishment of an aluminum-induced chronic myelopathy in rabbits and the development of neurofilamentous lesions after low-dose aluminum administration in cell culture. These studies clearly demonstrate the philosophy that chronic rather
than acute experimental models of toxicity are necessary in order to enhance our understanding of human neurodegenerative disorders with longlatency and slow progression. Finally, the ultimate significance of these Pacific paradigms may well depend on our ability to comprehensively
evaluate and synthesize the growing body of relevant scientific data from other human disorders and from widely divergent academic fields, as
well as our ability to recognize emerging new models in nature.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1745428

Annals Of Neurology • March 1992

Selective accumulation of aluminum and iron
in the neurofibrillary tangles of Alzheimer’s disease:
a laser microprobe (LAMMA) study
Author information
Good PF1, Perl DP, Bierer LM, Schmeidler J.
Department of Pathology
Mount Sinai School of Medicine
New York, NY 10029
Abstract
We report the results of an examination of the elemental content of neurofibrillary tangle-bearing and neurofibrillary tangle-free neurons identified within the hippocampus
of 10 subjects with Alzheimer’s disease and 4 neuropathologically intact age-matched
control subjects. The study employed laser microprobe mass analysis (LAMMA), a
technique that provides extremely sensitive multielement detection in plastic-embedded, semithin-sectioned tissues. Evidence for the selective accumulation of aluminum
within the neurofibrillary tangle-bearing neurons was obtained in all 10 subjects with
Alzheimer’s disease. The site of aluminum deposition within these cells was the neurofibrillary tangle itself, and not the “nuclear region,” as we previously reported. Iron
accumulation was also detected within neurofibrillary tangles. Evaluation for the accumulation of other elements within the tangle-bearing neurons failed to reveal any
other metallic element as being consistently present. In addition, probe sites directed
to neurons identified in snap-frozen cryostat sections from 2 subjects with Alzheimer’s
disease revealed similar spectra with prominent aluminum-related peaks, confirming
that our findings are not related to exogenous contamination through fixation, embedding, or other procedures prior to analysis. This study further confirms the association
of aluminum and neurofibrillary tangle formation in Alzheimer’s disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1637136

“This study further confirms
the association of aluminum
and neurofibrillary tangle formation
in Alzheimer’s disease.”

Pharmacology And Toxicology • April 1992

Aluminium-adjuvanted vaccines
transiently increase aluminium levels
in murine brain tissue
Author information
Redhead K1, Quinlan GJ, Das RG, Gutteridge JM.
Division of Bacteriology
National Institute for Biological Standards and Control
Herts., UK
Abstract
Aluminium is widely used as an adjuvant in human vaccines, and children can
often receive up to 3.75 mg of parenteral aluminium during the first six months
of life. We show that intraperitoneal injection of aluminium adsorbed vaccines
into mice causes a transient rise in brain tissue aluminium levels peaking around
the second and third day after injection. This rise is not seen in the saline control group of animals or with vaccine not containing aluminium. It is likely that
aluminium is transported to the brain by the iron-binding protein transferrin and
enters the brain via specific transferrin receptors.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1608913

“... children can often receive up to 3.75 mg
of parenteral aluminium during the first six months of life
We show that intraperitoneal injection of aluminium
adsorbed vaccines into mice causes a transient rise in
brain tissue aluminium levels peaking around the
second and third day after injection.”

Life Sciences • June 1992

Long-term effects of aluminium on the fetal mouse brain
Author information
Clayton RM1, Sedowofia SK, Rankin JM, Manning A.
Division of Biological Sciences
University of Edinburgh
Abstract
Potentially noxious substances may act as fetal teratogens at levels far lower than those
required to produce detectable effects in adults, and behavioural teratogenicity may occur
at levels lower than those which produce morphological teratogenesis. Aluminium (Al)
is a potential neurotoxin in adults. Since pregnant women may be exposed to untoward
levels of Al compounds under certain conditions, we have examined the long-term effects of treating the pregnant mouse with intraperitoneal or oral aluminium sulphate on
brain biochemistry and behaviour of the offspring. The cholinergic system, as evaluated
by the activity of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), was affected differentially in different
regions of the brain, and still showed significant effects in the adult. Differences between
the intraperitoneal and oral series in the magnitude of effect seen in the regions of the brain
probably reflect differences in the effective level of exposure. Growth rate and psychomotor maturation in the pre-weaning mouse were affected in the intraperitoneal series only,
showing a marked post-natal maternal effect.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1453876

“Potentially noxious substances
may act as fetal teratogens at levels far lower
than those required to produce detectable effects in adults,
and behavioural teratogenicity may occur at levels lower than
those which produce morphological teratogenesis.”

Neurotoxicology • Summer 1992

Aluminum inhibits glutamate release f
rom transverse rat hippocampal slices:
role of G proteins, Ca channels and protein kinase C
Author information
Provan SD1, Yokel RA.
College of Pharmacy
University of Kentucky
Lexington 40536-0082
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) has been shown to produce deficits in learning and memory. The
present experiments tested the hypothesis that Al-induced inhibition of learning may
be due to its effect on glutamate release secondary to changes in calcium channel
function and/or intracellular events triggering glutamate release. Calcium-dependent
potassium (K)-evoked [14C]-glutamate release from 400 microns transverse rat hippocampal slices was inhibited by Al in a concentration dependent manner (IC50 =
40 microM). Aluminum (30, 100 microM) noncompetitively inhibited Bay K 8644evoked glutamate release. 4-Aminopyridine (30, 1000 microM) noncompetitively attenuated the Al inhibition of glutamate release, suggesting an Al-induced alteration of
Ca channel function. Activation of the Gi protein by R(-)phenylisopropyladenosine
(PIA; 1 microM) reduced K-evoked glutamate release 69%, whereas 300 microM Al
produced an 84% reduction. These effects were prevented by the Gi protein inhibitor
N-ethylmaleimide (NEM; 100 microM), suggesting an effect of Al on the Gi protein to inhibit glutamate release. Phorbol myristate acetate (0.16 microM)-induced
glutamate release was inhibited by 300 microM Al and 80 microM polymyxin B,
suggesting an Al modulation of protein kinase C (PKC)-evoked glutamate release.
These results demonstrate an Al inhibition of glutamate release that may be mediated
by multiple, but interconnected mechanisms (e.g., via interactions with Ca systems),
providing multiple targets for an Al-induced alteration of neuronal function.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1359483

“Aluminum (Al) has been shown
to produce deficits in learning and memory.”

Journal Of Theoretical Biology • November 1992

The cellular toxicity of aluminium
Author information
Exley C, Birchall JD.
Institute of Aquaculture
University of Stirling
Scotland, UK
Abstract
Aluminium is a serious environmental toxicant and is inimical to biota.
Omnipresent, it is linked with a number of disorders in man including
Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s dementia and osteomalacia. Evidence
supporting aluminium as an aetiological agent in such disorders is not
conclusive and suffers principally from a lack of consensus with respect
to aluminium’s toxic mode of action. Obligatory to the elucidation of
toxic mechanisms is an understanding of the biological availability of
aluminium. This describes the fate of and response to aluminium in any
biological system and is thus an important influence of the toxicity of
aluminium. A general theme in much aluminium toxicity is an accelerated cell death. Herein mechanisms are described to account for cell
death from both acute and chronic aluminium challenges. Aluminium associations with both extracellular surfaces and intracellular ligands are
implicated. The cellular response to aluminium is found to be biphasic
having both stimulatory and inhibitory components. In either case the
disruption of second messenger systems is observed and GTPase cycles
are potential target sites. Specific ligands for aluminium at these sites
are unknown though are likely to be proteins upon which oxygen-based
functional groups are orientated to give exceptionally strong binding with
the free aluminium ion.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1291812

“A general theme in much aluminium toxicity
is an accelerated cell death.”

Toxicology • 1992

Role of aluminium
in skin reactions after
diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-poliomyelitis vaccination:
an experimental study in rabbits
Author information
Pineau A1, Durand C, Guillard O, Bureau B, Stalder JF.
Laboratoire de Toxicologie et d’Hygiène Industrielle
Faculté de Pharmacie, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire
Nantes, France
Abstract
The occurrence of subcutaneous nodules at the injection site is one of the complications of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-poliomyelitis vaccination, but the causes and
mechanisms involved are still poorly understood. An experimental study in the New
Zealand rabbit enabled us to determine the frequency of occurrence of these nodules,
how long they persist and the histopathologic features of the cells involved. Aluminium (Al) assays by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry allowed us to
study concentrations both in nodules and the organism (serum, normal skin). The results show an absence of Al diffusion outside nodules, a correlation between infiltrate
intensity and Al concentration in nodules and modifications in the histological constituents of nodule cells. The histological picture indicates a foreign body reaction
to Al. All these data underscore the role of Al in the formation of early postvaccinal
nodules at the injection site.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1589878

“All these data
underscore the role of Aluminum
in the formation of early postvaccinal
nodules at the injection site.”

[this is one of the earliest examples of “nodules at the
injection site” mentioned in the medical literature. As
you’ll see, eventually this phenomenon leads to a new
disorder, Macrophagic Myofasciitis and the coining of
the term “ASIA,” a wide variety of nearly 100 recognized
autoimmune and inflammatory disorders induced by the
Aluminum adjuvant in vaccines]

“Generally, the intake of aluminium from foods is less than 1% of that
consumed by individuals using aluminium-containing pharmaceuticals.
Currently the real scientific question is not the amount of aluminium in foods
but the availability of the aluminium in foods and the sensitivity of some population groups to aluminium.”
Ciba Foundation Symposium • 1992

Dietary and other sources of aluminium intake
Author information
Greger JL.
Department of Nutritional Sciences
University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706
Abstract
Aluminium in the food supply comes from natural sources including water, food additives, and contamination by
aluminium utensils and containers. Most unprocessed foods, except for certain herbs and tea leaves, contain low
(< 5 micrograms Al/g) levels of aluminium. Thus most adults consume 1-10 mg aluminium daily from natural
sources. Cooking in aluminium containers often results in statistically significant, but not practically important,
increases in the aluminium content of foods. Intake of aluminium from food additives varies greatly (0 to 95 mg
Al daily) among residents in North America, with the median intake for adults being about 24 mg daily. Generally,
the intake of aluminium from foods is less than 1% of that consumed by individuals using aluminium-containing
pharmaceuticals. Currently the real scientific question is not the amount of aluminium in foods but the availability
of the aluminium in foods and the sensitivity of some population groups to aluminium. Several dietary factors,
including citrate, may affect the absorption of aluminium. Aluminium contamination of soy-based formulae when
fed to premature infants with impaired kidney function and aluminium contamination of components of parenteral solutions (i.e. albumin, calcium and phosphorus salts) are of concern.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1490425

Food And Chemical Toxicology • May 1993

Neurotoxic effect of enteral aluminium
Author information
Bilkei-Gorzó A.
Pharmacological Department
Chinoin Pharmaceutical and Chemical Works Co. Ltd
Budapest, Hungary
Abstract
Long Evans rats were treated for 90 days with water-soluble, insoluble or chelated aluminium compounds. The daily treatments given
were as follows: controls, NaCl (100 mg/kg body weight) plus citric
acid (30 mg/kg); AlCl3 (30 or 100 mg/kg); Al(OH)3 (100 mg/kg)
plus citric acid (30 mg/kg); Al(OH)3 (300 mg/kg). Their learning
ability was determined in the labyrinth test at day 90, and the choline-acetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase activity and aluminium
content of the brains were measured. Soluble and chelated aluminium compounds seriously worsened the learning ability, and the
aluminium content of the brain was elevated. Acetylcholinesterase
activity increased and choline-acetyltransferase activity decreased,
resulting in a diminished cholinergic activity, which is a characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8505021

“... resulting in a diminished
cholinergic activity, which is a
characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease.”

Vaccine • 1993

Adjuvants—
a balance between
toxicity and adjuvanticity
Author information
Gupta RK1, Relyveld EH, Lindblad EB,
Bizzini B, Ben-Efraim S, Gupta CK.
Massachusetts Public Health Biologic Laboratories
Boston 02130
Abstract
Adjuvants have been used to augment the immune response in experimental immunology as well as in practical vaccination for more than 60
years. The chemical nature of adjuvants, their mode of action and the
profile of their side effects are highly variable. Some of the side effects
can be ascribed to an unintentional stimulation of different mechanisms of
the immune system whereas others may reflect general adverse pharmacological reactions. The most common adjuvants for human use today are
still aluminium hydroxide, aluminium phosphate and calcium phosphate
although oil emulsions, products from bacteria and their synthetic derivatives as well as liposomes have also been tested or used in humans. In
recent years monophosphoryl lipid A, ISCOMs with Quil-A and Syntex
adjuvant formulation (SAF) containing the threonyl derivative of muramyl dipeptide have been under consideration for use as adjuvants in humans. At present the choice of adjuvants for human vaccination reflects
a compromise between a requirement for adjuvanticity and an acceptable
low level of side effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8447157

“At present the choice of adjuvants
for human vaccination reflects a compromise
between a requirement for adjuvanticity
and an acceptable low level of side effects.”

[today those “Side Effects” are at epidemic proportions]

“Vaccines adsorbed onto aluminium salts
are a more frequent cause of local post-vaccinal reactions than plain vaccines.”
Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny • 1993

Aluminum as an adjuvant in vaccines
and post-vaccine reactions
Author information
Fiejka M1, Aleksandrowicz J.
Zakladu Badania Surowic
Warszawie
Abstract
Aluminium compounds have been widely used as adjuvants in prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines. Adjuvants
are able to stimulate the immune system in a nonspecific manner, i.e. high antibody level can be obtained with
minimal dose of the antigen and with reduced number of inoculations. Adjuvants use has been mostly empirically
determined by such factors as efficacy and safety. The mechanism of action of the aluminium adjuvants is not
completely understood and is very complex. The basic factors of the mode of action: 1) the complex of antigen
and aluminium gel is more immunogenic in structure than free antigen, 2) effect “depot”--The antigen stimulus
last longer, 3) the production of local granulomas. Vaccines adsorbed onto aluminium salts are a more frequent
cause of local post-vaccinal reactions than plain vaccines. 5-10% those vaccinated can develop a nodule lasting
several weeks at the injection site. In some rare cases the nodules may become inflammatory and even turn into
an aseptic abscess. The nodules persisting more than 6 weeks may indicate development of aluminium hypersensitivity. Finally aluminium adjuvant immunogens induce the production of IgE antibodies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8235346

Annali dell’istituto Superiore di Sanita • 1993

Behavioural effects of
gestational exposure to aluminium
Author information
Rankin J1, Sedowofia K, Clayton R, Manning A.
Institute of Cell, Animal and Population Biology
Edinburgh, UK
Abstract
The involvement of aluminium in the aetiology of a number of human pathological diseases has altered its status from being a nontoxic, nonabsorbable, harmless element. This maybe of particular concern to the developing foetus which is more susceptible to
agents and at lower levels than the adult. Little attention has been
given to aluminium’s potential reproductive toxicity until recently
and further research is required for a full evaluation of its toxicity.
Our preliminary results demonstrate behavioural and neurochemical alterations in the offspring of mice exposed to aluminium during
gestation. Further, the effects of such exposure are also present in the
adult animal suggesting persistent changes in behaviour following
prenatal exposure.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8129261

“Our preliminary results
demonstrate behavioural and neurochemical alterations in
the offspring of mice exposed to aluminium during gestation.
Further, the effects of such exposure are also present
in the adult animal suggesting persistent changes
in behaviour following prenatal exposure.”

Vaccine • 1993

Studies on the toxicities
of aluminium hydroxide and calcium phosphate
as immunological adjuvants for vaccines
Author information
Goto N1, Kato H,
Maeyama J, Eto K, Yoshihara S.
Department of Safety Research on Biologics
National Institute of Health, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
Aluminium hydroxide (Al) and calcium phosphate (Ca) have been used for
many years as immunological adjuvants for biologicals. We investigated
the toxic effects of both adjuvants with different physical properties. Al-gel
elicited vascular permeability-increasing and toxic effects to macrophages
(M phi), while its haemolytic effect was weak. Ca-gel elicited a significantly stronger haemolytic effect, but no other toxic effect. Incubation of
M phi or polymorphonuclear leucocytes with Al-suspension resulted in the
largest release of lactate dehydrogenase. Ca-suspension caused haemolysis
of about 50% of that caused by Ca-gel.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8212836

“Aluminum-gel elicited vascular
permeability-increasing and toxic
effects to macrophages ...”

Brazilian Journal Of Medical And Biological Research • January 1994

Effects of aluminum
on the mechanical and electrical activity
of the Langendorff-perfused rat heart
Author information
Gomes MG1, Moreira CA, Mill JG,
Massaroni L, Oliveira EM, Stefanon I, Vassallo DV.
Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas
Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo
Vitória, Brasil
Abstract
The effect of aluminum (Al3+) chloride (1, 5, 10, 50 and 100 microM) on myocardial electromechanical activity was studied in 10 Langendorff-perfused hearts from adult female
Wistar rats. Al3+ decreased the development of isovolumic systolic pressure from 34.3
+/- 2.95 mmHg under control conditions to 11.8 +/- 1.53 mmHg at 100 microM AlCl3 (P
< 0.01) (diastolic pressure = 0 mmHg). The atrial and ventricular rates also decreased, but
only with AlCl3 concentrations greater than 1 microM (from 180 +/- 5 to 94 +/- 11 bpm for
atrial rate and from 180 +/- 5 to 78 +/- 7 bpm for ventricular rate). Reduction of coronary
flow was also observed, reaching 60% at 100 microM Al3+. A delay in atrioventricular
conduction occurred at 10 microM Al3+, increasing progressively up to 100 microM (62.3
+/- 4 ms in the Al(3+)-free solution to 143 +/- 34 ms in the presence of 100 microM Al3+, P
< 0.01, ANOVA). QRS duration did not change as a function of increasing Al3+ concentrations (37.1 +/- 1.7 ms in the Al(3+)-free solution vs 32.1 +/- 1.6 ms in the presence of 100
microM Al3+). No qualitative changes in ECG were observed. These data show that the
toxic effects of Al3+ on the myocardium are reflected in reduced systolic pressure development and coronary flow and increased PR interval. These effects are discussed in terms of
the inhibition of nucleotide hydrolysis by Al3+.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8173535

“These data show that
the toxic effects of aluminum chloride
on the myocardium are reflected in reduced
systolic pressure development and
coronary flow and increased PR interval.”

Food Additives And Contaminants • January 1995

Estimates of
dietary exposure to aluminium
Author information
Pennington JA1, Schoen SA.
Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
Washington, DC 20204, USA
Abstract
Daily intakes of aluminium were estimated for 14 age-sex groups
based on the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Total Diet
Study dietary exposure model. The aluminium content of the core
foods of the FDA Total Diet Study were determined by analyses,
recipe calculation, or literature values and coupled with information on food consumption from the 1987-88 US Department of
Agriculture Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. Estimates of
aluminium intakes ranged from 0.7 mg/day for 6-11-month-old
infants to 11.5 mg/day for 14-16-year-old males. Average intakes
for adult men and women were 8-9 and 7 mg/day, respectively.
The major contributors to daily intake of aluminium were foods
with aluminium-containing food additives, e.g. grain products
and processed cheese.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7758626

“Estimates of aluminium intakes ranged
from 0.7 mg/day for 6-11-month-old infants
to 11.5 mg/day for 14-16-year-old males.
Average intakes for adult men and women
were 8-9 and 7 mg/day, respectively.”

“Although aluminum (Al) contributes to a variety of cognitive dysfunctions and mental diseases,
the underlying mechanisms of Al interactions with the nervous system are still unknown.”
Experimental Neurology • July 1995

Aluminum impairs hippocampal long-term potentiation
in rats in vitro and in vivo
Author information
Platt B1, Carpenter DO, Büsselberg D, Reymann KG, Riedel G.
New York State Department of Health
Wadsworth Center for Laboratories and Research, Albany 12201, USA
Abstract
Although aluminum (Al) contributes to a variety of cognitive dysfunctions and mental diseases, the underlying
mechanisms of Al interactions with the nervous system are still unknown. We have studied the action of Al on
synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation (LTP) by performing electrophysiological recordings both in
vivo, using freely moving animals, and in vitro, using hippocampal slices. In vivo recordings of the population
spikes (PSs) of dentate gyrus granule cells in response to medial perforant path stimulation were performed on
both acutely and chronically (Al each day for 5 days) intraventricularly injected animals. Acute Al-infusion (calculated brain concentrations of 0.27, 0.68, and 2.7 micrograms/ml) had no influence on baseline values. Al at 0.27
microgram/ml did not alter the induction and maintenance of LTP, but 0.68 and especially 2.7 micrograms/ml Al
lead to a reduction in LTP, and the potentiation declined to baseline within 2 h. In chronic animals their neuronal
responsiveness was reduced and in 30% of the rats the PS was completely lost. High-frequency tetanization failed
to induce LTP. In slices, field potentials were evoked stimulating Schaffer collaterals and recording pyramidal
cells of the CA1 region. Bath application of 0.68 microgram/ml Al increased the baseline amplitude of the PS
slightly, whereas 2.7 micrograms/ml decreased the amplitude and concentrations > 5.4 micrograms/ml blocked
the PS completely. Induction of LTP in the presence of 0.68 microgram/ml Al led to a smaller increase of the PS
amplitude compared to controls, but the duration of LTP was not affected. In the presence of 2.7 micrograms/ml
Al LTP was further reduced and declined to baseline levels within 60 min. Given that LTP is a form of synaptic
plasticity underlying some forms of learning, our data suggest that both preparations are suitable models for investigating actions of Al-induced neurotoxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=7672040

Neurotoxicology And Teratology • July 1995

Reproductive and developmental toxicity of aluminum:
a review
Author information
Domingo JL1.
Laboratory of Toxicology and Biochemistry
School of Medicine, Rovira i Virgili University, Reus, Spain
Abstract
It is well known that aluminum is a developmental toxicant when administered parenterally. However, until recently, there was little concern about embryo/fetal consequences of
aluminum ingestion because bioavailability was considered low. The importance of the
route of exposure and the chemical form of the aluminum compound on the developmental
toxicity of this element are now well established. Although no evidence of maternal and
embryo/fetal toxicity was observed when high doses of aluminum hydroxide were given
orally to pregnant rats and mice during organogenesis, signs of maternal and developmental toxicity were found in mice when aluminum hydroxide was given concurrently with
citric or lactic acids. On the other hand, studies in rabbits have shown that aluminum-induced behavioral toxicity is greater in adult and aged animals than in young adults. However, maternal dietary exposure to excess A1 during gestation and lactation which did not
produce maternal toxicity would be capable of causing permanent neurobehavioral deficits
in weanling mice and rats. Adverse effects of parenteral aluminum administration on the
mouse male reproductive system have also been reported. The embryo/fetal toxicity of aluminum administration, the potential reproductive toxicology of aluminum exposure, and
the neurodevelopmental effects of aluminum are here reviewed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=7565498

“The embryo/fetal toxicity of aluminum
administration, the potential reproductive
toxicology of aluminum exposure, and the
neurodevelopmental effects of aluminum
are here reviewed.”

Vaccine • October 1995

Adjuvants for human vaccines—
current status, problems and future prospects
Author information
Gupta RK1, Siber GR.
Massachusetts Public Health Biologic Laboratories
State Laboratory Institute, Boston 02130, USA
Abstract
Adjuvants help antigen to elicit an early, high and long-lasting immune response with less
antigen, thus saving on vaccine production costs. In recent years, adjuvants received much attention because of the development of purified, subunit and synthetic vaccines which are poor
immunogens and require adjuvants to evoke the immune response. With the use of adjuvants
immune response can be selectively modulated to major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
class I or MHC class II and Th1 or Th2 type, which is very important for protection against
diseases caused by intracellular pathogens such as viruses, parasites and bacteria (Mycobacterium). A number of problems are encountered in the development and use of adjuvants for
human vaccines. The biggest issue with the use of adjuvants for human vaccines, particularly
routine childhood vaccines, is the toxicity and adverse side-effects of most of the adjuvant
formulations. At present the choice of adjuvants for human vaccination reflects a compromise
between a requirement for adjuvanticity and an acceptable low level of side-effects. Other
problems with the development of adjuvants include restricted adjuvanticity of certain formulations to a few antigens, use of aluminum adjuvants as reference adjuvant preparations
under suboptimal conditions, non-availability of reliable animal models, use of non-standard
assays and biological differences between animal models and humans leading to the failure
of promising formulations to show adjuvanticity in clinical trials. The most common adjuvants for human use today are still aluminum hydroxide and aluminum phosphate, although
calcium phosphate and oil emulsions also have some use in human vaccinations. During the
last 15 years much progress has been made on development, isolation and chemical synthesis of alternative adjuvants such as derivatives of muramyl dipeptide, monophosphoryl lipid
A, liposomes, QS21, MF-59 and immunostimulating complexes (ISCOMS). Other areas in
adjuvant research which have received much attention are the controlled release of vaccine
antigens using biodegradable polymer microspheres and reciprocal enhanced immunogenicity
of protein-polysaccharide conjugates. Biodegradable polymer microspheres are being evaluated for targeting antigens on mucosal surfaces and for controlled release of vaccines with an
aim to reduce the number of doses required for primary immunization. Reciprocal enhanced
immunogenicity of protein-polysaccharide conjugates will be useful for the development of
combination vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8585280

“Adjuvants help antigen
to elicit an early, high and long-lasting
immune response with less antigen, thus
saving on vaccine production costs.

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 1995

Spectroscopic study of the interaction
of aluminum ions with human transferrin
Author information
Tang S1, MacColl R, Parsons PJ.
Department of Environmental Health and Toxicology
School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany, USA
Abstract
Transferrin is the plasma protein responsible for transporting Fe3+ from the
absorption to the utilization site. Interactions of apo- and holo-transferrin with
Al3+ were studied by circular dichroism (CD), UV-visible, and fluorescence
spectrometry. Binding of Al3+ to both metal-ion binding sites of apo-transferrin
was confirmed by fluorescence studies. No interaction of Al3+ with holo-transferrin was observed, indicating that Al3+ cannot displace Fe3+ under the experimental conditions employed. An increase in tryptophan fluorescence (lambda
max at 330 nm) by excitation at either 280 or 295 nm was observed after Al3+
interaction with apo-transferrin. There was no shift in wavelength of the fluorescence band of apo-transferrin after interaction with Al3+, but the intensity did
increase. Since excitation at 295 nm is specific for tryptophan residues, tryptophan but not tyrosine must be responsible for the change in fluorescence intensity. Decreased fluorescence is the result of Fe3+ binding to apo-transferrin.
The CD spectrum of apo-transferrin was slightly affected in the far UV by Al3+
binding, but a salient change was noted in the near UV at approximately 288 nm
where tyrosine and tryptophan absorb. It is concluded that a small conformational change in the protein was induced by Al3+ binding to apo-transferrin.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8586971

“It is concluded that a small
conformational change in the
protein was induced by Al3+ binding
to apo-transferrin.”

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta • January 1996

Altered calcium homeostasis:
a possible mechanisms of
aluminium-induced neurotoxicity
Author information
Julka D1, Gill KD.
Department of Biochemistry
Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research
Chandigarh, India
Abstract
The effect of aluminium, A1(3+) (10 mg/kg body weight/day i.p.) for
a period of 4 weeks was examined on the calcium homeostatic mechanisms in rat central nervous system. Incubation of synaptosomes prepared from rat brain, with aluminium in vitro had a detrimental effect
on the activity of Ca2+ ATPase which could be reversed completely on
exogenous addition of desferrioxamine (10 microM) and partially with
glutathione (1 mM). In vivo administration also revealed a similar observation. A marked increase in the levels of intracellular calcium was
observed after aluminium treatment. Concomitant to the increased levels of intracellular calcium, there was an increase in the levels of lipid
peroxidation and a consequent decrease in fluidity of synaptic plasma
membranes. In addition, aluminium also had an inhibitory effect on
the depolarization-induced calcium uptake which was found to be of
a competitive type. The biological activity of calcium regulatory proteins calmodulin and protein kinase C was considerably affected by
aluminium. The results suggest that aluminium exerts its toxic effects
by modification of the intracellular calcium messenger system with detrimental consequences on neuronal functioning.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8611646

“The results suggest
that aluminium exerts its toxic effects
by modification of the intracellular calcium
messenger system with detrimental
consequences on neuronal functioning.”

“Macrophages at the base of human gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT),
become loaded early in life with dark granular pigment that is rich in aluminium ...”
Gut • March 1996

Characterisation of inorganic microparticles
in pigment cells of human gut associated lymphoid tissue
Author information
Powell JJ1, Ainley CC, Harvey RS, Mason IM,
Kendall MD, Sankey EA, Dhillon AP, Thompson RP.
Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Rayne Institute
St Thomas’ Hospital, London
Abstract
Macrophages at the base of human gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), become loaded early in life with dark
granular pigment that is rich in aluminium, silicon, and titanium. The molecular characteristics, intracellular distribution, and source of this pigment is described. Laser scanning and electron microscopy showed that pigmented
macrophages were often closely related to collagen fibres and plasma cells in GALT of both small and large
intestine and contained numerous phagolysosomes, previously described as granules, that are rich in electron
dense submicron sized particles. Morphological assessment, x ray microanalysis, and image electron energy loss
spectroscopy showed three distinct types of microparticle: type I - spheres of titanium dioxide, 100-200 nm diameter, characterised as the synthetic food-additive polymorph anatase; type II - aluminosilicates, < 100-400 nm
in length, generally of flaky appearance, often with adsorbed surface iron, and mostly characteristic of the natural
clay mineral kaolinite; and type III - mixed environmental silicates without aluminium, 100-700 nm in length
and of variable morphology. Thus, this cellular pigment that is partly derived from food additives and partly from
the environment is composed of inert inorganic microparticles and loaded into phagolysosomes of macrophages
within the GALT of all human subjects. These observations suggest that the pathogenicity of this pigment should
be further investigated since, in susceptible individuals, the same intracellular distribution of these three types of
submicron particle causes chronic latent granulomatous inflammation.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1383068/

“... the mechanisms of Aluminum neurotoxicity are reviewed ...”
Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health • August 1996

Can the mechanisms of aluminum neurotoxicity
be integrated into a unified scheme?
Author information
Strong MJ1, Garruto RM, Joshi JG, Mundy WR, Shafer TJ.
Department of Clinical Neurological Sciences
University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
mstrong@julian.uwo.ca
Abstract
Regardless of the host, the route of administration, or the speciation, aluminum is a potent neurotoxicant. In
the young adult or developmentally mature host, the neuronal response to Al exposure can be dichotomized on
morphological grounds. In one, intraneuronal neurofilamentous aggregates are formed, whereas in the other,
significant neurochemical and neurophysiological perturbations are induced without neurofilamentous aggregate
formation. Evidence is presented that the induction of neurofilamentous aggregates is a consequence of alterations in the posttranslational processing of neurofilament (NF), particularly with regard to phosphorylation state.
Although Al has been reported to impact on gene expression, this does not appear to be critical to the induction
of cytoskeletal pathology. In hosts responding to Al exposure without the induction of cytoskeletal pathology,
impairments in glucose utilization, agonist-stimulated inositol phosphate accumulation, free radical-mediated
cytotoxicity, lipid peroxidation, reduced cholinergic function, and altered protein phosphorylation have been described. The extent to which these neurochemical modifications correlate with the induction of a characteristic
neurobehavioral state is unknown. In addition to these paradigms, Al is toxic in the immediate postnatal interval.
Whether unique mechanisms of toxicity are involved during development remains to be determined. In this article, the mechanisms of Al neurotoxicity are reviewed and recommendations are put forth with regard to future
research. Primary among these is the determination of the molecular site of Al toxicity, and whether this is based
on Al substitution for divalent metals in a number of biological processes. Encompassed within this is the need to
further understand the genesis of host- and developmental-specific responses.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8772801

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health • August 1996

Speciation of aluminum in biological systems
Author information
Harris WR1, Berthon G, Day JP, Exley C,
Flaten TP, Forbes WF, Kiss T, Orvig C, Zatta PF.
Department of Chemistry
University of Missouri-St. Louis 63121 USA
Abstract
As a “hard”, trivalent metal ion, Al3- binds strongly to oxygen-donor ligands such as
citrate and phosphate. The aqueous coordination chemistry of Al is complicated by
the tendency of many Al complexes to hydrolyze and form polynuclear species, many
of which are sparingly soluble. Thus there is considerable variation among the Al
stability constants reported for several important ligands. The complexity in the aqueous chemistry of Al has also affected Al toxicity studies, which have often utilized
poorly characterized Al stock solutions. Serum fractionation studies show that most
Al is protein bound, primarily to the serum iron transport protein transferrin. Albumin
appears to play little, if any, role in serum transport. There is little agreement as to
the speciation of the remaining low-molecular mass fraction of serum Al. The lability of the Al3+ion precludes the simple separation and identification of individual Al
complexes. Computational methods are available for detailed computer calculations
of the Al speciation in serum, but efforts in this area have been severely hampered
by the uncertainties regarding the stability constants of the low molecular mass Al
complexes with citrate, phosphate, and hydroxide. Specific recommendations for
further research on Al speciation include: (1) Determine more accurate Al stability
constants with critical low molecular mass ligands such as citrate and phosphate; (2)
supplement traditional potentiometric studies on Al complexes with data from other
techniques such as 27Al-NMR and accelerator mass spectrometry with 26Al; (3)
develop new methods for generating reliable linear free energy relationships for Al
complexation; (4) determine equilibrium and rate constants for Al binding to transferrin at 37 degrees C; (5) confirm the possible formation of low-molecular-mass Alprotein complexes following desferrioxamine therapy; (6) continue research efforts
to incorporate kinetic considerations into the present equilibrium speciation calculations; (7) improve methods for preparing chemically well-defined stock solutions for
toxicological studies; (8) incorporate more detailed speciation data into studies on Al
toxicity and pharmacokinetics; and (9) incorporate more detailed speciation data into
future epidemiological studies on the relationship between Al toxicity and various
water quality parameters.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8772798

[this report explains why determining the fate
of aluminum in the human body is so difficult]

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health • August 1996

What we know and what we need to know
about developmental aluminum toxicity
Author information
Golub MS1, Domingo JL.
Department of Internal Medicine
University of California, Davis 95616, USA
Abstract
Information concerning developmental aluminum (Al) toxicity is available
from clinical studies and from animal testing. An Al toxicity syndrome including encephalopathy, osteomalacia, and anemia has been reported in
uremic children receiving dialysis. In addition, some components of the
syndrome, particularly osteomalacia, have been reported in non-dialyzed
uremic children receiving Al-based phosphate binders, nonuremic infants
receiving parenteral nutrition with Al-containing fluids, and nonuremic
infants given high doses of Al antacids. The number of children in clinical populations that are at risk of Al toxicity is not known and needs to
be determined. Work in animal models (rats, mice, and rabbits) demonstrates that Al is distributed transplacentally and is present in milk. Oral Al
administration during pregnancy produces a syndrome including growth
retardation, delayed ossification, and malformations at doses that also lead
to reduced maternal weight gain. The severity of the effects is highly dependent on the form of Al administered. In the postnatal period, reduced
pup weight gain and effects on neuromotor development have been described as a result of developmental exposures. The significance of these
findings for human health requires better understanding of the amount and
bioavailability of Al in food, drinking water, and medications and from
sources unique to infants and children such as breast milk, soil ingestion,
and medications used specifically by pregnant women and children. We
also need a better understanding of the unique biological actions of Al that
may occur during developmental periods, and unique aspects of the developing organism that make it more or less susceptible to Al toxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8772800

“The number of children in
clinical populations that are
at risk of Al toxicity is not known
and needs to be determined.
Work in animal models demonstrates
that Aluminum is distributed transplacentally
and is present in milk.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health • August 1996

Aluminum toxicokinetics
Author information
Exley C1, Burgess E, Day JP, Jeffery EH, Melethil S, Yokel RA.
Department of Chemistry, Keele University, Staffordshire
United Kingdom
cha38@keele.ac.uk
Abstract
In this study of the toxicokinetics of aluminum we have examined some of the
fundamental issues that currently define our understanding of the toxicology of
aluminum in humans. There is a vast literature on this subject, and it was not
our aim to review this literature but to use it to develop our understanding of
the toxicokinetics of aluminum and to identify critical and unresolved issues
related to its toxicity. In undertaking this task we have chosen to define the term
toxicokinetics to encompass those factors that influence both the lability of
aluminum in a body and the sites at which aluminum is known to accumulate,
with or without consequent biological effect. We have approached our objective from the classical pharmacological approach of ADME: the absorption,
distribution, metabolism, and excretion of aluminum. This approach was successful in identifying several key deficits in our understanding of aluminum
toxicokinetics. For example, we need to determine the mechanisms by which
aluminum crosses epithelia, such as those of the gastrointestinal tract and the
central nervous system, and how these mechanisms influence both the subsequent transport and fate of the absorbed aluminum and the concomitant nature
and severity of the biological response to the accumulation of aluminum. Our
hope in highlighting these unresolved issues (summarized in Table 1) is that
they will be addressed in future research.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8772799

“... we need to determine the mechanisms by which
aluminum crosses epithelia, such as those of the
gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system,
and how these mechanisms influence both the subsequent
transport and fate of the absorbed aluminum and the
concomitant nature and severity of the biological response
to the accumulation of aluminum.”

“Subtle neurocognitive and psychomotor effects and electroencephalograph (EEG) abnormalities
have been reported at plasma Aluminum levels as low as 50 micrograms/L.
Infants could be particularly susceptible to Al accumulation and toxicity ...”
Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health • August 1996

Status and future concerns of clinical and environmental
aluminum toxicology
Author information
Flaten TP1, Alfrey AC, Birchall JD, Savory J, Yokel RA.
Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Trondheim, Norway
trond.flaten@avh.unit.no
Abstract
A wide range of toxic effects of aluminum (Al) have been demonstrated in plants and aquatic animals in nature, in
experimental animals by several routes of exposure, and under different clinical conditions in humans. Aluminum
toxicity is a major problem in agriculture, affecting perhaps as much as 40% of arable soils in the world. In fresh
waters acidified by acid rain, Al toxicity has led to fish extinction. Aluminum is a very potent neurotoxicant. In
humans with chronic renal failure on dialysis, Al causes encephalopathy, osteomalacia, and anemia. There are
also reports of such effects in certain patient groups without renal failure. Subtle neurocognitive and psychomotor effects and electroencephalograph (EEG) abnormalities have been reported at plasma Al levels as low as 50
micrograms/L. Infants could be particularly susceptible to Al accumulation and toxicity, reduced renal function
being one contributory cause. Recent reports clearly show that Al accumulation occurs in the tissues of workers
with long-term occupational exposure to Al dusts or fumes, and also indicate that such exposure may cause subtle
neurological effects. Increased efforts should be directed toward defining the full range of potentially harmful effects in humans. To this end, multidisciplinary collaborative research efforts are encouraged, involving scientists
from many different specialties. Emphasis should be placed on increasing our understanding of the chemistry of
Al in biological systems, and on determining the cellular and molecular mechanisms of Al toxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8772797

New England Journal Of Medicine • May 1997

Aluminum Neurotoxicity in Preterm Infants
Receiving Intravenous-Feeding Solutions
Nicholas J. Bishop, M.D., Ruth Morley,
M.B., B.Chir., J. Philip Day, Ph.D., and Alan Lucas, M.D.
BACKGROUND
Aluminum, a contaminant of commercial intravenous-feeding solutions, is potentially neurotoxic. We investigated the effect of perinatal exposure to intravenous aluminum on the neurologic development of infants born prematurely.
METHODS
We randomly assigned 227 premature infants with gestational ages of less than
34 weeks and birth weights of less than 1850 g who required intravenous feeding before they could begin enteral feeding to receive either standard or specially
constituted, aluminum-depleted intravenous-feeding solutions. The neurologic
development of the 182 surviving infants who could be tested was assessed by
using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at 18 months of age.
RESULTS
The 90 infants who received the standard feeding solutions had a mean (±SD)
Bayley Mental Development Index of 95±22, as compared with 98±20 for the 92
infants who received the aluminum-depleted solutions (P = 0.39). In a planned
subgroup analysis of infants in whom the duration of intravenous feeding exceeded the median and who did not have neuromotor impairment, the mean values for the Bayley Mental Development Index for the 39 infants who received
the standard solutions and the 41 infants who received the aluminum-depleted
solutions were 92±20 and 102±17, respectively (P = 0.02). The former were significantly more likely (39 percent, vs. 17 percent of the latter group; P = 0.03) to
have a Mental Development Index of less than 85, increasing their risk of subsequent educational problems. For all 157 infants without neuromotor impairment,
increasing aluminum exposure was associated with a reduction in the Mental
Development Index (P = 0.03), with an adjusted loss of one point per day of intravenous feeding for infants receiving the standard solutions.
CONCLUSIONS
In preterm infants, prolonged intravenous feeding with solutions containing aluminum is associated with impaired neurologic development.
http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199705293362203

“In preterm infants,
prolonged intravenous feeding
with solutions containing aluminum
is associated with impaired
neurologic development.”

Molecular And Chemical Neuropathology • September 1997

Aluminum potentiates
glutamate-induced calcium accumulation
and iron-induced oxygen free radical formation
in primary neuronal cultures
Author information
Mundy WR1, Freudenrich TM, Kodavanti PR.
Neurotoxicology Division
US Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
Abstract
Aluminum is a neurotoxic metal that may be involved in the progression of
neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Although the mechanism of action is not known, aluminum has been shown to alter Ca2+ flux and homeostasis, and facilitate peroxidation of membrane lipids. Since abnormal increases of intracellular Ca2+ and
oxygen free radicals have both been implicated in pathways leading to neurodegeneration, we examined the effect of aluminum on these parameters in
vitro using primary cultures of cerebellar granule cells. Exposure to glutamate
(1-300 microM) caused a concentration-dependent uptake of 45Ca in granule
cells to a maximum of 280% of basal. Pretreatment with AlCl3 (1-1000 microM) had no effect on 45Ca accumulation, but increased the uptake induced
by glutamate. Similarly, AlCl3 had no effect on intracellular free Ca2+ levels
measured using fluorescent probe fura-2, but potentiated the increase induced
by glutamate. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was examined
using the fluorescent probe dichlorofluorescin. By itself, AlCl3 had little effect on ROS production. However, AlCl3 pretreatment potentiated the ROS
production induced by 50 microM Fe2+. These results suggest that aluminum
may facilitate increases in intracellular Ca2+ and ROS, and potentially contribute to neurotoxicity induced by other neurotoxicants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9437657

“Aluminum is a neurotoxic metal
that may be involved in the progression
of neurodegenerative diseases, including
Alzheimer disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ...
aluminum may facilitate increases in intracellular Ca2+
and ROS, and potentially contribute to
neurotoxicity induced by other neurotoxicants.”

“Although the mechanisms of aluminum absorption have not been elucidated,
both passive and active transcellular processes and paracellular transport are believed to occur.”
Critical Reviews In Clinical Laboratory Science • 1997

Aluminum exposure and metabolism
Author information
Greger JL1, Sutherland JE.
Department of Nutritional Sciences
University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706, USA
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) is a nonessential, toxic metal to which humans are frequently exposed. Oral exposure to aluminum occurs through ingestion of aluminum-containing pharmaceuticals and to a lesser extent foods and water.
Parenteral exposure to aluminum can occur via contaminated total parenteral nutrition (TPN), intravenous (i.v.)
solutions, or contaminated dialysates. Inhalation exposure may be important in some occupational settings. The
gut is the most effective organ in preventing tissue aluminum accumulation after oral exposure. Typically gastrointestinal absorption of aluminum from diets is < 1%. Although the mechanisms of aluminum absorption have
not been elucidated, both passive and active transcellular processes and paracellular transport are believed to occur. Aluminum and calcium may share some absorptive pathways. Aluminum absorption is also affected by the
speciation of aluminum and a variety of other substances, including citrate, in the gut milieu. Not all absorbed or
parenterally delivered aluminum is excreted in urine. Low glomerular filtration of aluminum reflects that most
aluminum in plasma is nonfiltrable because of complexation to proteins, predominantly transferrin. The importance of biliary secretion of aluminum is debatable and the mechanism(s) is poorly understood and appears to be
saturable by fairly low oral doses of aluminum.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9405895

“Metal ions are believed to participate in many neurodegenerative conditions.”
Metal-Based Drugs • 1997

Metal Ions in Neuroscience
C. Ian Ragan
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Neuroscience Research Centre, Merck Sharp and Dohme Research Laboratories
Terlings Park, Harlow CM20 2QR, UK
Abstract
Metal ions are believed to participate in many neurodegenerative conditions. In excitotoxic cell death there is
convincing evidence for the participation of Ca 2+ and Zn 2+ ions although the exact molecular mechanisms
by which these metals exert their effects are unclear. Only in one instance has the metal binding site of metalloenzymes been exploited for therapeutic purposes and this is the use of Li+ in the treatment of bipolar affective
disorder. Again the exact molecular target is not clear but is likely to involve a Mg2+-dependent enzyme of an
intracellular signalling pathway. In Parkinson’s disease, the selective loss of dopaminergic neurones in the substantia nigra may be caused by radical-mediated damage and there is good evidence to suggest that Fe2+ or 3+ is
important in promoting formation of radical species. The evidence that free radicals are important in mediating
other neurodegenerative conditions is less strong but still substantial enough to suggest that removal of reactive
oxygen species or preventing their formation may be a valid approach to therapy.
Full Report
http://www.hindawi.com/archive/1997/532916/abs/

Toxicology And Industrial Health • January 1998

Neurobehavioral alteration in rodents
following developmental exposure to aluminum
Author information
Alleva E1, Rankin J, Santucci D.
Behavioural Pathophysiology Section
Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy
alleva@iss.it
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) is one of the most abundant metals in the earth’s crust, and humans can be
exposed to it from several sources. It is present in food, water, pharmaceutical compounds,
and in the environment, e.g., as a result of acid rain leaching it from the soil. Exposure to
Al has recently been implicated in a number of human pathologies, but it has not yet been
definitely proved that it plays a major causal role in any of them. In this paper we review the
effects of developmental exposure of laboratory animals to Al salts as a model for human
pathological conditions. The data presented show behavioral and neurochemical changes
in the offspring of AL-exposed mouse dams during gestation, which include alterations in
the pattern of ultrasonic vocalizations and a marked reduction in central nervous system
(CNS) choline acetyltransferase activity. Prenatal Al also affects CNS cholinergic functions
under Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) control, as shown by increased central NGF levels and
impaired performances in a maze learning task in young-adult mice. The need for more
detailed studies to evaluate the risks for humans associated with developmental exposure
to Al, as well as the importance of using more than one strain of laboratory animal in the
experimental design, is emphasized.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9460176

“The data presented show
behavioral and neurochemical changes
in the offspring of Aluminum-exposed mouse dams
during gestation, which include alterations in the pattern
of ultrasonic vocalizations and a marked reduction
in central nervous system choline acetyltransferase
activity. Prenatal Al also affects central nervous system
cholinergic functions under Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)
control, as shown by increased central NGF levels
and impaired performances in a maze learning
task in young-adult mice.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • July 1998

The precipitation of mucin by aluminium
Author information
Christopher Exley
Birchall Centre for Inorganic Chemistry and Materials Science
Department of Chemistry, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
cha38@keele.ac.uk
Abstract
The interactions of Al with a mucin glycopeptide have been studied. A
number of specific reactions were identified the nature of which were
dependent upon the Al chemistry in the hydration environment. In particular, Al was observed to precipitate mucin and it is suggested that
this proceeded via the intercalation of the hydroxide within the hydrated
macroreticular network of the mucin biopolymer. This precipitation of
mucin was visible by eye and abolished the viscosity of native mucin. Viscometry indicated that Al was bound by mucin at low pH. At
pH > 3 Al formed a low molecular weight complex with mucin which
was hydrolytically stable and was not precipitated at pH up to 8. In an
additional and competitive reaction Al was bound by mucin and the
resultant mucin-Al complex was suggested to be the precursor to selfassembled mucin-Al spheres identified in solution, by photon correlation spectroscopy, and in precipitate using selective histochemistry.
The majority of these spherical structures were of sub-micron diameter
and, through their interaction with each other, were probably responsible for the observed pH-dependent peaks of mucin solution viscosity.
The larger spheres, between 20 and 80 microns in diameter, were only
identified in isolated mucin/Al precipitates and, being comparatively
rare, were unlikely to have influenced solution viscosities. These large
spheres were observed to act as possible nucleation sites for the flocculation of mucin/Al precipitate. Al at concentrations as low as 0.015 mM
induced changes in the rheological properties of mucin. Considering
the ubiquitous nature of mucin and the degree to which it is conserved
within biota the interactions of Al with mucin may have wide ranging
implications for biological systems.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9720305

“Aluminum at concentrations
as low as 0.015 mM induced changes
in the rheological properties of mucin.
Considering the ubiquitous nature of mucin
and the degree to which it is conserved within
biota the interactions of Aluminum with
mucin may have wide ranging implications
for biological systems.”

Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi
Chinese Journal Of Chinese Materia Medica • December 1998

Influence of alum
on intestinal flora in mice
Author information
Yan M1, Song H, Zhang L,
Wang Y, Wu Y, Zhou Z.
Institute of Chinese Materia Medica
China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Beijing 100700
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To observe the influence of alum
on the intestinal microecological balance
in normal microorganisms.
METHOD
The mice were administered orally with alum of a small dosage(0.25/
kg) and a large dosage(1 g/kg) for half a month, two months and
three months, and a micro flora analysis of the mice was carried out
at intervals of the above mentioned administrations.
RESULT
The intestinal flora in the animals administered with alum was imbalanced. The counts of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli closely related to human physiological activities were decreased. The counts
of pathogenic E. Coli significantly increased; and the longer the
animals were treated with alum, the stronger the microecological
balance was influenced.
CONCLUSION
Alum could induce imbalance
of the normal intestinal flora in mice.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12242827

“The counts of pathogenic E. Coli
significantly increased; and the longer
the animals were treated with alum, the
stronger the microecological balance was influenced.”

“Aluminum toxicity is well documented and contamination of milk formulas
has been implicated as the source of accumulation in bone and brain tissues.”
Journal Of Pediatric Gastroenterology And Nutrition • March 1999

Aluminum contents of human milk, cow’s milk, and infant formulas
Author information
Fernandez-Lorenzo JR1, Cocho JA, Rey-Goldar ML, Couce M, Fraga JM.
Service of Neonatology and Metabolic and Nutritional Laboratory
Hospital Xeral de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Aluminum toxicity is well documented and contamination of milk formulas has been implicated as the source of
accumulation in bone and brain tissues. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the aluminum contents
of human milk, cow’s milk, and infant formulas.
METHODS
Aluminum contents were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry in samples of human milk in the colostrum, intermediate, and mature stages; infant formulas from eight manufacturers; and various types and brands of
commercially available cow’s milk.
RESULTS
Mean aluminum concentration was lowest in human milk (23.4 +/- 9.6 microg/l), and did not differ significantly
between colostrum, intermediate-stage and mature-stage milk. Mean aluminum concentration was 70 microg/l
in cow’s milk, and 226 microg/l in reconstituted infant formulas. Aluminum concentrations in infant formulas
differed markedly among manufacturers; concentration in milk from one of the manufacturers was particularly
high (mean, 551 microg/l; range, 302-1149 microg/l). These values are for milk reconstituted with aluminum-free
water under laboratory conditions; formulas prepared with tap water in the University Hospital’s infant-feeding
unit had even higher aluminum content. Experiments showed that aluminum concentration in the high-aluminum
milk could be reduced by more than 70% at the manufacturing stage, by using low aluminum components.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the present study support the recommendations for infant formula manufacturers to strive to reduce
aluminum concentration in their products.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10067727

Zhonghua Shi Yan He Lin Chuang Bing Du Xue Za Zhi
Chinese Journal Of Experimental And Clinical Virology • June 1999

Influence of aluminum adjuvant
to experimental rabies vaccine
Author information
Lin H1, Perrin P.
National Institute for the Control of Pharmaceutical and Biololgical Products
Beijing 100050
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To study whether the rabies vaccine for human use should contain aluminum adjuvant.

“Aluminum adjuvant to rabies vaccine

METHODS
Testing vaccine antibodies and efficacy (ED50), comparing the effect between aluminum adjuvant contained and non-aluminum adjuvant contained vaccines in a new animal
model which accords with the rabies field practice.

has no advantages, this paper suggests that

RESULTS
At fourth and seventh day after immunization, the neutralizing antibody titres of the
rabies vaccine containing aluminium adjuvant were much lower than that of the vaccine
not containing aluminum adjuvant. In the NIH efficacy test the ED50 of the vaccine containing aluminum adjuvant was 93-132 ng while the ED50 of the vaccine not containing
aluminum adjuvant was 221 ng, but the NIH test does not accord with the rabies field
practice. In that new animal model, aluminum adjuvant to rabies vaccine had not any
promoting effect for preventing and treating rabies.

adjuvant had better compare in human bodies. If the

CONCLUSION
Aluminum adjuvant to rabies vaccine has no advantages, this paper suggests that the vaccines containing and not-containing aluminium adjuvant had better compare in human
bodies. If the results are the same as our experiments, the aluminum adjuvant should be
eliminated from rabies vaccine for human use.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12569779

the vaccines containing and not-containing aluminium

results are the same as our experiments, the
aluminum adjuvant should be eliminated
from rabies vaccine for human use.”

Journal Of Leukocyte Biology • February 2000

Particulate adjuvants can induce macrophage survival,
DNA synthesis, and a synergistic proliferative response
to GM-CSF and CSF-1
Author information
Hamilton JA1, Byrne R, Whitty G.
Inflammation Research Centre, University of Melbourne
Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital
Parkville, Victoria, Australia
j.hamilton@medicine.unimelb.edu.au
Abstract
The mode of action of immunological adjuvants is not yet completely understood.
Many are particulate. Certain antigen-presenting (dendritic) cell populations belong to
the monocyte/macrophage lineage and, like other members of the lineage, in some tissues appear to be short-lived. We report that many poorly degradable, particulate adjuvants, for example, aluminum hydroxide, oil-in-water emulsions, calcium phosphate,
and silica, enhance murine bone marrow-derived macrophage survival; induction of
DNA synthesis was even observed. No evidence could be found for a requirement for
endogenous granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) or macrophage-CSF (M-CSF or CSF-1). Synergy for the proliferative effects was noted in the
presence of added GM-CSF or CSF-1. It is suggested from these in vitro findings that
one function of certain particulate adjuvants may be to increase by enhanced survival
or even proliferation the number of cells available for subsequent antigen presentation
and cytokine production.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10670584

“The mode of action
of immunological adjuvants
is not yet completely understood.”

Presse Medicale Paris • February 2000

Macrophagic myofasciitis
Study and Research Group
on Acquired and Dysimmunity-related muscular diseases
(GERMMAD)
Author information
Chérin P1, Laforêt P, Ghérardi RK, Authier FJ, Maisonobe T, Coquet M,
Mussini JM, Pellissier JF, Eymard B, Herson S.
Service de Médecine Interne
Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris
patrick.cherin@psl.ap-hop-paris.fr
Abstract
Macrophagic Myofasciitis
A most unusual inflammatory myopathy, first described by Germmad had been reported with increasing frequency since 1993 in the leading French myopathology centers. We present our experience with this new disease:
macrophagic myofasciitis.
CLINICAL FEATURES
By November 1999, 70 cases of macrophagic myofasciitis had been recorded since our first description. The first
22 patients (sex ratio M/F = 1:3) referred with the presumptive diagnosis of polymyositis (n = 11), polymyalgia
rheumatica (n = 5), mitochondrial cytopathy (n = 4), and congenital myopathy or muscle dystrophy (n = 1 each).
Symptoms included myalgia (91%), anthralgia (68%), marked asthenia (55%), muscle weakness (45%), and fever
(32%).
LABORATORY FINDINGS
Abnormal laboratory findings included elevated CK levels (50%), markedly increased erythrocyte sedimentation
rate (37%), and myopathic EMG (35%). Muscle biopsy showed a unique myopathological pattern characterized
by: i) centripetal infiltration of epimysium, perimysium and perifascicular endomysium by sheets of large cells of
the monocyte/macrophage lineage (CD68+, CD1a-, S100-, with a PAS-positive content; ii) absence of necrosis,
of both epithelioid and giant cells, and of mitotic figures; iii) presence of occasional CD8+ T-cells; iv) inconspicuous muscle fiber damage. The picture was easily distinguishable from sarcoid myopathy and fasciitis-panniculitis
syndromes. The infectious diseases know to be associated with reactive histiocytes, including Whippleís disease,
Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infection and malakoplakia, could not be documented. Patients improved
under corticosteroid therapy and/or immunomodulatory therapeutic.
CONCLUSION
A new inflammatory muscle disorder, characterized by a distinctive pathological pattern of macrophagic myofasciitis is emerging in France.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10705901

“A most unusual inflammatory myopathy,
first described by Germmad had been reported
with increasing frequency since 1993 in the
leading French myopathology centers. We present
our experience with this new disease:
macrophagic myofasciitis.”

Pharmacology And Toxicology • March 2000

Effects of various aluminium compounds
given orally to mice on Al tissue distribution
and tissue concentrations of essential elements
Author information
Dsugaszek M1, Fiejka MA, Graczyk A,
Aleksandrowicz JC, Slowikowska M.
Institute of Optoelectronics
Military University of Technology
Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
To evaluate the risk of gastrointestinal long-term aluminium (Al) exposure, aluminium distribution and the levels of the following essential elements: Ca, Mg,
Zn, Cu, and Fe in tissue were studied. Aluminium was administered in drinking
water as aluminium chloride, dihydroxyaluminium sodium carbonate or aluminium hydroxide. Mice (strain Pzh:SFIS) were exposed to a total dose of 700 mg Al
in long-term treatment (for each Al compound n = 15). Concentrations of Al, Ca,
Mg, Zn, Cu, and Fe in stomach, kidneys, bone and liver were analyzed by atomic
absorption spectrometry. After AlCl3 treatment, aluminium was found to accumulate in all tested tissues. A significant decrease in Fe concentration in liver and
Zn in kidneys was observed in comparison to concentrations of these elements in
the control group. In the Al(OH)3-treated group, accumulation of aluminium was
observed in bone only and decline of Fe concentration in stomach and Cu in liver
and kidney. In the NaAl(OH)2CO3-treated group the increase in Al concentration
was significant in bone; there was no change in concentration of essential elements
in the examined tissues. The observed aluminium accumulation was not accompanied by changes in Ca and Mg concentration except for bone. This study showed
that oral administration as a route of Al exposure can result in diverging accumulation of aluminium in tissues, the concentration depending on the chemical form.
Full Report
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1034/j.1600-0773.2000.pto860308.x/epdf

“This study showed that
oral administration as a route of Aluminum exposure
can result in diverging accumulation
of aluminium in tissues ...”

“Complaints about ... a mysterious muscle ailment
have prompted researchers to take a fresh look at the use of aluminum adjuvants ... This month,
as some 70 scientists gathered here for 2 days of often vigorous discussion of the findings about the muscle ailment,
a larger question hung over the gathering: Will aluminum be the next battleground in the vaccine wars?”
Science • May 2000

Public health: Aluminum is put on trial as a vaccine booster
Malakoff D.
SAN JUAN, PUERTO RICO—Complaints about vaccine safety and debate over a mysterious muscle ailment
have prompted researchers to take a fresh look at the use of aluminum adjuvants, which are used to cause the immune system to react earlier, more potently, and more persistently to the antigen contained in the vaccine. This
month, as some 70 scientists gathered here for 2 days of often vigorous discussion of the findings about the muscle
ailment, a larger question hung over the gathering: Will aluminum be the next battleground in the vaccine wars?
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5470/1323.summary?sid=82b7933f-c912-48c2-b2cf-40874fa78e61

Allergy • September 2000

Aluminium-induced granulomas after
inaccurate intradermal hyposensitization injections of
aluminium-adsorbed depot preparations
Author information
Vogelbruch M1, Nuss B, Körner M, Kapp A, Kiehl P, Bohm W.
Department of Dermatology and Allergology
Hannover Medical University, Germany
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The development of persistent subcutaneous nodules at the injection sites of aluminium-adsorbed hyposensitization solutions is rare. These nodules have been interpreted as a delayed, granulomatous hypersensitivity reaction
to aluminium. We report for the first time a case of persistent intradermal granulomas that developed at the sites
of inaccurate intradermal, instead of subcutaneous, hyposensitization injections.
METHODS
An intradermal nodule was excised and processed for histopathology, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray
microanalysis. Intradermal and patch tests with aluminium hydroxide were performed.
RESULTS
Histologically, the nodule presented a pattern of granulomatous inflammatory reaction surrounding foci of necrotic tissue. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis revealed deposits of aluminium within the
granulomas. Patch tests with aluminium hydroxide were negative, and intradermal tests caused persistent intradermal granulomas. Subsequent hyposensitization therapy in our department with the usual subcutaneous injections of aluminium-adsorbed allergen extracts was well tolerated by the patient.
CONCLUSIONS
Local toxic effects of aluminium may be crucial in the development of persistent intradermal injection-site granulomas. Such intradermal nodules may develop even if the subcutaneous route is well tolerated. We conclude that
inaccurate intradermal injections of aluminium-containing solutions have to be strictly avoided.
Full Report
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1034/j.1398-9995.2000.00501.x/full

“We report for the first time
a case of persistent intradermal granulomas
that developed at the sites of inaccurate intradermal,
instead of subcutaneous, hyposensitization injections.”

Review of Toxicological Literature Abridged Final Report • October 2000

Aluminum Compounds

Subcutaneous (s.c.) injections of aluminum produced a significant decrease in iron levels in plasma and the striatum.
Significant aluminum accumulation was induced in the striatum, hippocampus, and cortex, and in the hippocampus,
TBARS production was increased.
Reproductive and Teratological Effects

Prepared for Scott Masten, Ph.D., National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences P.O. Box 12233
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709 Contract No. N01-ES-65402
Submitted by Bonnie L. Carson, M.S.
Integrated Laboratory Systems, P.O. Box 13501, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Human Toxicity
The effects of aluminum on humans have been extensively reviewed. Overall, there is little indication that aluminum
is acutely toxic for the general population; few cases of acute aluminum toxicity during alum therapy (i.e., alum bladder irrigation) have been reported. Prolonged exposure to aluminum, however, can cause systemic toxicity, mainly
affecting the gastrointestinal tract and causing neurological and skeletal effects.
Aluminum is a potent neurotoxic agent in humans. The association between aluminum and characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease have prompted numerous studies of all sources of intake of aluminum. Epidemiological and case control
studies have examined the potential link between oral exposure to aluminum via drinking water and the disease. The
causal role of aluminum, however, remains controversial. Some studies have found a significant relationship between
the exposure to aluminum in water and an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease, while other studies have not. There
is … convincing evidence that aluminum is the causative agent in dialysis dementia, which is seen in patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis.
Developmental effects such as encephalopathy, bone disease, microcytic anemia, and rickets have occurred in premature infants with reduced or failed renal function receiving aluminum-containing treatment (e.g., dialysate or aluminum-based phosphate binders) and in nonuremic infants receiving parenteral nutrition with aluminum-containing fluids or high doses of aluminum antacids. There are no adequate studies of the long-term effects of aluminum exposure
on brain development and skeletal maturation.
No immunotoxicity studies are available. Few cases, however, report of hypersensitivity to aluminum following dermal application or parenteral administration. There have also been no reports of genetic or reproductive effects in
humans.
In mice, oral administration of aluminum as aluminum ammonium sulfate decreased dopamine, dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, and homovanillic acid levels in the hypothalamus, and aluminum lactate increased the 2-thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances (TBARS) in the brain but decreased brain stem weight.
In rats, oral administration of aluminum as the sulfate, nitrate, chloride, hydroxide, citrate, and lactate resulted in
aluminum accumulation in bone, brain, spleen, liver, heart, gastrointestinal tract, and spleen. Significant decreases
occurred in body weight, water consumption, urine volume, plasma glutamic-pyruvic transaminase, serum triglycerides, serum iron concentration, and alkaline phosphatase, ATP, ADP, and AMP, as well as in motor activity. Additional
health effects include changes in the cytological and enzymatic content of the lavage fluid, inhibition of colony-forming units-erythroid (CFU-E), and neurobehavioral effects.

Reproductive toxicity and teratogenicity from aluminum compounds has been reported in a number of papers. Reproductive effects observed in male mice, rats, or dogs given aluminum compounds orally or s.c. included repressed sexual behavior, decreased spermatogenesis, or other effects on the testes, sperm duct, and/or epididymis. Reproductive
effects from oral administration to female rats included irregularity of the estrus cycle of female offspring or effects
on the ovaries or fallopian tubes in treated adults. Maternal toxicity was observed in several studies in which pregnant
mice, rats, or rabbits were administered aluminum compounds orally, i.p., or s.c. during gestation. Developmental toxicity from oral, i.p., or s.c. aluminum compound administration was also noted in some rat and mouse studies. Teratogenic effects induced by oral, i.p., or s.c. administration of aluminum compounds included skeletal or musculoskeletal
variations, cleft palate or other craniofacial malformations, cardiovascular system abnormalities, and other unspecified
physical effects. Injection of aluminum compounds into the yolk sac of fertilized chicken eggs induced similar developmental malformations. Neurotoxic effects were observed when aluminum compounds were given orally to mice,
rats, or rabbits. A number of studies were also found that reported no reproductive, maternal, developmental toxicity
or teratogenicity from oral, inhalation, i.p., or s.c. administration of aluminum compounds.
Genotoxicity
In one acellular assay, aluminum was found to bind to DNA through chelation. It was also found to reduce 3H-thymidine incorporation in a transformed cell line, indicating that aluminum compounds may impede cell cycle progression.
Aluminum compounds were not mutagenic in the preponderance of Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli
studies. Only one study reported a positive mutagenic response, in which aluminum acetylacetonate was tested on S.
typhimurium strain TA104 in the absence of metabolic activation. Effects induced in vitro by aluminum compounds
included crosslinking of chromosomal proteins in rat ascites hepatoma cells, anaphasic changes in BALB/c mouse
3T3 cells, and formation of DNA-protein crosslinks, micronuclei, sister chromatic exchanges (SCEs), and chromosomal aberrations in cultured human lymphocytes. Effects induced in vivo included SCEs in mice and sheep, delayed
mitosis in mice and sheep, and formation of micronucleated polychromatic lymphocytes in mice, and chromosomal
aberrations in rats and mice.
Neurotoxicity
Dementia in dialysis patients and encephalopathy in infants undergoing parenteral nutrition are well known examples
of aluminum intoxication in humans. Numerous in vitro studies and epidemiological studies have examined the possible role of aluminum in Alzheimer’s disease, other dementias, and cognitive dysfunction.
Numerous animal studies, particularly orally studies in mice and rats, show that aluminum compounds are neurotoxic,
but species variation exist. The toxicity is characterized by progressive neurological impairment leading to death
associated with repeated seizures. Morphologically, the progressive encephalopathy, associated with neurofibrillary
pathology in neurons mostly in the spinal cord, brain stem, and the hippocampus and cingulated gyrus of the cortex,
has been induced by aluminum in susceptible animals such as the rabbit, cat, guinea pig, and ferret when given as
intrathecal, intracerebral, and subcutaneous injections. For example, in cats and rabbits intracerebral injections of
soluble aluminum compounds resulted in impairment in learning and memory, and in rabbits repeated subcutaneous
injections affected classical conditioning, while single or repeated intracisternal injection of metallic aluminum altered
motor function. Oral administration of aluminum compounds, however, produced no encephalopathy or epilepsy but
resulted in behavioral impairment.

http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/chem_background/exsumpdf/aluminum_508.pdf#search=aluminum%20compounds

Neurotoxicology • February 2001

Differential toxicity of aluminum salts
in human cell lines of neural origin:
implications for neurodegeneration
Author information
Campbell A1, Hamai D, Bondy SC.
Department of Community and Environmental Medicine
Center for Occupational and Environmental Health
University of California, Irvine 92697-1820, USA
Abstract
Aluminum is highly oxophilic and its minerals are usually found surrounded by six oxygen atoms. A role for the metal has been established in dialysis
encephalopathy and Al-induced osteomalacia. The metal has been implicated in Alzheimer’s disease but the issue is at present controversial. Human cell lines of neural origin were utilized to study the effect of lipophilic
aluminum acetylacetonate and non-lipophilic aluminum sulfate on cell proliferation and viability. Although analysis of Al species in the cell culture
media demonstrated that there are positively charged Al species present in
solutions prepared with both Al salts, only the aluminum acetylacetonate
salt caused changes in cell proliferation and viability. Therefore, the lipophilic nature of the organic Al salt is a critical determinant of toxicity. The
effect of aluminum acetylacetonate was dose-dependent and time-dependent. Neuroblastoma (SK-N-SH) cells were more susceptible to decreased
cell proliferation although the lipophilic Al salt was more toxic to the glioblastoma (T98G) cells. While the toxicity of aluminum acetylacetonate was
inhibited in the T98G cells by the addition of phosphate, the same treatment
did not reverse cell death in the SK-N-SH cells. Thus, the mechanism of Al
toxicity appears to be different in the two cell lines. It is possible that the
principal neurotoxic target of the metal is glial and when these cells are in
a compromised state, this may secondarily impact the neuronal population
and thus eventually lead to neurodegeneration.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11307852

“It is possible
that the principal neurotoxic target
of the metal is glial and when these cells
are in a compromised state, this may
secondarily impact the neuronal
population and thus eventually
lead to neurodegeneration.”

“Aluminum is a nonessential metal to which humans are frequently exposed.”
Regulatory Toxicology And Pharmacology • February 2001

Safety evaluation of dietary aluminum
Author information
Soni MG1, White SM, Flamm WG, Burdock GA.
Burdock and Associates, Inc.
622 Beachland Boulevard
Suite B, Vero Beach, Florida 32963, USA
Abstract
Aluminum is a nonessential metal to which humans are frequently exposed. Aluminum in the food supply comes
from natural sources, water used in food preparation, food ingredients, and utensils used during food preparations. The amount of aluminum in the diet is small, compared with the amount of aluminum in antacids and some
buffered analgesics. The healthy human body has effective barriers (skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract) to reduce
the systemic absorption of aluminum ingested from water, foods, drugs, and air. The small amount of aluminum
(<1%) that is systemically absorbed is excreted principally in the urine and, to a lesser extent, in the feces. No
reports of dietary aluminum toxicity to healthy individuals exist in the literature. Aluminum can be neurotoxic,
when injected directly into the brains of animals and when accidentally introduced into human brains (by dialysis
or shrapnel). A study from Canada reports cognitive and other neurological deficits among groups of workers occupationally exposed to dust containing high levels of aluminum. While the precise pathogenic role of aluminum
in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remains to be defined, present data do not support a causative role for aluminum
in AD. High intake of aluminum from antacid for gastrointestinal ailments has not been reported to cause any
adverse effects and has not been correlated with neurotoxicity or AD. Foods and food ingredients are generally
the major dietary sources of aluminum in the United States. Cooking in aluminum utensils often results in statistically significant, but relatively small, increases in aluminum content of food. Common aluminum-containing food
ingredients are used mainly as preservatives, coloring agents, leavening agents, anticaking agents, etc. Safety
evaluation and approval of these ingredients by the Food and Drug Administration indicate that these aluminumcontaining compounds are safe for use in foods.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11259180

Pharmacology And Toxicology • April 2001

Aluminium toxicokinetics:
an updated minireview
Author information
Yokel RA1, McNamara PJ.
College of Pharmacy and Graduate Center for Toxicology
University of Kentucky Medical Center
Lexington 40536-0082, USA
ryokell@pop.uky.edu
Abstract
This MiniReview updates and expands the MiniReview of aluminium toxicokinetics by
Wilhelm et al. published by this journal in 1990. The use of 26Al, analyzed by accelerator
mass spectrometry, now enables determination of Al toxicokinetics under physiological
conditions. There is concern about aluminium in drinking water. The common sources of
aluminium for man are reviewed. Oral Al bioavailability from water appears to be about
0.3%. Food is the primary common source. Al bioavailability from food has not been
adequately determined. Industrial and medicinal exposure, and perhaps antiperspirant
use, can significantly increase absorbed aluminium. Inhalation bioavailability of airborne
soluble Al appears to be about 1.5% in the industrial environment. Al may distribute to
the brain from the nasal cavity, but the significance of this exposure route is unknown.
Systemic Al bioavailability after single underarm antiperspirant application may be up to
0.012%. All intramuscularly injected Al, e.g. from vaccines, may eventually be absorbed.
Al distributes unequally to all tissues. Distribution and renal excretion appear to be enhanced by citrate. Brain uptake of Al may be mediated by Al transferrin and Al citrate
complexes. There appears to be carrier-mediated efflux of Al citrate from the brain. Elimination half-lives of years have been reported in man, probably reflecting release from
bone. Al elimination is primarily renal with < or = 2% excreted in bile. The contribution
of food to absorbed Al needs to be determined to advance our understanding of the major
components of Al toxicokinetics.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11322172

“All intramuscularly injected Aluminum,
e.g. from vaccines, may eventually be absorbed.”

Brain Research Bulletin • May 2001

Aluminium toxicity in the rat brain:
histochemical and immunocytochemical evidence
Author information
Platt B1, Fiddler G, Riedel G, Henderson Z.
Biomedical Sciences, Aberdeen University
Scotland, Aberdeen, UK.
b.platt@abdn.ac.uk
Abstract
Although the neurotoxic actions of aluminium (Al) have been well documented,
its contribution to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease remains controversial. In the present study, we applied histochemical techniques
to identify changes induced by intracerebroventricular Al injections (5.4 microg
in 5.5 microl, daily over a period of 5 successive days) in the adult rat brain after
survival periods of either 1 or 6 weeks. For both Al- and saline-infused controls,
no major signs of gross histological changes were evident in cresyl violet-stained
sections. Al (as indicated by the fluorescent Morin staining) was concentrated in
white matter of the medial striatum, corpus callosum, and cingulate bundle. Immunoreactivity of astrocytes and phagocytic microglia based on glial fibrillary
acidic protein and ED1 markers, respectively, revealed a greater inflammatory
response in Al-injected animals compared to controls. Damage of the cingulate
bundle in Al-treated animals led to a severe anterograde degeneration of cholinergic terminals in cortex and hippocampus, as indicated by acetylcholinesterase
labelling. Our data suggest that the enhancement of inflammation and the interference with cholinergic projections may be the modes of action through which Al
may cause learning and memory deficits, and contribute to pathological processes
in Alzheimer’s disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11470325

“Our data suggest that
the enhancement of inflammation
and the interference with cholinergic projections
may be the modes of action through which
Aluminum may cause learning and memory
deficits, and contribute to pathological
processes in Alzheimer’s disease.”

“... these results firmly establish that aluminium hydroxide-containing vaccines
represent the direct cause of the Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) lesion.”
Brain • September 2001

Macrophagic myofasciitis lesions
assess long-term persistence of vaccine-derived
aluminium hydroxide in muscle
Author information
Gherardi RK1, Coquet M, Cherin P, Belec L,
Moretto P, Dreyfus PA, Pellissier JF, Chariot P, Authier FJ.
Equipe mixte INSERM
E 0011/Université Paris XII, France
romain.gherardi@hmn.ap-hop-paris.fr
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is an emerging condition of unknown cause, detected in patients with diffuse arthromyalgias and fatigue, and characterized by muscle infiltration by granular periodic acid-Schiff’s
reagent-positive macrophages and lymphocytes. Intracytoplasmic inclusions have been observed in macrophages of some patients. To assess their significance, electron microscopy was performed in 40 consecutive
cases and chemical analysis was done by microanalysis and atomic absorption spectrometry. Inclusions
were constantly detected and corresponded to aluminium hydroxide, an immunostimulatory compound
frequently used as a vaccine adjuvant. A lymphocytic component was constantly observed in MMF lesions.
Serological tests were compatible with exposure to aluminium hydroxide-containing vaccines. History
analysis revealed that 50 out of 50 patients had received vaccines against hepatitis B virus (86%), hepatitis
A virus (19%) or tetanus toxoid (58%), 3-96 months (median 36 months) before biopsy. Diffuse myalgias
were more frequent in patients with than without an MMF lesion at deltoid muscle biopsy (P < 0.0001).
Myalgia onset was subsequent to the vaccination (median 11 months) in 94% of patients. MMF lesion
was experimentally reproduced in rats. We conclude that the MMF lesion is secondary to intramuscular
injection of aluminium hydroxide-containing vaccines, shows both long-term persistence of aluminium hydroxide and an ongoing local immune reaction, and is detected in patients with systemic symptoms which
appeared subsequently to vaccination.
Full Report
http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/124/9/1821

Pediatric And Developmental Pathology • March 2002

Aluminum phagocytosis
in quadriceps muscle following vaccination in children:
relationship to macrophagic myofasciitis
Author information
Lacson AG1, D’Cruz CA,
Gilbert-Barness E, Sharer L, Jacinto S, Cuenca R.
Departments of Pediatrics and Pathology
University of South Florida at All Children’s Hospital
801 Sixth Street South 7020, St. Petersburg, FL 33731, USA
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is a rare, seemingly emerging entity among adult
patients in France. We encountered two children with the first two cases of MMF in
North America. A 5-year-old male with chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction required
nighttime parenteral nutrition. Abnormal pupillary reflexes and urinary retention suggested a diffuse dysautonomia, which prompted a neurological diagnostic work-up.
A 3-year-old child had developmental delay and hypotonia. Both children received
age-appropriate immunizations. Quadriceps muscle biopsy from each child showed
the typical patchy, cohesive centripetal infiltration of alpha-1-antitrypsin+, alpha-1antichymotrypsin+, CD68+, PAS+, CD1a-, S-100-, factor XIII- granular macrophages
with adjacent myofiber atrophy, dilated blood vessels, and mild endomysial and perimysial fibrosis. No myonecrosis was observed and no discrete granulomas were seen.
A single aluminum peak was demonstrated on energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis.
The etiology of the clinical symptoms in these cases and in cases reported as MMF
remains intriguing. Despite numerous stains to demonstrate organisms, most infectious
causes leading to macrophage activation were ruled out. These cases are being reported
to increase awareness of this condition and to encourage a systematic epidemiologic
and clinicopathologic study in North America.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11910509

“Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF)
is a rare, seemingly emerging entity
among adult patients in France. We
encountered two children with the
first two cases of MMF in North America.”

Vaccine • May 2002

Mechanisms of stimulation
of the immune response
by aluminum adjuvants
Author information
HogenEsch H.
Department of Veterinary Pathobiology
Purdue University, West Lafayette
IN 47907-1243, USA
hogenesch@purdue.edu
Abstract
Aluminum adjuvants are widely used in human and veterinary vaccines. They are appropriate adjuvants for vaccines that confer protection by inducing antibodies via the induction of a type 2 immune
response, but they do not induce cytotoxic T cell and cell-mediated
immunity. The mechanisms by which aluminum adjuvants selectively enhance the immune response are poorly understood. Following exposure to interstitial fluid in vitro and in vivo, most antigens are rapidly desorbed from aluminum adjuvants, suggesting
that sustained release of antigen from a depot does not significantly
contribute to the adjuvant effect of aluminum compounds. However, the adsorption of antigens onto aluminum salts may result in a
high local concentration of antigen at the injection site and enhance
the uptake by antigen-presenting cells. Aluminum compounds can
further enhance the immune response by direct or indirect stimulation of dendritic cells, activation of complement and by inducing
the release of chemokines. The relative importance of these mechanisms remains to be determined.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12184362

“Aluminum compounds
can further enhance the immune response
by direct or indirect stimulation of dendritic
cells, activation of complement and by inducing
the release of chemokines. The relative
importance of these mechanisms
remains to be determined.”

“Dr. Gherardi believes that Macrophagic Myofasciitis, a syndrome of ascending myalgias,
fatigue and diffuse musculoskeletal pain, may be related to a chronic immune response to
aluminum granulomas persisting at the sites of prior immunization with aluminum adjuvated vaccines.”
Vaccine • May 2002

Macrophagic myofasciitis:
a summary of Dr. Gherardi’s presentations
Author information
Brenner A1.
Rheumatological Services, Inc.
Framington, MA 01702, USA
alanrsi@aol.com
Abstract
Dr. R.K. Gherardi presented two papers at the symposium, detailing his
researches into a proposed new clinical entity which he has entitled Macrophagic Myofasciitis (MMF). In his first paper he described the histopathologic and immunologic characteristics of the condition, and in the
second, the clinical and serologic features. Dr. Gherardi believes that
MMF, a syndrome of ascending myalgias, fatigue and diffuse musculoskeletal pain, may be related to a chronic immune response to aluminum
granulomas persisting at the sites of prior immunization with aluminum
adjuvated vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12184366

“there is no known physiological role for aluminum within the body ...”
Environmental Research • June 2002

Aluminum: impacts and disease
Author information
Nayak P.
Department of Physiology
Sikkim Manipal Institute of Medical Sciences
5th Mile, Tadong, Gangtok, 737102, Sikkim, India
Abstract
Aluminum is the most widely distributed metal in the environment and is extensively used in modern daily life.
Aluminum enters into the body from the environment and from diet and medication. However, there is no known
physiological role for aluminum within the body and hence this metal may produce adverse physiological effects.
The impact of aluminum on neural tissues is well reported but studies on extraneural tissues are not well summarized. In this review, the impacts of aluminum on humans and its impact on major physiological systems are
summarized and discussed. The neuropathologies associated with high brain aluminum levels, including structural, biochemical, and neurobehavioral changes, have been summarized. In addition, the impact of aluminum on
the musculoskeletal system, respiratory system, cardiovascular system, hepatobiliary system, endocrine system,
urinary system, and reproductive system are discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12123643

“The exact mechanism of aluminum toxicity is not known
but accumulating evidence suggests that the metal can potentiate oxidative and inflammatory events,
eventually leading to tissue damage.”
Toxicology And Industrial Health • August 2002

Aluminum as a toxicant
Author information
Becaria A1, Campbell A, Bondy SC.
Department of Community and Environmental Medicine
Center for Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences
Irvine, CA 92697-1820, USA
abecaria@uci.edu
Abstract
Although aluminum is the most abundant metal in nature, it has no known biological function. However, it is
known that there is a causal role for aluminum in dialysis encephalopathy, microcytic anemia, and osteomalacia.
Aluminum has also been proposed to play a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) even though this
issue is controversial. The exact mechanism of aluminum toxicity is not known but accumulating evidence suggests that the metal can potentiate oxidative and inflammatory events, eventually leading to tissue damage. This
review encompasses the general toxicology of aluminum with emphasis on the potential mechanisms by which it
may accelerate the progression of chronic age-related neurodegenerative disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15068131

“... even intermittent or low-dose use of aluminium-based phosphate binders adds to the
total load of this toxin in the bone; thus, aluminium use is inadvisable, even for a ‘rescue indication’.”
Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation • 2002

Aluminium and bone disease in chronic renal failure
Author information
Malluche HH
University of Kentucky, Division of Nephrology
Bone and Mineral Metabolism
Lexington, 40536-1052, USA
hhmall@uky.edu
Abstract
Aluminium is absorbed by the intestines and is rapidly transported into bone, where it disrupts mineralization and
bone cell growth and activity. Its toxicities result in or exacerbate painful forms of renal osteodystrophy, most
notably adynamic bone disease and osteomalacia, but also other forms of the disease. Because aluminium is sequestered in bone for long periods, its toxic effects are cumulative. As a result, even intermittent or low-dose use
of aluminium-based phosphate binders adds to the total load of this toxin in the bone; thus, aluminium use is inadvisable, even for a ‘rescue indication’. Aluminium blood levels are not a reliable marker of aluminium absorption
or organ load in dialysis patients: only stainable aluminium at the mineralization front reflects the histopathological changes observed in bone. Therefore, bone biopsies remain the only approach for definitive diagnosis of
aluminium-related bone disease. Most importantly, lack of correlation between overall organ concentrations of a
toxin, such as aluminium, and pathological changes does not rule out toxicity. Thus, the specific localization of
the toxin is more important than overall organ concentration. What has been observed with aluminium during 25
years of research might be reproduced with other metals that are absorbed, transported and accumulated in bone.
What we have learned about the toxicity of aluminium should inform our interpretation of data from studies of
other metal-based therapeutics for renal patients. This calls for careful evaluation of any newly introduced therapeutic agents for bone disease in patients lacking excretory kidney function.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11904354

Vaccine • 2002

Workshop Summary Aluminum In Vaccines
Conference report

Theodore C. Eickhoff
Division of Infectious Disease University of Colorado Health Sciences
4200 East 9th Avenue Denver, CO 80262, USA
Martin Myers
National Vaccine Program Office
1600 Cligton Road MS 0-66, Atlanta, GA 30333
Abstract
On May 11–12 in San Juan, Puerto Rico the National Vaccine Program Office (NVPO)
sponsored a workshop on aluminum in vaccines. The meeting was attended by a diverse
group of vaccinologists, immunologists, experts on metals, pathologists, rheumatologists, and other interested parties. The objectives of this meeting were to: (1) establish
a better understanding of the role and need of aluminum as an adjuvant in vaccines; (2)
explore the possibility of adverse events due to the use of aluminum in vaccines; and (3)
develop a research agenda to expand existing knowledge of the impact of aluminum on
the human body. From the Metal Ions in Biology and Medicine International Symposium
held immediately prior to the aluminum workshop, we learned about “pervasive uncertainty”, a phrase used in this workshop to denote missing data on pharmocokinetics and
toxicities of aluminum injected into humans. Even with identification of areas needing
further study, it was apparent that aluminum which has been used as a vaccine adjuvant
for more than 70 years, has an established safety record with low incidence of reported
adverse events.
The first session of the workshop was devoted to important background about immunologic adjuvants in general and aluminum adjuvants in particular. Dr. Robert Hunter, University of Texas, provided a broad overview of the history and development of adjuvants,
and the conventional views of their mechanism of action and uses. Aluminum adjuvants
have been thought to form a repository of antigen in tissue, to produce particulate antigen
for presentation to immune cells, and perhaps to activate complement and other immune
enhancers. The immune response to some, but not all, protein antigens is enhanced by
aluminum salts, however, these salts have little effect on peptide and polysaccharide
antigens. Aluminum adjuvants enhance the primary immunization series, reducing the
amount of antigen needed per dose and the number of required doses. They increase the
proportion of responders, however, there appears to be little effect of adjuvant in subsequent booster doses.
Dr. Norman Baylor, US Food and Drug Administra- tion, provided a detailed analysis
of aluminum adjuvants, as well as regulatory perspectives. The three general types of

aluminum-containing adjuvants are: (1) aluminum hydroxide, (2) aluminum phosphate,
and (3) alum, or potassium aluminum sulfate. Each of these types of formulations has
different isoelectric points, and properties; they are not simply interchangeable. The efficacy of each salt as an adjuvant depends also on the characteristics of the antigens in the
vaccine. FDA regulations limit the aluminum content of an individual dose of a vaccine
to 0.85 mg. of elemental aluminum. This is equivalent to 15 mg. of alum per dose.
The immunologic advantage conferred by these adjuvants has been well documented, although most of this documentation is found in studies published before 1970. In general,
these studies showed that aluminum-adjuvanted vaccines resulted in higher and more
prolonged antibody responses than did comparable aqueous vaccines. This advantage
was most apparent during primary immunization; there seemed to be little advantage to
incorporating adjuvant in booster doses.
The US licensed products that contain aluminum adjuvants include DTP, DTaP, some but
not all HIB vaccines, hepatitis B vaccine, and all combination DTaP, HIB, or HB vaccines. Others containing aluminum include hepatitis A vaccine, lyme disease vaccine,
anthrax vaccine, and rabies vaccine. Inactivated vaccines that do not contain aluminum
salts include IPV and influenza vaccines. Of interest was the fact that there are substantial differences among manufacturers both in the specific aluminum adjuvant used, as
well as the amount of that adjuvant, in vaccines such as DTaP and in combination vaccines made by several manufacturers. Dr. Baylor also pointed out that any alteration of
a vaccine, such as removal of aluminum in booster doses, would necessitate treating the
altered vaccine as a new product requiring the collection of additional clinical data.
Adverse reactions that have been reported with aluminum-containing vaccines are generally local reactions including sterile abscesses, erythema, subcutaneous (SC) nodules,
granulomatous inflammation, and contact hypersensitivity. None of these reactions, however, has been sufficiently frequent to arouse concern.

http://archive.hhs.gov/nvpo/nvac/documents/Aluminumws.pdf

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • September 2003

A biogeochemical cycle for aluminium?
Author information
Exley C1.
Birchall Centre for Inorganic Chemistry and Materials Science
Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
c.exley@chem.keele.ac.uk
Abstract
The elaboration of biogeochemical cycles for elements which are known
to be essential for life has enabled a broad appreciation of the homeostatic mechanisms which underlie element essentiality. In particular
they can be used effectively to identify any part played by human activities in element cycling and to predict how such activities might impact
upon the lithospheric and biospheric availability of an element in the
future. The same criteria were the driving force behind the construction of a biogeochemical cycle for aluminium, a non-essential element
which is a known ecotoxicant and a suspected health risk in humans.
The purpose of this exercise was to examine the concept of a biogeochemical cycle for aluminium and not to review the biogeochemistry
of this element. The cycle as presented is rudimentary and qualitative
though, even in this nascent form, it is informative and predictive and,
for these reasons alone, it is deserving of future quantification. A fully
fledged biogeochemical cycle for aluminium should explain the biospheric abundance of this element and whether we should expect its
(continued) active involvement in biochemical evolution.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14507454

“a non-essential element
which is a known ecotoxicant and a
suspected health risk in humans.”

Vaccine • December 2003

Unexpectedly high incidence
of persistent itching nodules and delayed hypersensitivity
to aluminium in children after the use of adsorbed vaccines
from a single manufacturer
Author information
Bergfors E1, Trollfors B, Inerot A.
Department of Primary Health Care, Göteborg University
Box 454, S-40530 Göteborg, Sweden
elisabet.bergfors@allmed.gu.se
Abstract
During trials of aluminium adsorbed diphtheria-tetanus/acellular pertussis vaccines from a
single producer, persistent itching nodules at the vaccination site were observed in an unexpectedly high frequency. The afflicted children were followed in a longitudinal observational
study, and the presence of aluminium sensitization was investigated in the children with itching nodules and their symptomless siblings by patch tests. Itching nodules were found in 645
children out of about 76,000 vaccinees (0.8%) after both subcutaneous (s.c.) and intramuscular (i.m.) injection. The itching was intense and long-lasting. So far, 75% still have symptoms
after a median duration of 4 years. Contact hypersensitivity to aluminium was demonstrated
in 77% of the children with itching nodules and in 8% of the symptomless siblings who had
received the same vaccines (P<0.001). Children with persistent itching nodules and/or aluminium sensitization should be warned about aluminium containing products (e.g. vaccines
and antiperspirants). The reason for the high incidence of itching nodules after SSI vaccines is
unknown and should be further investigated.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14604572

“Itching nodules were found in 645 children
out of about 76,000 vaccinees after both subcutaneous
and intramuscular injection. The itching was
intense and long-lasting. So far, 75% still have
symptoms after a median duration of 4 years.”

Journal Of Neuroscience Research • February 2004

Chronic exposure to aluminum
in drinking water increases inflammatory
parameters selectively in the brain
Author information
Campbell A1, Becaria A, Lahiri DK, Sharman K, Bondy SC.
Department of Community and Environmental Medicine
Center for Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences
Irvine, California 92697, USA
Abstract
A link between aluminum (Al) exposure and age-related neurological
disorders has long been proposed. Although the exact mechanism by
which the metal may influence disease processes is unknown, there is
evidence that exposure to Al causes an increase in both oxidative stress
and inflammatory events. These processes have also been suggested to
play a role in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and exposure to the metal may
contribute to the disorder by potentiating these events. Al lactate (0.01,
0.1, and 1 mM) in drinking water for 10 weeks increased inflammatory processes in the brains of mice. The lowest of these levels is in
the range found to increase the prevalence of AD in regions where the
concentrations of the metal are elevated in residential drinking water
(Flaten [2001] Brain Res. Bull. 55:187-196). Nuclear factor-kappaB as
well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin 1alpha
(IL-1alpha) levels were increased in the brains of treated animals. The
mRNA for TNF-alpha was also up-regulated following treatment. Enhancement of glial fibrillary acidic protein levels and reactive microglia
was seen in the striatum of Al-treated animals. The level of amyloid
beta (Abeta40) was not significantly altered in the brains of exposed
animals. Insofar as no parallel changes were observed in the serum or
liver of treated animals, the proinflammatory effects of the metal may
be selective to the brain. Al exposure may not be sufficient to cause abnormal production of the principal component of senile plaques directly
but does exacerbate underlying events associated with brain aging and
thus could contribute to progression of neurodegeneration.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14743440

“Although the exact mechanism
by which the metal may influence
disease processes is unknown, there
is evidence that exposure to Al causes
an increase in both oxidative stress
and inflammatory events. Insofar as no
parallel changes were observed in the
serum or liver of treated animals, the
proinflammatory effects of the metal
may be selective to the brain.”

“... the more detailed mode of action of these adjuvants is still not completely understood.”
Vaccine • September 2004

Aluminium adjuvants—in retrospect and prospect
Author information
Lindblad EB.
Adjuvant Dept. Brenntag Biosector
DK-3600 Frederikssund, Denmark
Abstract
Aluminium compounds have been used as adjuvants in practical vaccination for more than 60 years to induce
an early, an efficient and a long lasting protective immunity and are at present the most widely used adjuvants
in both veterinary and human vaccines. Although the last two decades of systematic research into the nature of
these adjuvants has contributed significantly to understanding their nature and their limitations as Th2 stimulators
the more detailed mode of action of these adjuvants is still not completely understood. We have a comprehensive
record of their behaviour and performance in practical vaccination, but an empirical approach to optimising their
use in new vaccine formulations is still to some extent a necessity. The aim of the present review is to put the recent findings into a broader perspective to facilitate the application of these adjuvants in general and experimental
vaccinology.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315845

Archives Of Toxicology • October 2004

Mitochondrial viability and apoptosis
induced by aluminum, mercuric mercury
and methylmercury in cell lines of neural origin
Author information
Toimela T1, Tähti H.
Medical School, Cell Research Center
University of Tampere
33014 University of Tampere, Finland
Tarja.Toimela@uta.fi
Abstract
Mercury and aluminum are considered to be neurotoxic metals, and they are
often connected with the onset of neurodegenerative diseases. In this study,
mercuric mercury, methylmercury and aluminum were studied in three different cell lines of neural origin. To evaluate the effects, mitochondrial cytotoxicity and apoptosis induced by the metals were measured after various
incubation times. SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma, U 373MG glioblastoma, and
RPE D407 retinal pigment epithelial cells were subcultured to appropriate
cell culture plates and 0.01-1,000 microM concentrations of methylmercury,
mercuric and aluminum chloride were added into the growth medium. In
the assay measuring the mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity, WST-1, the
cultures were exposed for 15 min, 24 or 48 h before measurement. Cells
were allowed to recover from the exposure in part of the study. Apoptosis
induced by the metals was measured after 6-, 24- and 48-h exposure times
with the determination of activated caspase 3 enzyme. Mitochondrial assays
showed a clear dose-response and exposure time-response to the metals. The
most toxic was methylmercury (EC50 ~0.8 microM, 48 h), and the most
sensitive cell line was the neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Furthermore,
there was marked mitochondrial activation, especially in connection with
aluminum and methylmercury at low concentrations. This activation may
be important during the initiation of cellular processes. All the metals tested
induced apoptosis, but with a different time-course and cell-line specificity. In microscopic photographs, glioblastoma cells formed fibrillary tangles,
and neuroblastoma cells settled along the fibrilles in cocultures of glial and
neuronal cell lines during aluminum exposure. The study emphasized the
toxicity of methylmercury to neural cells and showed that aluminum alters
various cellular activities.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15150681

“Mercury and aluminum
are considered to be neurotoxic metals,
and they are often connected with the
onset of neurodegenerative diseases.
The study emphasized the toxicity of
methylmercury to neural cells and
showed that aluminum alters various
cellular activities.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • September 2005

Nanomolar aluminum induces
pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic gene expression
in human brain cells in primary culture
Author information
Lukiw WJ1, Percy ME, Kruck TP.
Neuroscience Center of Excellence and Department of Ophthalmology
Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center
2020 Gravier Street, Suite 8B8, New Orleans, LA 70112-2272, USA
wlukiw@lsuhsc.edu
Abstract
Aluminum, the most abundant neurotoxic metal in our biosphere, has been implicated in the etiology of several neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer’s
disease (AD). To further understand aluminum’s influence on gene expression, we
examined total messenger RNA levels in untransformed human neural cells exposed
to 100 nanomolar aluminum sulfate using high density DNA microarrays that interrogate the expression of every human gene. Preliminary data indicate that of the
most altered gene expression levels, 17/24 (70.8%) of aluminum-affected genes,
and 7/8 (87.5%) of aluminum-induced genes exhibit expression patterns similar to
those observed in AD. The seven genes found to be significantly up-regulated by
aluminum encode pro-inflammatory or pro-apoptotic signaling elements, including NF-kappaB subunits, interleukin-1beta precursor, cytosolic phospholipase A2,
cyclooxygenase-2, beta-amyloid precursor protein and DAXX, a regulatory protein
known to induce apoptosis and repress transcription. The promoters of genes upregulated by aluminum are enriched in binding sites for the stress-inducible transcription factors HIF-1 and NF-kappaB, suggesting a role for aluminum, HIF-1 and
NF-kappaB in driving atypical, pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic gene expression. The effect of aluminum on specific stress-related gene expression patterns in
human brain cells clearly warrant further investigation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15961160

“The effect of aluminum on
specific stress-related gene
expression patterns in human
brain cells clearly warrant
further investigation.”

Journal Of Alzheimers Disease • November 2005

Synergistic effects
of iron and aluminum
on stress-related gene expression
in primary human neural cells
Author information
Alexandrov PN1, Zhao Y, Pogue AI,
Tarr MA, Kruck TP, Percy ME, Cui JG, Lukiw WJ.
Russian Academy of Medical Sciences
Moscow 113152, Russia
Abstract
Disturbances in metal-ion transport, homeostasis, overload and metal ion-mediated catalysis are implicated in neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The mechanisms of metal-ion induced disruption of genetic
function, termed genotoxicity, are not well understood. In these experiments
we examined the effects of non-apoptotic concentrations of magnesium-, ironand aluminum-sulfate on gene expression patterns in untransformed human
neural (HN) cells in primary culture using high density DNA array profiling
and Western immunoassay. Two week old HN cells were exposed to low micromolar magnesium, iron, or aluminum for 7 days, representing trace metal
exposure over one-third of their lifespan. While total RNA yield and abundance
were not significantly altered, both iron and aluminum were found to induce
HSP27, COX-2, betaAPP and DAXX gene expression. Similarly up-regulated
gene expression for these stress-sensing, pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic
elements have been observed in AD brain. The combination of iron and aluminum together was found to be particularly effective in up-regulating these
genes, and was preceded by the evolution of reactive oxygen intermediates as
measured by 2’,7’-dichlorofluorescein diacetate assay. These data indicate that
physiologically relevant amounts of iron and aluminum are capable of inducing Fenton chemistry-triggered gene expression programs that may support
downstream pathogenic responses and brain cell dysfunction.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16308480

“These data indicate that
physiologically relevant amounts of iron and aluminum
are capable of inducing Fenton chemistry-triggered gene
expression programs that may support downstream
pathogenic responses and brain cell dysfunction.”

Food Additives And Contaminants • March 2005

Aluminium content of some foods
and food products in the USA,
with aluminium food additives
Author information
Saiyed SM1, Yokel RA.
College of Pharmacy
University of Kentucky Medical Center
Lexington, KY, USA
Abstract
The primary objective was to determine the aluminium (Al) content of selected foods
and food products in the USA which contain Al as an approved food additive. Intake
of Al from the labeled serving size of each food product was calculated. The samples
were acid or base digested and analysed for Al using electrothermal atomic absorption
spectrometry. Quality control (QC) samples, with matrices matching the samples, were
generated and used to verify the Al determinations. Food product Al content ranged
from <1-27,000 mg kg(-1). Cheese in a serving of frozen pizzas had up to 14 mg of
Al, from basic sodium aluminium phosphate; whereas the same amount of cheese in a
ready-to-eat restaurant pizza provided 0.03-0.09 mg. Many single serving packets of
non-dairy creamer had approximately 50-600 mg Al kg(-1) as sodium aluminosilicate,
providing up to 1.5 mg Al per serving. Many single serving packets of salt also had sodium aluminosilicate as an additive, but the Al content was less than in single-serving
non-dairy creamer packets. Acidic sodium aluminium phosphate was present in many
food products, pancakes and waffles. Baking powder, some pancake/waffle mixes and
frozen products, and ready-to-eat pancakes provided the most Al of the foods tested;
up to 180 mg/serving. Many products provide a significant amount of Al compared to
the typical intake of 3-12 mg/day reported from dietary Al studies conducted in many
countries.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16019791

“The primary objective
was to determine the aluminium (Al) content
of selected foods and food products in the USA
which contain Al as an approved food additive.
Intake of Al from the labeled serving size of
each food product was calculated.”

“Aluminum has been associated with several neurodegenerative diseases,
such as dialysis encephalopathy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinsonism dementia
in the Kii peninsula and Guam, and in particular, Alzheimer’s disease.”
Journal Of Alzheimers Disease • November 2005

Effects of aluminum on the nervous system
and its possible link with neurodegenerative diseases
Author information
Kawahara M.
Department of Analytical Chemistry
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Kyushu University of Health and Welfare
Nobeoka-city, Miyazaki, 882-8508, Japan
Abstract
Aluminum is environmentally abundant, but not an essential element. Aluminum has been associated with several
neurodegenerative diseases, such as dialysis encephalopathy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinsonism dementia in the Kii peninsula and Guam, and in particular, Alzheimer’s disease. Although this association remains
controversial, there is increasing evidence which suggests the implication of metal homeostasis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Aluminum, zinc, copper, and iron cause the conformational changes of Alzheimer’s
amyloid-beta protein. Al causes the accumulation of tau protein and amyloid-beta protein in experimental animals.
Aluminum induces neuronal apoptosis in vivo as well as in vitro. Furthermore, a relationship between aluminum
and the iron-homeostasis or calcium-homeostasis has been suggested. Based on these findings, the characteristics
of aluminum neurotoxicity are reviewed, and the potential link between aluminum and neurodegenerative diseases is reconsidered.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16308486

Immunology Letters • January 2006

(How) do aluminium adjuvants work?
Author information
Brewer JM.
Division of Immunology
Infection and Inflammation
University of Glasgow, Western Infirmary
Glasgow G11 6NT, UK
j.m.brewer@clinmed.gla.ac.uk
Abstract
The aluminium compounds, originally identified as adjuvants over 70
years ago, remain unique in their widespread application to human
vaccines. Given this history, it is surprising that the physicochemical
interactions between aluminium compounds and antigens are relatively poorly understood. This has clearly been a contributing factor
to vaccine failures, for example, through inappropriate selection of
aluminium species or buffers. Similarly, the mechanism(s) of action
of aluminium adjuvants are relatively unstudied, although it appears
that these agents fail to fit within the current principles underlying
activation of the immune response. This review aims to examine recent developments in our understanding of the physicochemical and
biological aspects of research into aluminium adjuvants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16188325?dopt=Abstract

“The aluminium compounds,
originally identified as adjuvants over 70 years ago,
remain unique in their widespread application to
human vaccines. Given this history, it is surprising
that the physicochemical interactions between
aluminium compounds and antigens are
relatively poorly understood.”

Neuromuscular Disorders • May 2006

AlOH3-adjuvanted vaccine-induced
macrophagic myofasciitis in rats
is influenced by the genetic background
Author information
Authier FJ1, Sauvat S, Christov C, Chariot P,
Raisbeck G, Poron MF, Yiou F, Gherardi R.
Centre de Référence Pour Maladies Neuromusculaires
CHU Henri Mondor, AP-HP, Créteil, France
francois-jerome.authier@hmn.aphp.fr
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is a specific histopathologic lesion involved in the persistence for years of aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)(3)]
at the site of previous intramuscular (i.m.) injection. In order to study
mechanisms involved persistence of MMF lesions, we set up an experimental model of MMF-lesion in Sprague-Dawley and Lewis rat, by i.m.
injections of 10 microL of an Al(OH)(3)-adjuvanted vaccine. An evaluation carried out over a 12-month period disclosed significant shrinkage
of MMF lesions with time. A radioisotopic study did not show significant
aluminium uptake by Al(OH)(3)-loaded macrophages. A morphometric
approach showed that Lewis rats with Th1-biased immunity had significantly smaller lesions than Sprague-Dawley rats with balanced Th1/Th2
immunity. Concluding, our results indicate that genetic determinatives of
cytotoxic T-cell responses could interfere with the clearance process and
condition the persistence of vaccine-induced MMF-lesions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16616846

“Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is ... involved in the
persistence for years of aluminum hydroxide at the site
of previous intramuscular injection. Concluding, our results
indicate that genetic determinatives of cytotoxic T-cell responses
could interfere with the clearance process and condition
the persistence of vaccine-induced MMF-lesions.”

Journal Of Alzheimers Disease • November 2006

Blood-brain barrier flux of
aluminum, manganese, iron and other metals
suspected to contribute to
metal-induced
neurodegeneration
Author information
Yokel RA.
College of Pharmacy and Graduate Center for Toxicology
University of Kentucky Medical Center
Lexington, KY 40536-0082, USA
ryokel@email.uky.edu
Abstract
The etiology of many neurodegenerative diseases has been only partly attributed to acquired
traits, suggesting environmental factors may also contribute. Metal dyshomeostasis causes
or has been implicated in many neurodegenerative diseases. Metal flux across the bloodbrain barrier (the primary route of brain metal uptake) and the choroid plexuses as well as
sensory nerve metal uptake from the nasal cavity are reviewed. Transporters that have been
described at the blood-brain barrier are listed to illustrate the extensive possibilities for moving substances into and out of the brain. The controversial role of aluminum in Alzheimer’s
disease, evidence suggesting brain aluminum uptake by transferrin-receptor mediated endocytosis and of aluminum citrate by system Xc;{-} and an organic anion transporter, and
results suggesting transporter-mediated aluminum brain efflux are reviewed. The ability of
manganese to produce a parkinsonism-like syndrome, evidence suggesting manganese uptake by transferrin- and non-transferrin-dependent mechanisms which may include storeoperated calcium channels, and the lack of transporter-mediated manganese brain efflux, are
discussed. The evidence for transferrin-dependent and independent mechanisms of brain iron
uptake is presented. The copper transporters, ATP7A and ATP7B, and their roles in Menkes
and Wilson’s diseases, are summarized. Brain zinc uptake is facilitated by L- and D-histidine, but a transporter, if involved, has not been identified. Brain lead uptake may involve a
non-energy-dependent process, store-operated calcium channels, and/or an ATP-dependent
calcium pump. Methyl mercury can form a complex with L-cysteine that mimics methionine,
enabling its transport by the L system. The putative roles of zinc transporters, ZnT and Zip, in
regulating brain zinc are discussed. Although brain uptake mechanisms for some metals have
been identified, metal efflux from the brain has received little attention, preventing integration of all processes that contribute to brain metal concentrations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17119290

“Although brain uptake mechanisms
for some metals have been identified,
metal efflux from the brain has received
little attention, preventing integration
of all processes that contribute to brain
metal concentrations.”

Archives Of Toxicology • January 2007

The effects of low dose aluminum
on hemorheological and hematological
parameters in rats
Author information
Turgut S1, Bor-Kucukatay M,
Emmungil G, Atsak P, Turgut G.
Department of Physiology
Medical Faculty, Pamukkale University
20020 Denizli, Turkey
sturgut@pamukkale.edu.tr
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) is a nonessential element and humans are constantly
exposed to Al as a result of an increase in industrialization and improving technology practices. Al toxicity can induce several clinical disorders such as neurotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, hepatotoxicity,
bone diseases, and anemia. This study aimed at evaluating the possible
effects of short term and low dose Al exposure on hemorheological and
hematological parameters in rats. Fourteen young, male Wistar albino
rats were divided into two groups: 1 mg/200 g body weight of aluminum sulfate (Al(2)(SO(4))(3) was injected intraperitoneally to the first
group for two weeks, three times a week. The animals of the control
group received only physiological saline solution during this period.
At the end of the experimental period, anticoagulated blood samples
were collected and hematological parameters were determined using
an electronic hematology analyzer. Red blood cell (RBC) deformability and aggregation were measured using an ektacytometer (LORCA)
and plasma and whole blood viscosities were determined with a WellsBrookfield cone-plate rotational viscometer. Significant decreases in
mean corpuscular volume (MCV), red blood cell (RBC) deformability
at low shear stress levels, the aggregation half time (t1/2) and the amplitude (AMP) of aggregation and significant increments in whole blood
viscosity (WBV) at native and 40% hematocrit (Hct) of Al-treated rats
have been observed. In conclusion, low dose Al(2)(SO(4))(3) exposure
for a short-time may be responsible for alterations in either rheological
properties of blood or hemorheological properties through a remarkable effect on RBC membrane mechanical properties. These alterations
may also play an important role in the development of anemia in the
Al-treated animals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16721596

“In conclusion, low dose Aluminum exposure for a short-time
may be responsible for alterations in either rheological properties of
blood or hemorheological properties through a remarkable effect on
RBC membrane mechanical properties. ”

“It is hypothesized, in the present review, that Aluminum is a potential factor
for induction or maintaining the inflammation in Crohn’s Disease ...”
Annals Of The New York Academy Of Science • June 2007

Aluminum is a potential environmental factor
for Crohn’s disease induction: extended hypothesis
Author information
Lerner A.
Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit
Carmel Medical Center, Pappaport School of Medicine
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
lerner_aaron@clalit.org.il
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) is a common environmental compound with immune-adjuvant activity and granulomatous inflammation inducer. Al exposure in food, additives, air, pharmaceuticals, and water pollution is ubiquitous in
Western culture. Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic relapsing intestinal inflammation in genetically susceptible individuals and is influenced by yet unidentified environmental factors. It is hypothesized, in the present review, that
Al is a potential factor for induction or maintaining the inflammation in CD. Epidemiologically, CD incidence is
higher in urban areas, where microparticle pollution is prevalent. Al immune activities share many characteristics
with the immune pathology of CD: increased antigen presentation and APCs activation, many luminal bacterial
or dietary compounds can be adsorbed to the metal and induce Th1 profile activity, promotion of humoral and
cellular immune responses, proinflammatory, apoptotic, oxidative activity, and stress-related molecule expression
enhancement, affecting intestinal bacterial composition and virulence, granuloma formation, colitis induction in
an animal model of CD, and terminal ileum uptake. The Al-bacterial interaction, the microparticles homing the
intestine together with the extensive immune activity, put Al as a potential environmental candidate for CD induction and maintenance.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17804561

Human Vaccines • July 2007

Effect of alternative aluminum adjuvants
on the absorption and immunogenicity
of HPV16 L1 VLPs in mice
Author information
Caulfield MJ1, Shi L, Wang S, Wang B,
Tobery TW, Mach H, Ahl PL, Cannon JL,
Cook JC, Heinrichs JH, Sitrin RD.
Vaccine & Biologics Research
Merck Research Laboratories
West Point, Pennsylvania USA
michael_caufield@merck.com
Abstract
Aluminum adjuvants are commonly used in prophylactic vaccines to enhance antigen immunogenicity through induction of high-titer antibody
responses. Three major forms of aluminum adjuvants with substantially
different physical and chemical properties have been described: aluminum phosphate (AlPO(4)), aluminum hydroxide (AlOH) and amorphous
aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate (AAHS). Here we describe the effect
of these different aluminum adjuvants on the formulation and subsequent
immunogenicity in mice of virus-like particles (VLPs) consisting of the
L1 protein of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Type 16. Electron microscopy demonstrated that the physical appearance of the phosphate-containing aluminum adjuvants was markedly different from that of aluminum
hydroxide. All three aluminum adjuvants were found to display unique
surface charge profiles over a range of pH, while AAHS demonstrated
the greatest inherent capacity for adsorption of L1 VLPs. These differences were associated with differences in immunogenicity: anti-HPV L1
VLP responses from mice immunized with AAHS-formulated HPV16
vaccine were substantially greater than those produced by mice immunized with the same antigen formulated with aluminum hydroxide. In
addition, HPV L1 VLPs formulated on AAHS also induced a substantial
interferon-gamma secreting T cell response to L1 peptides indicating the
potential for an enhanced memory response to this antigen. These results
indicate that the chemical composition of aluminum adjuvants can have a
profound influence on the magnitude and quality of the immune response
to HPV VLP vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581283

“These results indicate
that the chemical composition of aluminum
adjuvants can have a profound influence on the
magnitude and quality of the immune
response to HPV VLP vaccines.”

Free Radical Biology & Medicine • October 2007

Aluminum:
a potential pro-oxidant in sunscreens/sunblocks?
Nicholson S, Exley C.
Scientists at Keele University in Staffordshire have questioned
the safety of aluminium added to sunscreens and sunblocks
The researchers, Scott Nicholson, BSc, and Dr Christopher Exley, PhD, Birchall Centre for Inorganic Chemistry
and Materials Science at Keele, measured the aluminium content of sunscreens/sunblocks, which either include
or do not include an aluminium salt (for example, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide, aluminium silicate,
aluminium stearate, aluminium starch octenylsuccinate) as an ingredient.
Aluminium was present in all seven products tested and its content was of particular significance in three products,
each of which listed it as an ingredient. Following numerous enquiries the manufacturers were not forthcoming as
to the role of aluminium in their product, except one manufacturer, who confirmed that aluminium hydroxide was
added to their product to coat the surface and thereby prevent the agglomeration of another ingredient, titanium
dioxide particles.
World Health Organisation guidelines recommend a single application of at least 35mL of a sunscreen/sunblock
to achieve the stated sun protection factor. For three of the sunscreens/sunblocks investigated a single application
of product would result in 200 mg of aluminium being applied to the skin surface. In addition, WHO guidelines
suggest re-application of product every two hours which, for example, for an average day on the beach, would
result in up to 1g of aluminium being applied to the skin surface.
Skin is permeable to aluminium salts when, for example, they are topically applied as antiperspirant formulations.
It will accumulate in the skin and be transported to sites throughout the body. It is highly likely that the everyday
use of sunscreens/sunblocks is an hitherto unrecognised contributor of aluminium to the human body burden of
this non-essential metal. Perhaps of immediate significance is the potential for aluminium in the skin to act as a
pro-oxidant.
Recent research in the journal Free Radical Biology and Medicine has shown that UV filters in sunscreens promote the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the nucleated epidermis of the skin. The authors speculate
upon the role which might be played by anti-oxidants, either already in the skin or included in sunscreen formulations, in counteracting the pro-oxidant activities of UV filters though they did not consider how the presence of
additional pro-oxidants might exacerbate such effects.
Aluminium is one such pro-oxidant and could significantly increase the potential for oxidative damage in the skin.
While the relationship between the burgeoning use of sunscreens/sunblocks and the increased incidence of skin
cancers and, in particular, melanoma, is highly controversial it has not hitherto been considered that aluminium in
these products could be an extremely significant contributing factor. Of course, aluminium is already in the skin
surface and may not need to be a component of sunscreens/sunblocks to exacerbate oxidative damage attributed
to the application of such products.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17854717

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • October 2007

A systems biology approach
to the blood-aluminium problem:
the application and testing of a computational model
Author information
Beardmore J1, Rugg G, Exley C.
Birchall Centre for Inorganic Chemistry and Materials Science
Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University
Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
Abstract
Transport and distribution of systemic aluminium are influenced by its interaction with blood. Current understanding is centred upon the role played by the iron transport protein transferrin which has been shown to bind up to
90% of serum total aluminium. We have coined what we have called the blood-aluminium problem which states
that the proportion of serum aluminium which, at any one moment in time, is bound by transferrin is more heavily
influenced by kinetic constraints than thermodynamic equilibria with the result that the role played by transferrin in the transport and distribution of aluminium is likely to have been over estimated. To begin to solve the
blood-aluminium problem and therewith provide a numerical solution to the aforementioned kinetic constraints
we have applied and tested a simple computational model of the time-dependency of a putative transferrin ligand
(L) binding aluminium to form an Al-L complex with a probability of existence, K(E), between 0% (no complex)
and 100% (complex will not dissociate). The model is based upon the principles of a lattice-gas automaton which
when ran for K(E) in the range 0.1-98.0% demonstrated the emergence of complex behaviour which could be
defined in the terms of a set of parameters (equilibrium value, E(V), equilibrium time, E(T), peak value, P(V),
peak time, P(T), area under curve, AUC) the values of which varied in a predictable way with K(E). When K(E)
was set to 98% the model predicted that ca. 90% of the total aluminium would be bound by transferrin within ca.
350 simulation timesteps. We have used a systems biology approach to develop a simple model of the time-dependency of the binding of aluminium by transferrin. To use this approach to begin to solve the blood-aluminium
problem we shall need to increase the complexity of the model to better reflect the heterogeneity of a biological
system such as the blood.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17629565

“Aluminum is a metal with known neurotoxic properties
which are linked to encephalopathy and neurodegenerative diseases.”
Neurotoxicology • November 2007

Occupational aluminum exposure:
evidence in support of its neurobehavioral impact
Author information
Meyer-Baron M1, Schäper M, Knapp G, van Thriel C.
Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors
Ardeystr. 67, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
meyerbaron@ifado.de
Abstract
Aluminum is a metal with known neurotoxic properties which are linked to encephalopathy and neurodegenerative diseases. The objectives of the current meta-analysis study were: (1) to summarize neurobehavioral data
obtained by epidemiological studies in occupational settings and (2) to analyze confounding within these data.
The meta-analysis was based on estimates of effect sizes. Overall effect sizes were obtained by application of a
random effects model. The final sample consisted of nine studies examining 449 exposed and 315 control subjects. The mean urinary aluminum concentrations in the exposed groups ranged from 13 to 133 microg/l. Six neuropsychological tests, which yielded 10 performance variables, were analyzed. Nine overall effect sizes indicated
an inferior performance for the exposed group. A significant overall effect size (d(RE)=-0.43) was obtained for
the digit symbol test measuring speed-related components of cognitive and motor performance. Moreover, the
individual effect sizes obtained for this test suggested an exposure-response relationship. Results obtained from
either raw or adjusted mean scores revealed that confounding in the data could not be excluded. The results were
compared to studies not included here due to a shortage of required data. Similarities were discussed in terms of
sensitivity of the tests for detecting aluminum-related changes in brain function. There was concurring evidence
from different studies that urinary Al concentrations below 135 microg/l have an impact on cognitive performance. The significant effect for the digit symbol might be related to its multifaceted character which requires
functioning in different components of cognitive and motor performance. This feature could possibly turn the test
into a screening instrument for neurobehavioral effects. However, additional studies are necessary to verify and to
differentiate the effect of aluminum on cognitive performance. From a neuropsychological perspective, implicit
and explicit memory, visuo-spatial and central odor processing should be examined. A measure of verbal intelligence should be included in order to address the influence of confounding. Internationally standardized exposure
measures would enhance the comparability of studies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17692380

Neuromolecular Medicine • 2007

Aluminum adjuvant
linked to Gulf War illness
induces motor neuron death in mice
Author information
Petrik MS1, Wong MC,
Tabata RC, Garry RF, Shaw CA.
Department of Ophthalmology and Program in Neuroscience
University of British Columbia, Vancouver
British Columbia, Canada
mspetrik@interchange.ubc.ca
Abstract
Gulf War illness (GWI) affects a significant percentage of veterans of the 1991
conflict, but its origin remains unknown. Associated with some cases of GWI
are increased incidences of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurological disorders. Whereas many environmental factors have been linked to GWI,
the role of the anthrax vaccine has come under increasing scrutiny. Among the
vaccine’s potentially toxic components are the adjuvants aluminum hydroxide
and squalene. To examine whether these compounds might contribute to neuronal deficits associated with GWI, an animal model for examining the potential
neurological impact of aluminum hydroxide, squalene, or aluminum hydroxide
combined with squalene was developed. Young, male colony CD-1 mice were
injected with the adjuvants at doses equivalent to those given to US military
service personnel. All mice were subjected to a battery of motor and cognitivebehavioral tests over a 6-mo period postinjections. Following sacrifice, central
nervous system tissues were examined using immunohistochemistry for evidence of inflammation and cell death. Behavioral testing showed motor deficits
in the aluminum treatment group that expressed as a progressive decrease in
strength measured by the wire-mesh hang test (final deficit at 24 wk; about
50%). Significant cognitive deficits in water-maze learning were observed in
the combined aluminum and squalene group (4.3 errors per trial) compared
with the controls (0.2 errors per trial) after 20 wk. Apoptotic neurons were
identified in aluminum-injected animals that showed significantly increased
activated caspase-3 labeling in lumbar spinal cord (255%) and primary motor cortex (192%) compared with the controls. Aluminum-treated groups also
showed significant motor neuron loss (35%) and increased numbers of astrocytes (350%) in the lumbar spinal cord. The findings suggest a possible role for
the aluminum adjuvant in some neurological features associated with GWI and
possibly an additional role for the combination of adjuvants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17114826

“Among the vaccine’s potentially
toxic components are the adjuvants aluminum hydroxide
and squalene. The findings suggest a possible role for the
aluminum adjuvant in some neurological features
associated with Gulf War Illness and possibly an
additional role for the combination of adjuvants.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part B Critical Reviews • 2007

Human Health Risk Assessment For
Aluminum, Aluminum Oxide, And Aluminum Hydroxide
Author Information
Daniel Krewski,1,2 Robert A Yokel,3 Evert Nieboer,4
David Borchelt,5 Joshua Cohen,6 Jean Harry,7 Sam Kacew,2,8 Joan Lindsay,9
Amal M Mahfouz,10 and Virginie Rondeau11
1. Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
2. McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, Institute of Population Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
3. College of Pharmacy and Graduate Center for Toxicology, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Kentucky, USA
4. Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada and Institute of Community Medicine, University of Tromsø, Norway
5. SantaFe Health Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Department of Neuroscience, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, USA
6. Institute for Clinical Research and Health Policy Studies, Tufts-New England Medical Center, USA
7. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
8. Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
9. Aging-Related Diseases Section, Surveillance Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
10. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, USA
11. INSERM E0338 (Biostatistic), Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France

Corresponding Author: Daniel Krewski
Professor and Director, McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment
University of Ottawa, Room 320, One Stewart Street, Ottawa, Ontario
Tel: 613-562-5381, Fax: 613-562-5380
Findings
“This report classified the weight of evidence for each exposure pathway and health effect as strong, modest,
limited, or having no clear evidence (see Table 25). We concluded that there is strong evidence that aluminum can cause irritation following exposure via either inhalation or injection. Modest evidence of an effect
exists for reproductive toxicity following oral exposure, for neurological toxicity following either oral or
injection exposure, and for bone toxicity following injection exposure.”
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782734/

“Modest evidence
of an effect exists for
reproductive toxicity following oral exposure,
for neurological toxicity following either oral or
injection exposure, and for bone toxicity
following injection exposure.”

Journal Of Experimental Medicine • April 2008

Alum adjuvant
boosts adaptive immunity
by inducing uric acid and activating
inflammatory dendritic cells
Kool M1, Soullié T, van Nimwegen M,
Willart MA, Muskens F, Jung S, Hoogsteden HC,
Hammad H, Lambrecht BN.
Department of Pulmonary Medicine
Erasmus University Medical Centre
3015 GD Rotterdam, Netherlands
Abstract
Alum (aluminum hydroxide) is the most widely used adjuvant in human
vaccines, but the mechanism of its adjuvanticity remains unknown. In
vitro studies showed no stimulatory effects on dendritic cells (DCs). In
the absence of adjuvant, Ag was taken up by lymph node (LN)-resident
DCs that acquired soluble Ag via afferent lymphatics, whereas after injection of alum, Ag was taken up, processed, and presented by inflammatory monocytes that migrated from the peritoneum, thus becoming
inflammatory DCs that induced a persistent Th2 response. The enhancing
effects of alum on both cellular and humoral immunity were completely
abolished when CD11c(+) monocytes and DCs were conditionally depleted during immunization. Mechanistically, DC-driven responses were
abolished in MyD88-deficient mice and after uricase treatment, implying
the induction of uric acid. These findings suggest that alum adjuvant is
immunogenic by exploiting “nature’s adjuvant,” the inflammatory DC
through induction of the endogenous danger signal uric acid.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18362170

“Alum (aluminum hydroxide)
is the most widely used adjuvant
in human vaccines, but the mechanism
of its adjuvanticity remains unknown.”

Annales de Pathologie • April 2008

Late-onset
vaccination-induced
subcutaneous pseudolymphoma
Author information
Croce S1, Lhermitte B, Tomasetto C,
Guillard O, Bellocq JP, Chenard MP.
Département de Pathologie
CHU de Strasbourg, hôpital de Hautepierre
1 avenue Molière, 67098 Strasbourg cedex, France
Abstract
Persistent subcutaneous nodules arise on rare occasions at sites
of injection of aluminium hydroxide-adsorbed vaccine. We report
a case following a diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis vaccination.
The late onset of the lesion, four years after the injection, led to
an uncertain preoperative diagnosis. Histopathologic examination
showed features of a subcutaneous pseudolymphoma. The demonstration of aluminium by Morin staining and atomic absorption
spectrometry on a paraffin-embedded tissue probe supported the
diagnosis of a vaccination-induced pseudolymphoma.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18675172

“The late onset of the lesion,
four years after the injection,
led to an uncertain preoperative diagnosis.”

Experimental Gerontology • April 2008

Effects of
aluminium sulphate in the mouse liver:
similarities to the aging process
Author information
Stacchiotti A1, Lavazza A,
Ferroni M, Sberveglieri G,
Bianchi R, Rezzani R, Rodella LF.
Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnologies
Brescia University, Brescia, Italy
stacchio@med.unibs.it
Abstract
Aluminium (Al) is a ubiquitous metal that is potentially toxic to the brain. Its effects on other fundamental organs are not completely understood. This morphological in vivo study sought to compare sublethal hepatotoxic changes and Al deposition in adult mice that orally ingested Al sulphate daily for 10 months, in age
matched control mice that drank tap water and in senescent mice (24 months old).
Livers were examined for collagen deposition using Sirius red and Masson, for
iron accumulation using Perls’ stain. Light, electron microscopy and morphometry were used to assess fibrosis and vascular changes. Scanning transmission
electron microscopy and EDX microanalysis were used to detect in situ elemental Al. Iron deposition, transferrin receptor expression were significantly altered
following Al exposure and in the aged liver but were unaffected in age matched
control mice. In Al treated mice as in senescent mice, endothelial thickness was
increased and porosity was decreased like perisinusoidal actin. Furthermore, Al
stimulated the deposition of collagen and laminin, mainly in acinar zones 1 and
3. Pseudocapillarization and periportal laminin in senescent mice were similar
to Al treated adult liver. In conclusion, prolonged Al sulphate intake accelerates
features of senescence in the adult mice liver.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18337038

“Aluminium (Al) is a ubiquitous metal
that is potentially toxic to the brain ... prolonged
Al sulphate intake accelerates features of
senescence in the adult mice liver.”

Actas Dermo-Sifiliograficas • April 2008

B-cell pseudolymphoma
caused by aluminium hydroxide
following hyposensitization therapy
Author information
Hernández I1, Sanmartín O,
Cardá C, Góme S, Alfaro A.
Servicio de Dermatología
Hospital General Básico de la Defensa de Valencia
España
Abstract
Aluminium hydroxide is used as an adjuvant in vaccines. We
describe the case of a patient who presented a persistent adverse
local reaction to aluminium hydroxide due to hyposensitization
therapy to dust mites. Multiple painful and pruriginous subcutaneous nodules were observed in both arms, along with hypertrichosis at the injection site. Histology revealed a pseudolymphomatous B cell reaction predominantly involving cells that were
CD20 positive, did not express bcl-2, and did not display the
t(14-18) translocation. The cells also exhibited polyclonal rearrangement of the immunoglobulin heavy chains. X-ray spectral
microanalysis revealed deposits of inorganic aluminium in the
granular histiocytes among the germinal centers. The patient
was diagnosed with cutaneous B-cell pseudolymphoma due to
aluminium hydroxide as a result of immunotherapy.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18358197

“The patient was diagnosed with
cutaneous B-cell pseudolymphoma
due to aluminium hydroxide ...”

Vaccine • May 2008

Alum boosts TH2-type antibody responses
to whole-inactivated virus influenza vaccine
in mice but does not confer superior protection
Author information
Bungener L1, Geeraedts F, Ter Veer W, Medema J, Wilschut J, Huckriede A.
Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section
University Medical Center Groningen and University of Groningen
Postbus 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands
Abstract
Clinical trials with pandemic influenza vaccine candidates have focused on aluminium hydroxide as an adjuvant to boost humoral immune responses. In this study we
investigated the effect of aluminium hydroxide on the magnitude and type of immune response induced by whole-inactivated virus (WIV) vaccine. Balb/c mice were
immunized once with a range of antigen doses (0.04-5 microg) of WIV produced
from A/PR/8 virus, either alone or in combination with aluminium hydroxide. The
hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers of mice receiving WIV+aluminium hydroxide
were 4-16-fold higher than HI titers in mice receiving the same dose of WIV alone,
indicating the boosting effect of aluminium hydroxide. WIV induced a TH1 skewed
humoral and cellular immune response, characterized by strong influenza-specific
IgG2a responses and a high number of IFNgamma-secreting T cells. In contrast, immunization with WIV adsorbed to aluminium hydroxide resulted in skewing of this
response to a TH2 phenotype (high IgG1 levels and a low number of IFNgammaproducing T cells). To assess the effect of the observed immune response skewing
on viral clearance from the lungs mice immunized once with 1 microg WIV without
or with aluminium hydroxide were challenged with A/PR/8 virus 4 weeks later. The
immunized mice showed a significant decrease in viral lung titers compared to control mice receiving buffer. However, despite higher antibody titers, mice immunized
with WIV adsorbed to aluminium hydroxide suffered from more severe weight loss
and had significantly higher virus loads in their lung tissue than mice receiving WIV
alone. Major difference between these groups of mice was the type of immune response induced, TH2 instead of TH1, indicating that a TH1 response plays a major
role in viral clearance.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18400340

“despite higher antibody titers,
mice immunized with whole-inactivated virus
adsorbed to aluminium hydroxide suffered from
more severe weight loss and had significantly higher
virus loads in their lung tissue than mice receiving
whole-inactivated virus alone.”

Food And Chemical Toxicology • June 2008

Aluminum bioavailability
from basic sodium aluminum phosphate,
an approved food additive emulsifying agent,
incorporated in cheese
Author information
Yokel RA1, Hicks CL, Florence RL.
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
College of Pharmacy
University of Kentucky Academic Medical Center
511C Pharmacy Building, 725 Rose Street
Lexington, KY 40536-0082, USA
ryokel@email.uky.edu
Abstract
Oral aluminum (Al) bioavailability from drinking water has been previously estimated, but there is little information on Al bioavailability from foods. It was suggested that oral Al bioavailability from drinking water is much greater than from
foods. The objective was to further test this hypothesis. Oral Al bioavailability
was determined in the rat from basic [26Al]-sodium aluminum phosphate (basic
SALP) in a process cheese. Consumption of approximately 1g cheese containing
1.5% or 3% basic SALP resulted in oral Al bioavailability (F) of approximately
0.1% and 0.3%, respectively, and time to maximum serum 26Al concentration
(Tmax) of 8-9h. These Al bioavailability results were intermediate to previously
reported results from drinking water (F approximately 0.3%) and acidic-SALP incorporated into a biscuit (F approximately 0.1%), using the same methods. Considering the similar oral bioavailability of Al from food vs. water, and their contribution to the typical human’s daily Al intake ( approximately 95% and 1.5%,
respectively), these results suggest food contributes much more Al to systemic
circulation, and potential Al body burden, than does drinking water. These results
do not support the hypothesis that drinking water provides a disproportionate
contribution to total Al absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18436363

“these results suggest
food contributes much more Al
to systemic circulation, and
potential Al body burden,
than does drinking water.”

Journal Of Child Neurology • June 2008

Macrophagic myofasciitis in children
is a localized reaction to vaccination
Author information
Lach B1, Cupler EJ.
Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
boleklach2@hotmail.com
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis is a novel, “inflammatory myopathy” described
after a variety of vaccinations, almost exclusively in adults. We examined
the relevance of histological findings of this myopathy to the clinical presentation in pediatric patients. Muscle biopsies from 8 children (7 months
to 6 years old) with histological features of macrophagic myofasciitis were
reviewed and correlated with the clinical manifestations. Patients underwent quadriceps muscle biopsy for suspected mitochondrial disease (4
patients), spinal muscular atrophy (2 patients), myoglobinuria (1 patient),
and hypotonia with motor delay (1 patient). All biopsies showed identical
granulomas composed of periodic acid-Schiff-positive and CD68-positive
macrophages. Characteristic aluminum hydroxide crystals were identified
by electron microscopy in 2 cases. The biopsy established diagnoses other
than macrophagic myofasciitis in 5 patients: spinal muscular atrophy (2),
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (1), phospho-glycerate kinase deficiency
(1), and cytochrome c oxidase deficiency (1). Three children with manifestations and/or a family history of mitochondrial disease had otherwise
morphologically normal muscle. All children had routine vaccinations between 2 months and 1 year before the biopsy, with up to 11 intramuscular
injections, including the biopsy sites. There was no correlation between
histological findings of macrophagic myofasciitis in biopsies and the clinical symptoms. We believe that macrophagic myofasciitis represents a localized histological hallmark of previous immunization with the aluminum
hydroxide adjuvants contained in vaccines, rather than a primary or distinct
inflammatory muscle disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18281624

“We believe
that macrophagic myofasciitis
represents a localized histological
hallmark of previous immunization
with the aluminum hydroxide adjuvants
contained in vaccines, rather than a primary
or distinct inflammatory muscle disease.”

Brain Research • September 2008

Impairment of mitochondrial energy metabolism
in different regions of rat brain following
chronic exposure to aluminium
Author information
Kumar V1, Bal A, Gill KD.
Department of Biochemistry
Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research
Chandigarh, 160 012, India
Abstract
The present study was designed with an aim to evaluate the effects of chronic aluminium exposure (10 mg/kg b.wt, intragastrically for 12 weeks) on mitochondrial
energy metabolism in different regions of rat brain in vivo. Mitochondrial preparations from aluminium treated rats revealed significant decrease in the activity of
various electron transport complexes viz. cytochrome oxidase, NADH cytochrome
c reductase and succinic dehydrogenase as well, in the hippocampus region. The
decrease in the activity of these respiratory complexes was also seen in the other
two regions viz. corpus striatum and cerebral cortex, but to a lesser extent. This
decrease in the activities of electron transport complexes in turn affected the ATP
synthesis and ATP levels adversely in the mitochondria isolated from aluminium
treated rat brain regions. We also studied the spectral properties of the mitochondrial cytochromes viz. cyt a, cyt b, cyt c1, and cyt c in both control and treated
rat brains. The various cytochrome levels were found to be decreased following
12 weeks of aluminium exposure. Further, these impairments in mitochondrial
functions may also be responsible for the production of reactive oxygen species
and impaired antioxidant defense system as observed in our study. The electron
micrographs of neuronal cells depicted morphological changes in mitochondria as
well as nucleus only from hippocampus and corpus striatum regions following 12
weeks exposure to aluminium. The present study thus highlights the significance
of altered mitochondrial energy metabolism and increased ROS production as a
result of chronic aluminium exposure in different regions of the rat brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18691561

“The present study
thus highlights the significance
of altered mitochondrial energy metabolism
and increased ROS production as a result of
chronic aluminium exposure in different
regions of the rat brain.”

“Select human population can be at risk of Aluminum neurotoxicity,
and Aluminum is proposed to be involved in the etiology of neurodegenerative diseases.”
Archives Of Toxicology • November 2008

Aluminium and lead:
molecular mechanisms of brain toxicity
Author information
Verstraeten SV1, Aimo L, Oteiza PI.
Department of Biological Chemistry, IIMHNO (UBA) and IQUIFIB (UBA-CONICET)
School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Abstract
The fact that aluminium (Al) and lead (Pb) are both toxic metals to living organisms, including human beings,
was discovered a long time ago. Even when Al and Pb can reach and accumulate in almost every organ in the human body, the central nervous system is a particular target of the deleterious effects of both metals. Select human
population can be at risk of Al neurotoxicity, and Al is proposed to be involved in the etiology of neurodegenerative diseases. Pb is a widespread environmental hazard, and the neurotoxic effects of Pb are a major public health
concern. In spite of the numerous efforts and the accumulating evidence in this area of research, the mechanisms
of Al and Pb neurotoxicity are still not completely elucidated. This review will particularly address the involvement of oxidative stress, membrane biophysics alterations, deregulation of cell signaling, and the impairment of
neurotransmission as key aspects involved Al and Pb neurotoxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18668223

“Aluminium has been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases
but exact mechanism of action is still not known.”
Toxicology • January 2009

Susceptibility of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase
to aluminium induced oxidative damage
Author information
Kumar V1, Bal A, Gill KD.
Department of Biochemistry
Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research
Chandigarh 160012, India
Abstract
Aluminium has been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases but exact mechanism of action is still not
known. Mitochondria being a major site of reactive oxygen species production are considered to be target of
oxidative stress and it seems that the oxidative damage to mitochondrial proteins may underlie the pathogenesis
of aluminium induced neurodegeneration. Thus, the present study was undertaken to reveal the effects of chronic
aluminium exposure (10mg/kg b.wt, intragastrically for 12 weeks) on the oxidative damage to mitochondrial
proteins in male albino Wistar rats. Chronic aluminium exposure resulted in decrease in the activity of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and aconitase in different regions of rat brain suggesting increased oxidative stress. This decrease in MnSOD activity in turn might be responsible for the increased protein oxidation as
observed in our study. All these processes taken together may cause increased oxidative damage to mitochondrial
proteins in general. By taking the advantage of recent immunochemical probe for oxidatively modified proteins,
we identified MnSOD to be susceptible to oxidative damage in aluminium treated animals. The quantitative RTPCR analysis for Lon protease, a protease involved in the removal of oxidatively modified proteins from mitochondria, showed decreased mRNA expression suggesting increased oxidative damage and decreased removal
of mitochondrial proteins. The identification of specific proteins as targets of oxidative damage may provide new
therapeutic measures to reverse the effects of aluminium induced neurodegeneration.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19010380

Medical Hypotheses • February 2009

A role for the body burden of aluminium
in vaccine-associated macrophagic myofasciitis
and chronic fatigue syndrome
Author information
Exley C1, Swarbrick L, Gherardi RK, Authier FJ.
Birchall Centre for Inorganic Chemistry and Materials Science
Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
c.exley@chem.keele.ac.uk
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis and chronic fatigue syndrome are severely disabling conditions which may be caused by adverse reactions to aluminiumcontaining adjuvants in vaccines. While a little is known of disease aetiology both conditions are characterised by an aberrant immune response, have
a number of prominent symptoms in common and are coincident in many
individuals. Herein, we have described a case of vaccine-associated chronic
fatigue syndrome and macrophagic myofasciitis in an individual demonstrating aluminium overload. This is the first report linking the latter with either
of these two conditions and the possibility is considered that the coincident
aluminium overload contributed significantly to the severity of these conditions in this individual. This case has highlighted potential dangers associated with aluminium-containing adjuvants and we have elucidated a possible
mechanism whereby vaccination involving aluminium-containing adjuvants
could trigger the cascade of immunological events which are associated with
autoimmune conditions including chronic fatigue syndrome and macrophagic
myofasciitis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19004564

“This case has highlighted
potential dangers associated with aluminium-containing adjuvants
and we have elucidated a possible mechanism whereby vaccination
involving aluminium-containing adjuvants could trigger the cascade
of immunological events which are associated with autoimmune conditions
including chronic fatigue syndrome and macrophagic myofasciitis.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • August 2009

Guest editorial
‘The natural history of aluminium:
from non-selection to natural selection’.
Author Information
Christopher Exley
Keele University
Birchall Centre for Inorchanic Chemistry and Materials Science
Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele
Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
Abstract
“Al accumulates in the body with age and particularly so when exposure is high and/or protective gastrointestinal mechanisms are bypassed or renal function is impaired (Kisters et al., 1999). Al toxicity in humans, even at low levels of exposure (Exley, 2009b), is a
well-established fact and the brain is a target organ for Al to exert
its deleterious effects (Exley et al., 1996; Exley, 1999; Yokel et al.,
1999). The molecular mechanisms of Al neurotoxicity are not completely understood: Al has been reported to alter the blood-brain barrier (Zatta et al., 2003) and is deposited in the human brain (Exley
and House, 2011). “

“Aluminum toxicity in humans,
even at low levels of exposure, is a
well-established fact and the brain
is a target organ for Aluminum to exert
its deleterious effects. The molecular
mechanisms of Al neurotoxicity are not
completely understood: Aluminum has
been reported to alter the blood-brain
barrier and is deposited in the human brain ...”

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26763878_Guest_editorial_%27The_natural_history_of_aluminium_from_non-selection_to_natural_selection%27

“... our findings indicate that fatty acids common in food
increase the paracellular intestinal absorption of Aluminum.”
Chemical-Biological Interactions • October 2009

Fatty acids increase paracellular absorption
of aluminium across Caco-2 cell monolayers
Author information
Aspenström-Fagerlund B1, Sundström B,
Tallkvist J, Ilbäck NG, Glynn AW.
Toxicology Division
National Food Administration
Uppsala, Sweden
bfas@slv.se
Abstract
Passive paracellular absorption, regulated by tight junctions (TJs), is the main route for absorption of poorly absorbed hydrophilic substances. Surface active substances, such as fatty acids, may enhance absorption of these
substances by affecting the integrity of TJ and increasing the permeability. It has been suggested that aluminium
(Al) absorption occurs mainly by the paracellular route. Herein, we investigated if physiologically relevant exposures of fully differentiated Caco-2 cell monolayers to oleic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are
fatty acids common in food, increase absorption of Al and the paracellular marker mannitol. In an Al toxicity test,
mannitol and Al absorption through Caco-2 cell monolayers were similarly modulated by Al concentrations between 1 and 30mM, suggesting that absorption of the two compounds occurred via the same pathways. Exposure
of Caco-2 cell monolayers to non-toxic concentrations of Al (2mM) and (14)C-mannitol in fatty acid emulsions
(15 and 30mM oleic acid, 5 and 10mM DHA) caused a decreased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER).
Concomitantly, fractional absorption of Al and mannitol, expressed as percentage of apical Al and mannitol retrieved at the basolateral side, increased with increasing dose of fatty acids. Transmission electron microscopy
was applied to assess the effect of oleic acid on the morphology of TJ. It was shown that oleic acid caused a less
structured morphology of TJ in Caco-2 cell monolayers. Taken together our findings indicate that fatty acids
common in food increase the paracellular intestinal absorption of Al. These findings may influence future risk assessment of human Al exposure.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19576870

Archives Of Toxicology • November 2009

Aluminium neurotoxicity:
neurobehavioural and oxidative aspects

“Aluminium is the most widely distributed

Author information

metal in the environment and is extensively

Kumar V1, Gill KD.

used in daily life that provides easy exposure

Abstract
Aluminium is the most widely distributed metal in the environment
and is extensively used in daily life that provides easy exposure to human beings. The exposure to this toxic metal occurs through air, food
and water. However, there is no known physiological role for aluminium within the body and hence this metal may produce adverse physiological effects. Chronic exposure of animals to aluminium is associated with behavioural, neuropathological and neurochemical changes.
Among them, deficits of learning and behavioural functions are most
evident. Some epidemiological studies have shown poor performance
in cognitive tests and a higher abundance of neurological symptoms
for workers occupationally exposed to aluminium. However, in contrast to well established neurotoxic effects, neurobehavioural studies
of aluminium in rodents have generally not produced consistent results. Current researches show that any impairment in mitochondrial
functions may play a major role in many human disorders including
neurodegenerative disorders. Being involved in the production of reactive oxygen species, aluminium may cause impairments in mitochondrial bioenergetics and may lead to the generation of oxidative stress
which may lead to a gradual accumulation of oxidatively modified
cellular proteins. In this review, the neuropathologies associated with
aluminium exposure in terms of neurobehavioural changes have been
discussed. In addition, the impact of aluminium on the mitochondrial
functions has also been highlighted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19568732

to human beings. The exposure to this toxic
metal occurs through air, food and water.
However, there is no known physiological role
for aluminium within the body and hence
this metal may produce adverse physiological
effects. Chronic exposure of animals to
aluminium is associated with behavioural,
neuropathological and neurochemical
changes. Among them, deficits of learning
and behavioural functions are most evident.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2009

Long-term persistence
of vaccine-derived aluminum hydroxide
is associated with chronic cognitive dysfunction
Author information
Couette M1, Boisse MF, Maison P, Brugieres P, Cesaro P,
Chevalier X, Gherardi RK, Bachoud-Levi AC, Authier FJ.
INSERM, Unite U955, Team 1, Creteil F-94010, France
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is an emerging condition, characterized by specific muscle lesions assessing long-term persistence of aluminum hydroxide within
macrophages at the site of previous immunization. Affected patients mainly complain
of arthromyalgias, chronic fatigue, and cognitive difficulties. We designed a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests to prospectively delineate MMF-associated cognitive dysfunction (MACD). Compared to control patients with arthritis
and chronic pain, MMF patients had pronounced and specific cognitive impairment.
MACD mainly affected (i) both visual and verbal memory; (ii) executive functions,
including attention, working memory, and planning; and (iii) left ear extinction at
dichotic listening test. Cognitive deficits did not correlate with pain, fatigue, depression, or disease duration. Pathophysiological mechanisms underlying MACD
remain to be determined. In conclusion, long-term persistence of vaccine-derived
aluminum hydroxide within the body assessed by MMF is associated with cognitive
dysfunction, not solely due to chronic pain, fatigue and depression.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19748679

“In conclusion, long-term persistence
of vaccine-derived aluminum hydroxide
within the body assessed by MMF is associated
with cognitive dysfunction, not solely due to chronic pain,
fatigue and depression.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2009

Aluminum hydroxide injections ‘
lead to motor deficits and motor neuron degeneration
Author information
Shaw CA1, Petrik MS.
Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia, Vancouver
British Columbia, Canada
cashawlab@gmail.com
Abstract
Gulf War Syndrome is a multi-system disorder afflicting many veterans of Western
armies in the 1990-1991 Gulf War. A number of those afflicted may show neurological
deficits including various cognitive dysfunctions and motor neuron disease, the latter expression virtually indistinguishable from classical amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS) except for the age of onset. This ALS “cluster” represents the second such ALS
cluster described in the literature to date. Possible causes of GWS include several of the
adjuvants in the anthrax vaccine and others. The most likely culprit appears to be aluminum hydroxide. In an initial series of experiments, we examined the potential toxicity
of aluminum hydroxide in male, outbred CD-1 mice injected subcutaneously in two
equivalent-to-human doses. After sacrifice, spinal cord and motor cortex samples were
examined by immunohistochemistry. Aluminum-treated mice showed significantly increased apoptosis of motor neurons and increases in reactive astrocytes and microglial
proliferation within the spinal cord and cortex. Morin stain detected the presence of aluminum in the cytoplasm of motor neurons with some neurons also testing positive for
the presence of hyper-phosphorylated tau protein, a pathological hallmark of various
neurological diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia. A
second series of experiments was conducted on mice injected with six doses of aluminum hydroxide. Behavioural analyses in these mice revealed significant impairments in
a number of motor functions as well as diminished spatial memory capacity. The demonstrated neurotoxicity of aluminum hydroxide and its relative ubiquity as an adjuvant
suggest that greater scrutiny by the scientific community is warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19740540

“Possible causes
of Gulf War Syndrome include
several of the adjuvants in the anthrax vaccine
and others. The most likely culprit
appears to be aluminum hydroxide.”

Nanomedicine • December 2009

Glia activation induced by
peripheral administration of aluminum oxide
nanoparticles in rat brains
Author information
Li XB1, Zheng H, Zhang ZR, Li M,
Huang ZY, Schluesener HJ, Li YY, Xu SQ.
MOE Key Lab, Institute of Environmental Medicine
School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College
Huazhong University of Science and Technology
Wuhan, China
Abstract
With the wide application of nanoscaled particles, the risk of human exposure
to these particles has been markedly increased. However, knowledge about
their safety falls far behind the utility of these nanoparticles. Here we have
analyzed the activation of brain microglia and astrocytes, which are sensitive
to changes of brain environment after peripheral exposure to nanoscaled aluminum oxide suspension. Sprague-Dawley rats (six rats per treatment) were
intraperitoneally injected once every second day for 30 or 60 days with nanoscaled aluminum oxide (NSAO; 1 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg), non-nanoscaled
aluminum oxide (nNSAO, 1 mg/kg), or vehicle (saline). After 60 days’ exposure the numbers of ED1+, GFAP+, and nestin+ cells in cortex and hippocampus were significantly higher in NSAO-treated rats than nNSAO- or vehicle-treated rats; thus, compared with nNSAO, NSAO has potential effects
on the innate immune system of rat brain. This should be considered when
evaluating the toxicological effects of nanosized particles.
From The Clinical Editor
Sprague-Dawley rats were intraperitoneally injected with nanosized aluminum oxide, (NSAO); non-nanoscaled aluminum oxide, or vehicle (saline).
The numbers of ED1+, GFAP+, and nestin+ cells in cortex and hippocampus were significantly higher in NSAO-treated rats than nNSAO- or vehicletreated rats; thus, NSAO has potential effects on the innate immune system
of rat brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19523415

“With the wide application of nanoscaled particles,
the risk of human exposure to these particles has
been markedly increased. However, knowledge
about their safety falls far behind the utility of these
nanoparticles ... [aluminum] has potential effects on
the innate immune system of rat brain.”

CellPress Nucleus
Mitochondria & Metabolism
Volume 34, Issue 12, p589–593, December 2009

Darwin, natural selection and the biological essentiality of aluminium and silicon
by Christopher Exley
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
Absract
If one was asked to produce a set of ‘Trump Cards™’ based upon ‘Forces of
Nature Defining Life on Earth’ then which card would be ‘Top Trump’? I was recently chastised on the Darwin Today website for suggesting Darwin and ‘natural
selection’ rather than, for example, Newton and ‘gravity’. Although there is no
denying the significance of gravity, my argument in favour of natural selection is
simply that gravity is just one factor that contributes towards an outcome which
ultimately is defined by natural selection. Both the beauty and the brilliance of
natural selection are reflected in its omnipotence to explain the myriad observations of life and, as I will affirm herein, its explanation of the biological essentiality of aluminium and silicon is no exception.
Together they constitute a form of homeostasis with aluminium being retained
both physically and chemically in myriad forms and each form being capable of
acting as a sink or source of labile and potentially biologically reactive aluminium. It is always important to emphasise that there is no evolutionarily directed
or conserved biology to enable aluminium homeostasis and so this non-essential
but highly biologically reactive metal cation is at the whim of the predominant
or pre-eminent chemistry of any particular environment [8] [9]. This unpredictability makes biologically available aluminium a concern for all forms of life on
Earth [2].
In this year, 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Darwin and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species, a UK scientist has used
Darwin’s seminal work on Natural Selection in helping to define the biological
essentiality of the second (silicon) and third (aluminium) most abundant elements
of the Earth’s crust.

means that those characteristics which convey fitness in one environment may not
convey fitness in another, perhaps adjacent, environment or niche. This is both
the strength and the beauty of natural selection and it can be applied to cellular
biochemistry as it is applied to speciation of organisms.

“This unpredictability

Aluminium is biologically reactive, while silicon is biologically inert. Natural
selection informs us that the non-essentiality of aluminium is explained by its
non-participation in biochemical evolution due to a complete lack of its biologically reactive forms.

available aluminium

On the other hand the biologically available form of silicon (silicic acid) has been
extremely abundant throughout biochemical evolution and its biological essentiality has been dictated by its extremely limited biological reactivity.

makes biologically

a concern for all forms
of life on Earth.”

It is no coincidence that one of the very few reactions of silicic acid is that with
aluminium and that this reaction protects against the toxicity of aluminium.
An essential role of silicon throughout biochemical evolution has been to keep
aluminium out of life! However, the activities of humans in learning how to extract aluminium from its ores and using it in myriad ways in what is now the
Aluminium Age means that Earth’s inherent protection against the toxicity of aluminium is being compromised and that biologically reactive aluminium is now an
active participant in biochemical (and hence human) evolution.

The lack of any clear or significant biological essentiality for both of these elements is a mystery as all other abundant elements of the Earth’s crust are known
to be biologically essential.

Some of the early results of the arrival of biochemically reactive aluminium have
been worryingly obvious, including the death of fish and trees in geographical
regions impacted by acid deposition, whereas others, and perhaps those which
in particular are linked with the human condition, might yet be too subtle to be
directly attributable to the participation of biologically-reactive aluminium in the
natural selection of the elements of biological essentiality.

Dr Chris Exley, Reader in Bioinorganic Chemistry at Keele University and a
world authority on the ways in which aluminium impacts upon life on Earth, says
natural selection is often interpreted as ‘survival of the fittest’ but what is often
not appreciated is that the selection processes themselves are niche driven, which

Link: I can’t provide a link for this report and I’m certain that this is not the complete report. The text above consists of excerpts found in other reports that reference this one using a variety of internet search terms. The complete document
requires purchase:

http://www.cell.com/trends/biochemical-sciences/abstract/S0968-0004(09)00167-4?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0968000409001674%3Fshowall%3Dtrue

Trends In Immunology • March 2010

The immunobiology of aluminium adjuvants:
how do they really work?
Author information
Exley C1, Siesjö P, Eriksson H.
The Birchall Centre
Lennard-Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
c.exley@chem.keele.ac.uk
Abstract
Aluminium adjuvants potentiate the immune response, thereby ensuring
the potency and efficacy of typically sparingly available antigen. Their
concomitant critical importance in mass vaccination programmes may
have prompted recent intense interest in understanding how they work
and their safety. Progress in these areas is stymied, however, by a lack
of accessible knowledge pertaining to the bioinorganic chemistry of aluminium adjuvants, and, consequently, the inappropriate application and
interpretation of experimental models of their mode of action. The objective herein is, therefore, to identify the many ways that aluminium
chemistry contributes to the wide and versatile armoury of its adjuvants,
such that future research might be guided towards a fuller understanding
of their role in human vaccinations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20153253

“Progress in these areas [aluminum research] is stymied,
however, by a lack of accessible knowledge pertaining to the
bioinorganic chemistry of aluminium adjuvants, and,
consequently, the inappropriate application and
interpretation of experimental models of their mode of action.”

“Preterm neonates receiving parenteral nutrition are at risk of aluminum overload
because of the presence of aluminum as a contaminant in parenteral formulations.
Despite US Food and Drug Administration regulation, commercial products continue
to present Al contamination. Moreover, premature neonates were receiving, on average,
3 times the amount considered by the Food and Drug Administration as a safe limit.”
Journal Of Pediatric Gastroenterology And Nutrition • August 2010

Aluminum loading in preterm neonates revisited
Author information
Bohrer D1, Oliveira SM, Garcia SC,
Nascimento PC, Carvalho LM.
Department of Chemistry
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria
Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
ndenise@quimica.ufsm.br
Abstract
Preterm neonates receiving parenteral nutrition are at risk of aluminum (Al) overload because of the presence of
Al as a contaminant in parenteral formulations. Despite US Food and Drug Administration regulation, commercial products continue to present Al contamination. To reassess Al exposure in the premature neonatal population,
the present study evaluated the Al balance (intake vs urinary excretion) in a group of preterm neonates during the
period in which they stayed in the intensive care unit (NICU) under total parenteral nutrition. For the 10 patients
selected, daily infusion solutions (nutrition and medication) were collected and the level of Al contamination was
measured. From the urine collected daily, an aliquot was taken for Al determination. Blood was also collected
for Al determination on the first and last day in the NICU. The measurements were carried out by atomic absorption spectrometry. The difference between Al administered and excreted revealed that 56.2% +/- 22.7% of the Al
intake was not eliminated. The mean serum Al levels from the first to the last day decreased from 41.2 +/- 23.3
to 23.5 +/- 11.2 microg/L. The resulting mean Al daily intake of the 10 patients was 15.2 +/- 8.0 microg x kg(-1)
x day(-1). Because Al intake was higher than that excreted and Al in serum decreased to practically half during
the period in the NICU (+/-7.3 days), some amount of Al deposition occurred. Moreover, premature neonates
were receiving, on average, 3 times the amount of 5 microg x kg(-1) x day(-1), considered by the Food and Drug
Administration as a safe limit.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20479688

“... the vulnerability of infants to early exposure to aluminium serves to highlight
an urgent need to reduce the aluminium content of infant formulas ...”
BMC Pediatrics • August 2010

There is (still) too much aluminium in infant formulas
Author information
Burrell SA1, Exley C.
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Infant formulas are sophisticated milk-based feeds for infants which are used as a substitute for breast milk. Historically
they are known to be contaminated by aluminium and in the past this has raised health concerns for exposed infants. We
have measured the aluminium content of a number of widely used infant formulas to determine if their contamination by
aluminium and consequent issues of child health persists.
METHODS
Samples of ready-made milks and powders used to make milks were prepared by microwave digestion of acid/peroxide
mixtures and their aluminium content determined by THGA.
RESULTS
The concentration of aluminium in ready-made milks varied from ca 176 to 700 μg/L. The latter concentration was for
a milk for preterm infants. The aluminium content of powders used to make milks varied from ca 2.4 to 4.3 μg/g. The
latter content was for a soya-based formula and equated to a ready-to-drink milk concentration of 629 μg/L. Using the
manufacturer’s own guidelines of formula consumption the average daily ingestion of aluminium from infant formulas
for a child of 6 months varied from ca 200 to 600 μg of aluminium. Generally ingestion was higher from powdered as
compared to ready-made formulas.
CONCLUSIONS
The aluminium content of a range of well known brands of infant formulas remains high and particularly so for a product
designed for preterm infants and a soya-based product designed for infants with cow’s milk intolerances and allergies.
Recent research demonstrating the vulnerability of infants to early exposure to aluminium serves to highlight an urgent
need to reduce the aluminium content of infant formulas to as low a level as is practically possible.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2939626/

Neurotoxicology • September 2010

The neurotoxicity of environmental aluminum is still an issue
Author information
Bondy SC.
Program in Environmental Toxicology
Division Occupational and Environmental Health
Department of Medicine, University of California
Irvine, CA 92697-1825, USA
scbondy@uci.edu

“Emphasis is given to the
potential role of aluminum in

Abstract

acceleration and promotion of

Evidence for the neurotoxicity of extended exposure to low levels of aluminum salts is described
using an animal model treated with aluminum at low levels reflecting those found in some water
supplies. Emphasis is given to the potential role of aluminum in acceleration and promotion of some
indices characteristic of brain aging. These hallmarks include the appearance of excess levels of
inflammation in specific brain areas. Aluminum salts can increase levels of glial activation, inflammatory cytokines and amyloid precursor protein within the brain. Both normal brain aging and to a
greater extent, Alzheimer’s disease are associated with elevated basal levels of markers for inflammation. These are not attributable to obvious exogenous stimuli and may reflect the lifespan history
of the organism’s immune responses. It is possible that aluminum salts can act as a subtle promoter
of such apparently unprovoked responses.

some indices characteristic of

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20553758

brain aging. These hallmarks
include the appearance of excess
levels of inflammation in specific brain areas.”

Journal Of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology • November 2010

Infants’ exposure to aluminum from vaccines
and breast milk during the first 6 months
Author information
Dórea JG1, Marques RC.
Department of Nutrition
Universidade de Brasília
Brasília, DF, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
The success of vaccination programs in reducing and eliminating infectious diseases has contributed to an ever-increasing number of vaccines given at earlier ages
(newborns and infants). Exposure to low levels of environmental toxic substances
(including metals) at an early age raises plausible concerns over increasingly lower
neuro-cognitive rates. Current immunization schedules with vaccines containing
aluminum (as adjuvant) are given to infants, but thimerosal (as preservative) is found
mostly in vaccines used in non-industrialized countries. Exclusively, breastfed infants (in Brazil) receiving a full recommended schedule of immunizations showed
an exceedingly high exposure of Al (225 to 1750 μg per dose) when compared with
estimated levels absorbed from breast milk (2.0 μg). This study does not dispute the
safety of vaccines but reinforces the need to study long-term effects of early exposure to neuro-toxic substances on the developing brain. Pragmatic vaccine safety
needs to embrace conventional toxicology, addressing especial characteristics of
unborn fetuses, neonates and infants exposed to low levels of aluminum, and ethylmercury traditionally considered innocuous to the central nervous system.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20010978

“Exclusively, breastfed infants (in Brazil)
receiving a full recommended schedule of immunizations
showed an exceedingly high exposure of Aluminum
(225 to 1750 μg per dose) when compared with
estimated levels absorbed from breast milk (2.0 μg).”

Pharmacological Reports • November 2010

Effects of ethylene glycol ethers
on cell viability in the human neuroblastoma
SH-SY5Y cell line
Author information
Regulska M1, Pomierny B, Basta-Kaim A,
Starek A, Filip M, Lason W, Budziszewska B.
Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology
Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences
Sm∼tna 12, PL 31-343 Kraków, Poland
Abstract
Ethylene glycol ethers (EGEs) are a class of chemicals used extensively in the manufacture
of a wide range of domestic and industrial products, which may result in human exposure and
toxicity. Hematologic and reproductive toxicity of EGEs are well known whereas their action
on neuronal cell viability has not been studied so far. In the present study, we investigated
the effects of some EGEs on cell viability and on the hydrogen peroxide-induced damage in
the human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells. It has been found that 2-phenoxyethanol in a
concentration-dependent manner (5-25 mM, 24 h) increased the basal and H(2)O(2)-induced
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction. 2-Butoxyethanol given alone did not affect LDH release and
MTT reduction but concentration-dependently enhanced the cytotoxic effect of H(2)O(2).
2-Isopropoxyethanol significantly and concentration-dependently (1-25 mM) increased the
basal LDH release and attenuated MTT reduction, but did not potentiate the cytotoxic effect of H(2)O(2). Contrary to this, 2-methoxyethanol did not show a cytotoxic effect while
2-ethoxyethanol at high concentrations intensified the hydrogen peroxide action. This study
demonstrated that among the EGEs studied, 2-phenoxyethanol showed the most consistent
cytotoxic effect on neurons in in vitro conditions and enhanced the hydrogen peroxide action.
2-Isopropoxyethanol had also a potent cytotoxic effect, but it did not enhance the hydrogen
peroxide action, whereas 2-butoxyethanol only potentiated cytotoxic effect of H(2)O(2). It is
concluded that the results of the present study should be confirmed in in vivo conditions and
that some EGEs, especially 2-phenoxyethanol, 2-butoxyethanol and 2-isopropoxyethanol,
may be responsible for initiation or exacerbation of neuronal cell damage.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21273685

“2-phenoxyethanol
showed the most consistent cytotoxic effect
on neurons in in vitro conditions and enhanced
the hydrogen peroxide action.”

Environmental Health And Preventative Medicine • January 2011

Gene expression
in primary cultured astrocytes affected by aluminum:
alteration of chaperons involved in protein folding
Author information
Aremu DA1, Ezomo OF, Meshitsuka S.
Division of Integrative Bioscience
Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction
Graduate School of Medical Science
Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
Aluminum is notorious as a neurotoxic metal. The aim of our study was to determine whether endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is involved in aluminum-induced
apoptosis in astrocytes.

“The results of this study

METHODS
Mitochondrial RNA (mRNA) was analyzed by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR following pulse exposure of aluminum glycinate to primary cultured astrocytes. Tunicamycin was used as a positive control.

apoptosis in astrocytes via ER stress by

RESULTS
Gene expression analysis revealed that Ire1∼ was up-regulated in astrocytes exposed to aluminum while Ire1 was up-regulated by tunicamycin. Exposure to aluminum glycinate, in contrast to tunicamycin, seemed to down-regulate mRNA expression of many genes, including the ER resident molecular chaperone BiP/Grp78
and Ca(2+)-binding chaperones (calnexin and calreticulin), as well as stanniocalcin
2 and OASIS. The down-regulation or non-activation of the molecular chaperons,
whose expressions are known to be protective by increasing protein folding, may
spell doom for the adaptive response. Exposure to aluminum did not have any significant effects on the expression of Bax and Bcl2 in astrocytes.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study demonstrate that aluminum may induce apoptosis in astrocytes via ER stress by impairing the protein-folding machinery.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21432213

demonstrate that aluminum may induce

impairing the protein-folding machinery.”

“aluminum (Al), plays a relevant role in affecting Aß aggregation and neurotoxicity.”
PLoS One • January 2011

Microarray Analysis on Human Neuroblastoma Cells
Exposed to Aluminum, ß1–42-Amyloid or the
ß1–42-Amyloid Aluminum Complex
Valentina Gatta, Denise Drago, Karina Fincati, Maria Teresa Valenti,
Luca Dalle Carbonare, Stefano L. Sensi, Paolo Zatta
Abstract
Background
A typical pathological feature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the appearance in the brain of senile plaques made up of
ß-amyloid (Aß) and neurofibrillary tangles. AD is also associated with an abnormal accumulation of some metal ions,
and we have recently shown that one of these, aluminum (Al), plays a relevant role in affecting Aß aggregation and neurotoxicity.
Methodology
In this study, employing a microarray analysis of 35,129 genes, we investigated the effects induced by the exposure to the
Aß1–42-Al (Aß-Al) complex on the gene expression profile of the neuronal-like cell line, SH-SY5Y.
Principal Findings
The microarray assay indicated that, compared to Aß or Al alone, exposure to Aß-Al complex produced selective changes
in gene expression. Some of the genes selectively over or underexpressed are directly related to AD. A further evaluation performed with Ingenuity Pathway analysis revealed that these genes are nodes of networks and pathways that are
involved in the modulation of Ca2+ homeostasis as well as in the regulation of glutamatergic transmission and synaptic
plasticity.
Conclusions and Significance
Aß-Al appears to be largely involved in the molecular machinery that regulates neuronal as well as synaptic dysfunction
and loss. Aß-Al seems critical in modulating key AD-related pathways such as glutamatergic transmission, Ca2+ homeostasis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and neuronal apoptosis.
http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0015965#authcontrib

Monatshefte für Chemie - Chemical Monthly • April 2011

Aluminium in the human brain
Christopher Exley , Emily R. House
Abstract
An inevitable consequence of humans living in the Aluminium Age is the presence of aluminium in the brain. This
non-essential, neurotoxic metal gains entry to the brain throughout all stages of human development, from the
foetus through to old age. Human exposure to myriad forms of this ubiquitous and omnipresent metal makes its
presence in the brain inevitable, while the structure and physiology of the brain makes it particularly susceptible
to the accumulation of aluminium with age. In spite of aluminium’s complete lack of biological essentiality, it
actually participates avidly in brain biochemistry and substitutes for essential metals in critical biochemical processes. The degree to which such substitutions are disruptive and are manifested as biological effects will depend
upon the biological availability of aluminium in any particular physical or chemical compartment, and will under
all circumstances be exerting an energy load on the brain. In short, the brain must expend energy in its ‘unconscious’ response to an exposure to biologically available aluminium. There are many examples where ‘biological
effect’ has resulted in aluminium-induced neurotoxicity and most potently in conditions that have resulted in an
aluminium-associated encephalopathy. However, since aluminium is non-essential and not required by the brain,
its biological availability will only rarely achieve such levels of acuity, and it is more pertinent to consider and
investigate the brain’s response to much lower though sustained levels of biologically reactive aluminium. This is
the level of exposure that defines the putative role of aluminium in chronic neurodegenerative disease and, though
thoroughly investigated in numerous animal models, the chronic toxicity of aluminium has yet to be addressed
experimentally in humans. A feasible test of the ‘aluminium hypothesis’, whereby aluminium in the human brain
is implicated in chronic neurodegenerative disease, would be to reduce the brain’s aluminium load to the lowest
possible level by non-invasive means. The simplest way that this aim can be fulfilled in a significant and relevant
population is by facilitating the urinary excretion of aluminium through the regular drinking of a silicic acid-rich
mineral water over an extended time period. This will lower the body and brain burden of aluminium, and by
doing so will test whether brain aluminium contributes significantly to chronic neurodegenerative diseases such
as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00706-010-0417-y

Vaccine • August 2011
Letter to the Editor

Aluminium-based adjuvants should not be used as placebos in clinical trials
by Christopher Exley
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
August 2011
Report available for purchase $39.95
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21871940

[Vaccine manufacturers use aluminum-based adjuvants with controls
in clinical trials meaning adverse affects of aluminum will go unnoticed]

“Aluminium ... has no known biological role.
It accumulates in the body when protective gastrointestinal mechanisms are bypassed ...”
[for example, when it’s injected]
Proceedings Of The Nutrition Society • August 2011

Aluminium exposure from parenteral nutrition in preterm infants
and later health outcomes during childhood and adolescence
Author information
Fewtrell MS1, Edmonds CJ, Isaacs E, Bishop NJ, Lucas A.
Childhood Nutrition Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health
30 Guilford Street, London WC1N 1EH, UK
m.fewtrell@ich.ucl.ac.uk
Abstract
Aluminium is the most common metallic element, but has no known biological role. It accumulates in the body
when protective gastrointestinal mechanisms are bypassed, renal function is impaired, or exposure is high - all of
which apply frequently to preterm infants. Recognised clinical manifestations of aluminium toxicity include dementia, anaemia and bone disease. Parenteral nutrition (PN) solutions are liable to contamination with aluminium,
particularly from acidic solutions in glass vials, notably calcium gluconate. When fed parenterally, infants retain
>75% of the aluminium, with high serum, urine and tissue levels. Later health effects of neonatal intravenous aluminium exposure were investigated in a randomised trial comparing standard PN solutions with solutions specially
sourced for low aluminium content. Preterm infants exposed for >10 d to standard solutions had impaired neurologic development at 18 months. At 13-15 years, subjects randomised to standard PN had lower lumbar spine bone
mass; and, in non-randomised analyses, those with neonatal aluminium intake above the median had lower hip bone
mass. Given the sizeable number of infants undergoing intensive care and still exposed to aluminium via PN, these
findings have contemporary relevance. Until recently, little progress had been made on reducing aluminium exposure, and meeting Food and Drug Administration recommendations (<5 μg/kg per d) has been impossible in patients
<50 kg using available products. Recent advice from the UK Medicines and Healthcare regulatory Authority that
calcium gluconate in small volume glass containers should not be used for repeated treatment in children <18 years,
including preparation of PN, is an important step towards addressing this problem.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21781356

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2011

Do aluminum vaccine adjuvants
contribute to the rising prevalence of autism?
Author information
Tomljenovic L1, Shaw CA.
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia
828 W. 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC
Canada V5Z 1L8
lucijat77@gmail.com
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are serious multisystem developmental
disorders and an urgent global public health concern. Dysfunctional immunity and impaired brain function are core deficits in ASD. Aluminum (Al),
the most commonly used vaccine adjuvant, is a demonstrated neurotoxin and
a strong immune stimulator. Hence, adjuvant Al has the potential to induce
neuroimmune disorders. When assessing adjuvant toxicity in children, two
key points ought to be considered: (i) children should not be viewed as “small
adults” as their unique physiology makes them much more vulnerable to toxic insults; and (ii) if exposure to Al from only few vaccines can lead to cognitive impairment and autoimmunity in adults, is it unreasonable to question
whether the current pediatric schedules, often containing 18 Al adjuvanted
vaccines, are safe for children? By applying Hill’s criteria for establishing
causality between exposure and outcome we investigated whether exposure
to Al from vaccines could be contributing to the rise in ASD prevalence in
the Western world. Our results show that: (i) children from countries with
the highest ASD prevalence appear to have the highest exposure to Al from
vaccines; (ii) the increase in exposure to Al adjuvants significantly correlates
with the increase in ASD prevalence in the United States observed over the
last two decades (Pearson r=0.92, p<0.0001); and (iii) a significant correlation exists between the amounts of Al administered to preschool children
and the current prevalence of ASD in seven Western countries, particularly
at 3-4 months of age (Pearson r=0.89-0.94, p=0.0018-0.0248). The application of the Hill’s criteria to these data indicates that the correlation between
Al in vaccines and ASD may be causal. Because children represent a fraction
of the population most at risk for complications following exposure to Al, a
more rigorous evaluation of Al adjuvant safety seems warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22099159

“Our results show that:

(i) children from countries with the highest
Autistic Spectrum Disorder prevalence appear
to have the highest exposure to Aluminum from vaccines;

(ii) the increase in exposure to Al adjuvants significantly correlates
with the increase in Autistic Spectrum Disorder prevalence in the
United States observed over the last two decades and

(iii) a significant correlation exists between the amounts of
Aluminum administered to preschool children and the current
prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder in seven Western countries,
particularly at 3-4 months of age.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2011

Aluminium and human breast diseases
Author information
Darbre PD1, Pugazhendhi D, Mannello F.
Biomedical Sciences Section
School of Biological Sciences
University of Reading, Reading
RG6 6UB, UK
p.d.darbre@reading.ac.uk
Abstract
The human breast is exposed to aluminium from many sources including diet and personal care products, but dermal application of aluminium-based antiperspirant salts provides a
local long-term source of exposure. Recent measurements
have shown that aluminium is present in both tissue and fat
of the human breast but at levels which vary both between
breasts and between tissue samples from the same breast. We
have recently found increased levels of aluminium in noninvasively collected nipple aspirate fluids taken from breast
cancer patients (mean 268 ± 28 μg/l) compared with control
healthy subjects (mean 131 ± 10 μg/l) providing evidence
of raised aluminium levels in the breast microenvironment
when cancer is present. The measurement of higher levels of
aluminium in type I human breast cyst fluids (median 150
μg/l) compared with human serum (median 6 μg/l) or human
milk (median 25 μg/l) warrants further investigation into any
possible role of aluminium in development of this benign
breast disease. Emerging evidence for aluminium in several
breast structures now requires biomarkers of aluminium action in order to ascertain whether the presence of aluminium
has any biological impact. To this end, we report raised levels
of proteins that modulate iron homeostasis (ferritin, transferrin) in parallel with raised aluminium in nipple aspirate fluids
in vivo, and we report overexpression of mRNA for several
S100 calcium binding proteins following long-term exposure
of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells in vitro to aluminium
chlorhydrate.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22099158

“Recent measurements have shown
that aluminium is present in both
tissue and fat of the human breast
but at levels which vary both between
breasts and between tissue samples
from the same breast. We have
recently found increased levels of
aluminium in noninvasively collected
nipple aspirate fluids taken from breast
cancer patients (mean 268 ± 28 μg/l)
compared with control healthy subjects
(mean 131 ± 10 μg/l) providing evidence
of raised aluminium levels in the breast
microenvironment when cancer is present.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2011

Long-term follow-up of cognitive dysfunction
in patients with aluminum hydroxide-induced
macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF)
Author information
Passeri E1, Villa C, Couette M, Itti E, Brugieres P, Cesaro P,
Gherardi RK, Bachoud-Levi AC, Authier FJ.
Paris Est-Creteil University & Henri-Mondor University Hospital (APHP)
Reference Center for Neuromuscular Diseases Garches-Necker-Mondor-Hendaye
Creteil, F-94010, France
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is characterized by specific muscle lesions assessing
long-term persistence of aluminum hydroxide within macrophages at the site of previous immunization. Affected patients are middle-aged adults, mainly presenting with diffuse arthromyalgias, chronic fatigue, and cognitive dysfunction. Representative features
of MMF-associated cognitive dysfunction (MACD) include (i) dysexecutive syndrome;
(i) visual memory; (iii) left ear extinction at dichotic listening test. In present study we
retrospectively evaluated the progression of MACD in 30 MMF patients. Most patients
fulfilled criteria for non-amnestic/dysexecutive mild cognitive impairment, even if some
cognitive deficits seemed unusually severe. MACD remained stable over time, although
dysexecutive syndrome tended to worsen. Long-term follow-up of a subset of patients
with 3 or 4 consecutive neuropsychological evaluations confirmed the stability of MACD
with time, despite marked fluctuations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22099155

“Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF)
is characterized by specific muscle lesions
assessing long-term persistence of aluminum
hydroxide within macrophages at the site
of previous immunization.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2011

Towards the prevention of
potential aluminum toxic effects
and an effective treatment for
Alzheimer’s disease
Author information
Percy ME1, Kruck TP, Pogue AI, Lukiw WJ.
Neurogenetics Laboratory
Surrey Place Centre, Toronto, ON
Canada M5S 2C2
maire.percy@utoronto.ca
Abstract
In 1991, treatment with low dose intramuscular desferrioxamine (DFO), a trivalent chelator that can remove excessive
iron and/or aluminum from the body, was reported to slow
the progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) by a factor of
two. Twenty years later this promising trial has not been followed up and why this treatment worked still is not clear. In
this critical interdisciplinary review, we provide an overview
of the complexities of AD and involvement of metal ions, and
revisit the neglected DFO trial. We discuss research done by
us and others that is helping to explain involvement of metal
ion catalyzed production of reactive oxygen species in the
pathogenesis of AD, and emerging strategies for inhibition of
metal-ion toxicity. Highlighted are insights to be considered
in the quests to prevent potentially toxic effects of aluminum
toxicity and prevention and intervention in AD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22099160

“Highlighted are insights
to be considered in the quests
to prevent potentially toxic effects
of aluminum toxicity and prevention
and intervention in AD.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2011

Aluminum toxicity
and astrocyte dysfunction:
a metabolic link to neurological disorders
Author information
Lemire J., Appanna VD.
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario
Canada P3E 2C6
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) has been implicated in a variety of neurological
diseases. However, the molecular mechanisms that enable Al to
be involved in these disorders have yet to be fully delineated.
Using astrocytes as a model of the cerebral cellular system, we
have uncovered the biochemical networks that are affected by Al
toxicity. In this review, we reveal how the inhibitory influence of
Al on ATP production and on mitochondrial functions help generate globular astrocytes that are fat producing machines. These
biological events may be the contributing factors to Al-triggered
brain disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22099161

“Aluminum (Al)
has been implicated in a variety
of neurological diseases. However,
the molecular mechanisms that
enable Al to be involved in these
disorders have yet to be fully
delineated. These biological events
may be the contributing factors to
Al-triggered brain disorders.”

IOS Press Library • November 2011

Aluminum and Alzheimer’s Disease:
After a Century of Controversy,
Is there a Plausible Link?
Author Information
Tomljenovic, Lucija
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC, Canada

“Research, however, reveals that:

1) very small amounts of Al are needed to produce
neurotoxicity and this criterion is satisfied through
dietary Al intake

Abstract
The brain is a highly compartmentalized organ exceptionally susceptible to
accumulation of metabolic errors. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease of the elderly and is characterized by regional
specificity of neural aberrations associated with higher cognitive functions.
Aluminum (Al) is the most abundant neurotoxic metal on earth, widely bioavailable to humans and repeatedly shown to accumulate in AD-susceptible
neuronal foci. In spite of this, the role of Al in AD has been heavily disputed
based on the following claims: 1) bioavailable Al cannot enter the brain in sufficient amounts to cause damage, 2) excess Al is efficiently excreted from the
body, and 3) Al accumulation in neurons is a consequence rather than a cause
of neuronal loss. Research, however, reveals that: 1) very small amounts of
Al are needed to produce neurotoxicity and this criterion is satisfied through
dietary Al intake, 2) Al sequesters different transport mechanisms to actively
traverse brain barriers, 3) incremental acquisition of small amounts of Al over
a lifetime favors its selective accumulation in brain tissues, and 4) since 1911,
experimental evidence has repeatedly demonstrated that chronic Al intoxication reproduces neuropathological hallmarks of AD. Misconceptions about Al
bioavailability may have mislead scientists regarding the significance of Al in
the pathogenesis of AD. The hypothesis that Al significantly contributes to AD
is built upon very solid experimental evidence and should not be dismissed.
Immediate steps should be taken to lessen human exposure to Al, which may
be the single most aggravating and avoidable factor related to AD.
http://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad101494

2) Al sequesters different transport mechanisms
to actively traverse brain barriers

3) incremental acquisition of small amounts of Al over a
lifetime favors its selective accumulation in brain tissues

4) since 1911, experimental evidence has repeatedly
demonstrated that chronic Al intoxication reproduces
neuropathological hallmarks of AD.”

Biomedical And Environmental Science • December 2011

Effect of aluminum hydroxide adjuvant
on the immunogenicity of the
2009 pandemic influenza A/H1N1 vaccine:
multi-level modeling of data with repeated measures
Author information
Yin da P1, Zhu BP, Wang HQ, Cao L, Wu WD, Jiang KY,
Xia W, Zhang GM, Zheng JS, Cao LS, Liang XF.
Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
Beijing 100050, China
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effect of the aluminum hydroxide (Al-OH) adjuvant on the 2009
pandemic influenza A/H1N1 (pH1N1) vaccine.
METHODS
In a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, participants
received two doses of split-virion formulation containing 15 μg hemagglutinin
antigen, with or without aluminum hydroxide (Al-OH). We classified the participants into six age categories (>61 years, 41-60 years, 19-40 years, 13-18 years,
8-12 years, and 3-7 years) and obtained four blood samples from each participant
on days 0, 21, 35, and 42 following the first dose of immunization. We assessed
vaccine immunogenicity by measuring the geometric mean titer (GMT) of hemagglutination inhibiting antibody. We used a two-level model to evaluate the fixed
effect of aluminum Al-OH and other factors, accounting for repeated measures.
RESULTS
The predictions of repeated measurement on GMTs of formulations with or without Al-OH, were 80.35 and 112.72, respectively. Al-OH significantly reduced
immunogenicity after controlling for time post immunization, age-group and
gender.
CONCLUSION
The Al-OH adjuvant does not increase but actually reduces the immunogenicity
of the split-virion pH1N1 vaccine.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22365398

“The aluminum hydroxide adjuvant
does not increase but actually reduces
the immunogenicity of the
split-virion pH1N1 vaccine.”

Current Medicinal Chemistry • 2011

Aluminum Vaccine Adjuvants: Are they Safe?
L. Tomljenovic*,1 and C.A. Shaw2
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia
828 W. 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L8, Canada
2Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
and Experimental Medicine and the Graduate Program in Neuroscience
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia
828 W. 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L8, Canada
Abstract
Aluminum is an experimentally demonstrated neurotoxin and the most commonly used vaccine
adjuvant. Despite almost 90 years of widespread use of aluminum adjuvants, medical science’s
understanding about their mechanisms of action is still remarkably poor. There is also a concerning scarcity of data on toxicology and pharmacokinetics of these compounds. In spite of
this, the notion that aluminum in vaccines is safe appears to be widely accepted. Experimental
research, however, clearly shows that aluminum adjuvants have a potential to induce serious
immunological disorders in humans. In particular, aluminum in adjuvant form carries a risk for
autoimmunity, long-term brain inflammation and associated neurological complications and
may thus have profound and widespread adverse health consequences. In our opinion, the possibility that vaccine benefits may have been overrated and the risk of potential adverse effects
underestimated, has not been rigorously evaluated in the medical and scientific community.
We hope that the present paper will provide a framework for a much needed and long overdue
assessment of this highly contentious medical issue.
http://www.meerwetenoverfreek.nl/images/stories/Tomljenovic_Shaw-CMC-published.pdf

“Experimental research, however, clearly shows
that aluminum adjuvants have a potential to induce
serious immunological disorders in humans. In particular,
aluminum in adjuvant form carries a risk for autoimmunity,
long-term brain inflammation and associated neurological
complications and may thus have profound and widespread
adverse health consequences. In our opinion, the possibility
that vaccine benefits may have been overrated and
the risk of potential adverse effects underestimated,
has not been rigorously evaluated in the medical
and scientific community.”

Entropy • 2012
Special Issue
Biosemiotic Entropy: Disorder, Disease, and Mortality

Empirical Data Confirm Autism Symptoms
Related to Aluminum and Acetaminophen Exposure

“Using standard log-likelihood ratio techniques,
we identify several signs and symptoms that are
significantly more prevalent in vaccine reports after

Author Information

2000, including cellulitis, seizure, depression, fatigue,

Stephanie Seneff 1,* , Robert M. Davidson 2 and Jingjing Liu 1

pain and death, which are also significantly associated

1. Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

with aluminum-containing vaccines. We propose that

2. Internal Medicine Group Practice
PhyNet, Inc., Longview, TX 75604, USA

children with the autism diagnosis are especially

Abstract

vulnerable to toxic metals such as aluminum and

Autism is a condition characterized by impaired cognitive and social skills, associated with compromised immune function. The incidence is alarmingly on the
rise, and environmental factors are increasingly suspected to play a role. This paper investigates word frequency patterns in the U.S. CDC Vaccine Adverse Events
Reporting System (VAERS) database. Our results provide strong evidence supporting a link between autism and the aluminum in vaccines. A literature review
showing toxicity of aluminum in human physiology offers further support. Mentions of autism in VAERS increased steadily at the end of the last century, during
a period when mercury was being phased out, while aluminum adjuvant burden
was being increased. Using standard log-likelihood ratio techniques, we identify
several signs and symptoms that are significantly more prevalent in vaccine reports after 2000, including cellulitis, seizure, depression, fatigue, pain and death,
which are also significantly associated with aluminum-containing vaccines. We
propose that children with the autism diagnosis are especially vulnerable to toxic
metals such as aluminum and mercury due to insufficient serum sulfate and glutathione. A strong correlation between autism and the MMR (Measles, Mumps,
Rubella) vaccine is also observed, which may be partially explained via an increased sensitivity to acetaminophen administered to control fever.
http://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/14/11/2227

mercury due to insufficient serum sulfate and
glutathione. A strong correlation between autism and
the MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella) vaccine is also
observed, which may be partially explained via an
increased sensitivity to acetaminophen
administered to control fever.”

Neurotoxicology And Teratology • January 2012

Multiple toxic heavy metals and neonatal neurobehavior in China
require considering co-exposure to Thimerosal-ethylmercury and adjuvant-aluminum
Author information
Dórea JG.
Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasilia
70919-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
https://www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.elsevier-5ea9d498-e159-3496-99a1-2b3c4a568a20

Lupus • February 2012

Mechanisms of aluminum adjuvant toxicity
and autoimmunity in pediatric populations
Author information
Tomljenovic L1, Shaw CA.
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC, Canada
lucijat77@gmail.com
Abstract
Immune challenges during early development, including those vaccine-induced, can
lead to permanent detrimental alterations of the brain and immune function. Experimental evidence also shows that simultaneous administration of as little as two to three
immune adjuvants can overcome genetic resistance to autoimmunity. In some developed countries, by the time children are 4 to 6 years old, they will have received a total
of 126 antigenic compounds along with high amounts of aluminum (Al) adjuvants
through routine vaccinations. According to the US Food and Drug Administration,
safety assessments for vaccines have often not included appropriate toxicity studies because vaccines have not been viewed as inherently toxic. Taken together, these observations raise plausible concerns about the overall safety of current childhood vaccination
programs. When assessing adjuvant toxicity in children, several key points ought to be
considered: (i) infants and children should not be viewed as “small adults” with regard
to toxicological risk as their unique physiology makes them much more vulnerable to
toxic insults; (ii) in adult humans Al vaccine adjuvants have been linked to a variety of
serious autoimmune and inflammatory conditions (i.e., “ASIA”), yet children are regularly exposed to much higher amounts of Al from vaccines than adults; (iii) it is often
assumed that peripheral immune responses do not affect brain function. However, it is
now clearly established that there is a bidirectional neuro-immune cross-talk that plays
crucial roles in immunoregulation as well as brain function. In turn, perturbations of
the neuro-immune axis have been demonstrated in many autoimmune diseases encompassed in “ASIA” and are thought to be driven by a hyperactive immune response;
and (iv) the same components of the neuro-immune axis that play key roles in brain
development and immune function are heavily targeted by Al adjuvants. In summary,
research evidence shows that increasing concerns about current vaccination practices
may indeed be warranted. Because children may be most at risk of vaccine-induced
complications, a rigorous evaluation of the vaccine-related adverse health impacts in
the pediatric population is urgently needed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235057

“Immune challenges during early development,
including those vaccine-induced, can lead to permanent detrimental
alterations of the brain and immune function.

Experimental evidence also shows that simultaneous administration
of as little as two to three immune adjuvants can overcome genetic
resistance to autoimmunity. In some developed countries, by the time
children are 4 to 6 years old, they will have received a total of 126 antigenic
compounds along with high amounts of aluminum (Al) adjuvants
through routine vaccinations.

According to the US Food and Drug Administration, safety assessments
for vaccines have often not included appropriate toxicity studies because
vaccines have not been viewed as inherently toxic. Taken together, these
observations raise plausible concerns about the overall safety of current
childhood vaccination programs.”

Immunology Letters • September 2012

Alum increases antigen uptake
reduces antigen degradation and
sustains antigen presentation by DCs in vitro
Author information
Ghimire TR1, Benson RA, Garside P, Brewer JM.
Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
Abstract
Aluminium adjuvants (alum) have been the only widely approved adjuvants for use in
human vaccines since the 1920s, however, the mechanism of action of these adjuvants
remains elusive. Due to increasing demand for novel adjuvants, a clearer understanding
of the mechanisms that allow these important agents to affect adaptive immune responses will make a significant contribution to the rational design of future vaccines. Using a
novel approach to tracking antigen and antigen presentation, we demonstrate that alum
induces higher antigen accumulation and increased antigen presentation by dendritic
cells (DCs) in vitro. Antigen accumulation was 100-fold higher and antigen presentation
10-fold higher following alum treatment when compared with soluble protein alone. We
also observed that alum causes an initial reduction in presentation compared with soluble antigen, but eventually increases the magnitude and duration of antigen presentation.
This was associated with reduced protein degradation in DCs following alum treatment.
These studies demonstrate the dynamic alterations in antigen processing and presentation induced by alum that underlie enhanced DC function in response to this adjuvant.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22732235

“Aluminium adjuvants (alum)
have been the only widely approved
adjuvants for use in human vaccines
since the 1920s, however, the mechanism
of action of these adjuvants remains elusive.”

Coordination Chemistry Reviews • October 2012

Metal Ions in Neurodegenerative Diseases
The coordination chemistry of aluminium
in neurodegenerative disease
by Christopher Exley
Abstract
The coordination chemistry of a metal ion defines its optimal association
with a biomolecule such that its binding by specific ligands on that molecule confers function and biological purpose. Aluminium is a non-essential metal with no known biological role which means that its coordination neurochemistry defines aluminium’s putative role in a number of
neurodegenerative diseases. In examining this chemistry it is found that
very little is known about the complexes formed and ligands involved in
aluminium’s interactions with neurochemically-relevant ligands. Aluminium’s action as a pro-oxidant as well as an excitotoxin are highlighted
while the evidence for its interactions with amyloid beta, tau and DNA are
discussed and it is concluded that it is too early to discount these ligands
as targets for the neurotoxicity of aluminium.
Highlights
• There are few quantitaive data describing the coordination chemistry of
aluminium in neurodegenerative disease.
• One compelling line of evidence relates to the putative aluminium superoxide semi-reduced radical ion AlO22+ and its powerful action as a
pro-oxidant.
• Another important candidate is aluminium’s complex with ATP and its
potential to disrupt neuronal signalling and induce excitotoxicity.
• Though there are no quantitative data to describe aluminium’s interactions with amyloid beta this does not preclude their association in the
brain.
• The biological reactivity of aluminium supports myriad as yet unidentified interactions with biomolecules associated with brain function in
health and disease.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010854512000392

“In examining this chemistry it is found that
very little is known about the complexes formed
and ligands involved in aluminium’s interactions
with neurochemically-relevant ligands. Aluminium’s
action as a pro-oxidant as well as an excitotoxin are
highlighted while the evidence for its interactions with
amyloid beta, tau and DNA are discussed and it is
concluded that it is too early to discount these ligands
as targets for the neurotoxicity of aluminium.”

Journal Of Trace Elements In Medicine And Biology • October 2012

Aluminium overload
after 5 years in skin biopsy following
post-vaccination with subcutaneous pseudolymphoma
Author information
Guillard O1, Fauconneau B, Pineau A,
Marrauld A, Bellocq JP, Chenard MP.
CHU Poitiers, Department of Biochemistry
Poitiers, France
olivier.guillard@univ-poitiers.fr
Abstract
Aluminium hydroxide is used as an effective adjuvant in a wide range of vaccines for enhancing immune response to the antigen. The pathogenic role of aluminium hydroxide is
now recognized by the presence of chronic fatigue syndrome, macrophagic myofasciitis
and subcutaneous pseudolymphoma, linked to intramuscular injection of aluminium hydroxide-containing vaccines. The aim of this study is to verify if the subcutaneous pseudolymphoma observed in this patient in the site of vaccine injection is linked to an aluminium overload. Many years after vaccination, a subcutaneous nodule was discovered in
a 45-year-old woman with subcutaneous pseudolymphoma. In skin biopsy at the injection
site for vaccines, aluminium (Al) deposits are assessed by Morin stain and quantification of Al is performed by Zeeman Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry.
Morin stain shows Al deposits in the macrophages, and Al assays (in μg/g, dry weight)
were 768.10±18 for the patient compared with the two control patients, 5.61±0.59 and
9.13±0.057. Given the pathology of this patient and the high Al concentration in skin biopsy, the authors wish to draw attention when using the Al salts known to be particularly
effective as adjuvants in single or repeated vaccinations. The possible release of Al may
induce other pathologies ascribed to the well-known toxicity of this metal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22425036

“The pathogenic role of aluminium hydroxide
is now recognized by the presence of chronic fatigue syndrome,
macrophagic myofasciitis and subcutaneous pseudolymphoma,
linked to intramuscular injection of
aluminium hydroxide-containing vaccines.”

Current Aging Science • December 2012

Aluminum excytotoxicity and neuroautotoimmunity:
the role of the brain expression of
CD32+ (FcyRIIa), ICAM-1+ and CD3E in aging
Author information
Jovanova-Nesic K1, Shoenfeld Y, Spector NH.
Immunology Research Center Branislav Jankovic
Department of Neuroimmunology, Institute of Virology
Vaccines and Sera-Torlak, Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract
In the central nervous system (CNS) microglia are crucial for the defense of the brain
against invading microorganisms, formation of tumors, and damage following trauma. However, uncontrolled activation of these cells may have deleterious outcomes
through activation of Fcy and the complement 3 receptors and the induction of an
adaptive immune reaction. Proteins contributing to this reaction are the intercellular
adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and CD3 molecules, among others. Both can be expressed on the glia cells before cytokine release and may facilitate an autoimmune
inflammatory reaction in the brain. Round microglial cells among the pyramidal
cells of the hippocampus with increased expression of CD32+ (FcyIIa) and near the
site of injection of aluminum were detected immunohistochemically and indicate
microglial activation at the site of aluminum injury. ICAM-1+ immunoreactivity
significantly increased in the hippocampus and in the choroids plexus, indicating
increased inflammation in the brain as well as increased CD3E+ expression in the
hippocampus and non-MHC-restricted T cytotoxicity after aluminum injection. The
pattern of expression of CD32+ (FcyIIa receptor) near the site of aluminum injection indicates that microglia may play a phagocytic role at the site of aluminum-induced excitotoxicity in the brain. Significant expression of ICAM-1+ and CD3E+
immunoreactive cells with the clusters of ICAM-1+ in the choroid plexus suggests
a consequently neurotoxic autoimmune reaction induced by microglial hyperactivation in the injured brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23387884

“In the central nervous system (CNS)
microglia are crucial for the defense of the brain
against invading microorganisms, formation of tumors,
and damage following trauma. However, uncontrolled
activation of these cells may have deleterious outcomes ...”

“alum has high neurotoxic potential and planning administration of continuously escalating doses of this poorly biodegradable
adjuvant in the population should be carefully evaluated by regulatory agencies since the compound may be insidiously unsafe.”
BMC Medicine • April 2013

Slow CCL2-dependent translocation of biopersistent particles from muscle to brain
Author information
Khan Z1, Combadière C, Authier FJ, Itier V, Lux F, Exley C,
Mahrouf-Yorgov M, Decrouy X, Moretto P, Tillement O, Gherardi RK, Cadusseau J.
INSERM, U955, 8 rue du Général Sarrail, Créteil, 94010, France
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Long-term biodistribution of nanomaterials used in medicine is largely unknown. This is the case for alum, the most widely used vaccine adjuvant,
which is a nanocrystalline compound spontaneously forming micron/submicron-sized agglomerates. Although generally well tolerated, alum is occasionally detected within monocyte-lineage cells long after immunization
in presumably susceptible individuals with systemic/neurologic manifestations or autoimmune (inflammatory) syndrome induced by adjuvants
(ASIA).
METHODS
On the grounds of preliminary investigations in 252 patients with alum-associated ASIA showing both a selective increase of circulating CCL2, the
major monocyte chemoattractant, and a variation in the CCL2 gene, we
designed mouse experiments to assess biodistribution of vaccine-derived
aluminum and of alum-particle fluorescent surrogates injected in muscle.
Aluminum was detected in tissues by Morin stain and particle induced Xray emission) (PIXE) Both 500 nm fluorescent latex beads and vaccine alum
agglomerates-sized nanohybrids (Al-Rho) were used.
RESULTS
Intramuscular injection of alum-containing vaccine was associated with
the appearance of aluminum deposits in distant organs, such as spleen and
brain where they were still detected one year after injection. Both fluorescent materials injected into muscle translocated to draining lymph nodes

(DLNs) and thereafter were detected associated with phagocytes in blood
and spleen. Particles linearly accumulated in the brain up to the six-month
endpoint; they were first found in perivascular CD11b+ cells and then in
microglia and other neural cells. DLN ablation dramatically reduced the
biodistribution. Cerebral translocation was not observed after direct intravenous injection, but significantly increased in mice with chronically altered blood-brain-barrier. Loss/gain-of-function experiments consistently
implicated CCL2 in systemic diffusion of Al-Rho particles captured by
monocyte-lineage cells and in their subsequent neurodelivery. Stereotactic
particle injection pointed out brain retention as a factor of progressive particle accumulation.
CONCLUSION
Nanomaterials can be transported by monocyte-lineage cells to DLNs, blood
and spleen, and, similarly to HIV, may use CCL2-dependent mechanisms
to penetrate the brain. This occurs at a very low rate in normal conditions
explaining good overall tolerance of alum despite its strong neurotoxic potential. However, continuously escalating doses of this poorly biodegradable adjuvant in the population may become insidiously unsafe, especially
in the case of overimmunization or immature/altered blood brain barrier or
high constitutive CCL-2 production.
Full Report:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3616851/

“... a form of the autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA syndrome)
in commercial sheep, linked to the repetitive inoculation of aluminum-containing adjuvants through vaccination.
The syndrome shows an acute phase that affects less than 0.5% of animals in a given herd ...”
[a syndrome that affects 5,000 individuals per each 1 million]
Immunology Research • July 2013

Autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants
(ASIA syndrome)
in commercial sheep
Author information
Luján L1, Pérez M, Salazar E, Álvarez N, Gimeno M,
Pinczowski P, Irusta S, Santamaría J, Insausti N, Cortés Y,
Figueras L, Cuartielles I, Vila M, Fantova E, Chapullé JL.
Department of Animal Pathology
Veterinary Faculty, University of Zaragoza
177 Miguel Servet Street, 50013, Saragossa, Spain
Lluis.Lujan@unizar.es
Abstract
We describe a form of the autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA syndrome) in commercial sheep, linked to the repetitive inoculation of aluminum-containing adjuvants through vaccination. The syndrome shows an acute phase that affects less than 0.5% of animals in a given herd,
it appears 2-6 days after an adjuvant-containing inoculation and it is characterized by an acute neurological episode with low response to external stimuli
and acute meningoencephalitis, most animals apparently recovering afterward. The chronic phase is seen in a higher proportion of flocks, it can follow the
acute phase, and it is triggered by external stimuli, mostly low temperatures. The chronic phase begins with an excitatory phase, followed by weakness,
extreme cachexia, tetraplegia and death. Gross lesions are related to a cachectic process with muscular atrophy, and microscopic lesions are mostly linked
to a neurodegenerative process in both dorsal and ventral column of the gray matter of the spinal cord. Experimental reproduction of ovine ASIA in a small
group of repeatedly vaccinated animals was successful. Detection of Al(III) in tissues indicated the presence of aluminum in the nervous tissue of experimental animals. The present report is the first description of a new sheep syndrome (ovine ASIA syndrome) linked to multiple, repetitive vaccination and
that can have devastating consequences as it happened after the compulsory vaccination against bluetongue in 2008. The ovine ASIA syndrome can be used
as a model of other similar diseases affecting both human and animals. A major research effort is needed in order to understand its complex pathogenesis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23579772

Immunology Research • July 2013

Aluminum in the central nervous system (CNS):
toxicity in humans and animals,
vaccine adjuvants, and autoimmunity
Author information
Shaw CA1, Tomljenovic L.
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia (UBC)
828 W. 10th Ave., Vancouver, BC
V5Z 1L8, Canada
cashawlab@gmail.com
Abstract
We have examined the neurotoxicity of aluminum in humans and animals
under various conditions, following different routes of administration, and
provide an overview of the various associated disease states. The literature
demonstrates clearly negative impacts of aluminum on the nervous system
across the age span. In adults, aluminum exposure can lead to apparently agerelated neurological deficits resembling Alzheimer’s and has been linked to
this disease and to the Guamanian variant, ALS-PDC. Similar outcomes have
been found in animal models. In addition, injection of aluminum adjuvants in
an attempt to model Gulf War syndrome and associated neurological deficits
leads to an ALS phenotype in young male mice. In young children, a highly
significant correlation exists between the number of pediatric aluminum-adjuvanted vaccines administered and the rate of autism spectrum disorders.
Many of the features of aluminum-induced neurotoxicity may arise, in part,
from autoimmune reactions, as part of the ASIA syndrome.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23609067

“In young children, a highly significant
correlation exists between the number of
pediatric aluminum-adjuvanted vaccines
administered and the rate of autism spectrum
disorders. Many of the features of aluminum-induced
neurotoxicity may arise, in part, from autoimmune
reactions, as part of the ASIA syndrome.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • September 2013

Selective accumulation of aluminum
in cerebral arteries in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
Author information
Bhattacharjee S1, Zhao Y, Hill JM, Culicchia F,
Kruck TP, Percy ME, Pogue AI, Walton JR, Lukiw WJ.
Neuroscience Center
Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center
New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
Abstract
Once biologically available aluminum bypasses gastrointestinal and blood-brain barriers, this environmentally-abundant neurotoxin has an exceedingly high affinity for
the large pyramidal neurons of the human brain hippocampus. This same anatomical
region of the brain is also targeted by the earliest evidence of Alzheimer’s disease
(AD) neuropathology. The mechanism for the selective targeting and transport of
aluminum into the hippocampus of the human brain is not well understood. In an
effort to improve our understanding of a pathological aluminum entry system into
the brain, this study examined the aluminum content of 8 arteries that supply blood
to the hippocampus, including the aorta and several cerebral arteries. In contrast to
age-matched controls, in AD patients we found a gradient of increasing aluminum
concentration from the aorta to the posterior cerebral artery that supplies blood to the
hippocampus. Primary cultures of human brain endothelial cells were found to have
an extremely high affinity for aluminum when compared to other types of brain cells.
Together, these results suggest for the first time that endothelial cells that line the cerebral vasculature may have biochemical attributes conducive to binding and targeting aluminum to selective anatomical regions of the brain, such as the hippocampus,
with potential downstream pro-inflammatory and pathogenic consequences.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23764827

“Once biologically available aluminum bypasses
gastrointestinal and blood-brain barriers, this
environmentally-abundant neurotoxin has an
exceedingly high affinity for the large pyramidal
neurons of the human brain hippocampus. This
same anatomical region of the brain is also targeted
by the earliest evidence of Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
neuropathology. The mechanism for the selective
targeting and transport of aluminum into the
hippocampus of the human brain is not well understood.”

“All 30 infant formulas were contaminated with aluminium.”
BMC Pediatrics • October 2013

The aluminium content of infant formulas remains too high
Author information
Chuchu N1, Patel B, Sebastian B, Exley C.
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
c.exley@keele.ac.uk
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Recent research published in this journal highlighted the issue of the high content of aluminium in infant formulas. The expectation was that the
findings would serve as a catalyst for manufacturers to address a significant problem of these, often necessary, components of infant nutrition.
It is critically important that parents and other users have confidence in the safety of infant formulas and that they have reliable information to
use in choosing a product with a lower content of aluminium. Herein, we have significantly extended the scope of the previous research and the
aluminium content of 30 of the most widely available and often used infant formulas has been measured.
METHODS
Both ready-to-drink milks and milk powders were subjected to microwave digestion in the presence of 15.8 M HNO3 and 30% w/v H2O2 and
the aluminium content of the digests was measured by TH GFAAS.
RESULTS
Both ready-to-drink milks and milk powders were contaminated with aluminium. The concentration of aluminium across all milk products
ranged from ca 100 to 430 μg/L. The concentration of aluminium in two soya-based milk products was 656 and 756 μg/L. The intake of aluminium from non-soya-based infant formulas varied from ca 100 to 300 μg per day. For soya-based milks it could be as high as 700 μg per day.
CONCLUSIONS
All 30 infant formulas were contaminated with aluminium. There was no clear evidence that subsequent to the problem of aluminium being
highlighted in a previous publication in this journal that contamination had been addressed and reduced. It is the opinion of the authors that
regulatory and other non-voluntary methods are now required to reduce the aluminium content of infant formulas and thereby protect infants
from chronic exposure to dietary aluminium.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3851493/

“... aluminum has the potential to induce damage at a range of levels in the Central Nervous System
leading to neuronal death, circuit malfunction, and ultimately system failure.”
Immunome Research • October 2013

Aluminums Role in
CNS-immune System Interactions leading to Neurological Disorders
Shaw CA1,2,3*, Kette SD4, Davidson RM5 and Seneff S6
1. Neural Dynamics Research Group, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
828 W. 10th Ave., Vancouver, British Columbia, V5Z1L8, Canada
2. Program Experimental Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V5Z1L8, Canada
3. Program in Neurosciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V5Z1L8, Canada
4. Independent researcher, Hudson, FL 34667, USA
5.Internal Medicine Group Practice, PhyNet, Inc., 4002 Technology Center, Longview, TX 75605, USA
6. MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, 32 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

Abstract
Multisystem interactions are well established in neurological disorders, in spite of conventional views that only
the central nervous system (CNS) is impacted. We review evidence for mutual interactions between the immune
and nervous systems and show how these seem to be implicated in the origin and progression of nervous system
disorders. Well-established immune system triggers leading to autoimmune reactions are considered. Of these,
aluminum, a known neurotoxicant, may be of particular importance. We have demonstrated elsewhere that
aluminum has the potential to induce damage at a range of levels in the CNS leading to neuronal death, circuit
malfunction, and ultimately system failure. Aluminum is widely used as an adjuvant in various vaccine formulations and has been implicated in a multisystem disorder termed autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by
adjuvants (ASIA). The implications of aluminum-induced ASIA in some disorders of the CNS are considered.
We propose a unified theory capturing a progression from a local response to a systemic response initiated by
disruption of water-based interfaces of exposed cells.
http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/aluminums-role-in-cnsimmune-system-interactions-leading-to-neurological-disorders-14822-1745-7580-9-069.php?aid=20403

Environmental Science • Processes And Impacts • October 2013

Human exposure to aluminium
Author information
Christopher Exley
The Birchall Centre
Lennard-Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
c.exley@keele.ac.uk
Abstract
Human activities have circumvented the efficient geochemical cycling of aluminium within the lithosphere and therewith opened a door, which was previously
only ajar, onto the biotic cycle to instigate and promote the accumulation of aluminium in biota and especially humans. Neither these relatively recent activities
nor the entry of aluminium into the living cycle are showing any signs of abating
and it is thus now imperative that we understand as fully as possible how humans
are exposed to aluminium and the future consequences of a burgeoning exposure
and body burden. The aluminium age is upon us and there is now an urgent need
to understand how to live safely and effectively with aluminium.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23982047

“The aluminium age is upon us
and there is now an urgent need
to understand how to live safely
and effectively with aluminium.”

Communications In Integrated Biology • November 2013

Aluminum and the human diet revisited
Christopher A Shaw and Thomas E Marler
Abstract
Concerns about aluminum (Al) exposure in the human diet have persisted
for one century. We suggest that continued research would benefit from
better reporting of environmental factors that are known to influence Al
accumulation in plant organs that are consumed, focusing on subsets of
the general public that exhibit the highest risk for neuropathological responses, increased evaluation of commercial processing procedures that
may concentrate Al or other toxic substances, and designing studies with
low dose, chronic exposure rather than further study of acute, brief exposure.
Neurological Disorders
Cognitive decline and central nervous system (CNS) pathologies that resemble those of Alzheimer are induced by Al in older rats.20 Soil and
water sources of Al were implicated in the ALS-parkinsonism dementia
complex on Guam.21 Additionally, the acute effects of higher doses of
Al-induced dialysis associated encephalopathy in humans are well documented.22
The route of administration of Al plays a key role in the type of neurotoxicity exhibited. While most dietary Al is removed by the kidneys, those
lacking mature or patent kidney function such as pediatric and geriatric
subjects may be more likely to accumulate Al in different organs, including the CNS. Injected Al from Al adjuvants in vaccines have a very
different fate and appear to be picked up from the draining lymph nodes
by circulating macrophages and transported into the CNS.23 Motor neuron loss following Al hydroxide injections in mice and sheep24-26 and
macrophagic myofasciitis in humans involving cognitive dysfunction in
humans.27 Al adjuvants have also been linked to a series of autoimmune
disorders in humans.28
Developmental neurological disorders such as autism spectrum disorder
(ASD) also have a potential Al link through the accumulative weight of
pediatric vaccines, many of which contain Al as adjuvants.29 Indeed,
there is a highly significant correlation between ASD rates and cumulative Al adjuvant amount,30 a correlation that satisfies eight of nine Hill
criteria for causality. Similar outcomes are found in new born mice injected with Al adjuvants.31 A recent review also links Al to ASD.32
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24505503

“Developmental neurological disorders
such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) also have
a potential Aluminum link through the accumulative
weight of pediatric vaccines, many of which contain
Aluminum as adjuvants.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2013

Administration of aluminium
to neonatal mice in vaccine-relevant amounts
is associated with adverse long term
neurological outcomes
Author information
Shaw CA1, Li Y, Tomljenovic L.
Dept. of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Program in Experimental Medicine
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Program in Neuroscience
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
cashawlab@gmail.com
Abstract
Our previous ecological studies of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has demonstrated a correlation between increasing ASD rates and aluminium (Al) adjuvants
in common use in paediatric vaccines in several Western countries. The correlation between ASD rate and Al adjuvant amounts appears to be dose-dependent
and satisfies 8 of 9 Hill criteria for causality. We have now sought to provide an
animal model to explore potential behavioural phenotypes and central nervous
system (CNS) alterations using s.c. injections of Al hydroxide in early postnatal
CD-1 mice of both sexes. Injections of a “high” and “low” Al adjuvant levels
were designed to correlate to either the U.S. or Scandinavian paediatric vaccine
schedules vs. control saline-injected mice. Both male and female mice in the “high
Al” group showed significant weight gains following treatment up to sacrifice at
6 months of age. Male mice in the “high Al” group showed significant changes in
light-dark box tests and in various measures of behaviour in an open field. Female
mice showed significant changes in the light-dark box at both doses, but no significant changes in open field behaviours. These current data implicate Al injected
in early postnatal life in some CNS alterations that may be relevant for a better
understanding of the aetiology of ASD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23932735

“Our previous ecological studies
of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
has demonstrated a correlation between
increasing Autism Spectrum Disorder rates
and aluminium (Al) adjuvants in common use
in paediatric vaccines in several
Western countries.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2013

Aluminium based adjuvants
and their effects on mitochondria and lysosomes
of phagocytosing cells
Author information
Ohlsson L1, Exley C, Darabi A, Sandén E, Siesjö P, Eriksson H.
Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science
Faculty of Health and Society
Malmö University
SE-205 06 Malmö, Sweden
Abstract
Aluminium oxyhydroxide, Al(OH)3 is one of few compounds approved as
an adjuvant in human vaccines. However, the mechanism behind its immune
stimulating properties is still poorly understood. In vitro co-culture of an
aluminium adjuvant and the human monocytic cell line THP-1 resulted in
reduced cell proliferation. Inhibition occurred at concentrations of adjuvant
several times lower than would be found at the injection site using a vaccine formulation containing an aluminium adjuvant. Based on evaluation of
the mitochondrial membrane potential, THP-1 cells showed no mitochondrial
rupture after co-culture with the aluminium adjuvant, instead an increase in
mitochondrial activity was seen. The THP-1 cells are phagocytosing cells and
after co-culture with the aluminium adjuvant the phagosomal pathway was
obstructed. Primary or early phagosomes mature into phagolysosomes with
an internal pH of 4.5 - 5 and carry a wide variety of hydrolysing enzymes. Coculture with the aluminium adjuvant yielded a reduced level of acidic vesicles
and cathepsin L activity, a proteolytic enzyme of the phagolysosomes, was
almost completely inhibited. THP-1 cells are an appropriate in vitro model in
order to investigate the mechanism behind the induction of a phagocytosing
antigen presenting cell into an inflammatory cell by aluminium adjuvants.
Much information will be gained by investigating the phagosomal pathway
and what occurs inside the phagosomes and to elucidate the ultimate fate of
phagocytosed aluminium particles.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23992993

“Much information will be gained
by investigating the phagosomal pathway
and what occurs inside the phagosomes and
to elucidate the ultimate fate of phagocytosed
aluminium particles.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2013

Aluminium and breast cancer:
Sources of exposure, tissue measurements
and mechanisms of toxicological actions
on breast biology
Author information
Darbre PD1, Mannello F, Exley C.
School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading
Reading RG6 6UB, UK
p.d.darbre@reading.ac.uk
Abstract
This review examines recent evidence linking exposure to aluminium
with the aetiology of breast cancer. The human population is exposed
to aluminium throughout daily life including through diet, application
of antiperspirants, use of antacids and vaccination. Aluminium has
now been measured in a range of human breast structures at higher
levels than in blood serum and experimental evidence suggests that the
tissue concentrations measured have the potential to adversely influence breast epithelial cells including generation of genomic instability, induction of anchorage-independent proliferation and interference
in oestrogen action. The presence of aluminium in the human breast
may also alter the breast microenvironment causing disruption to iron
metabolism, oxidative damage to cellular components, inflammatory
responses and alterations to the motility of cells. The main research
need is now to investigate whether the concentrations of aluminium
measured in the human breast can lead in vivo to any of the effects
observed in cells in vitro and this would be aided by the identification
of biomarkers specific for aluminium action.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23899626

“Aluminium has now been measured
in a range of human breast structures
at higher levels than in blood serum
and experimental evidence suggests
that the tissue concentrations measured
have the potential to adversely influence
breast epithelial cells including generation
of genomic instability, induction of
anchorage-independent proliferation and
interference in oestrogen action.”

Immunome Research • 2013

Aluminum’s Role in CNS-immune System Interactions
leading to Neurological Disorders
Shaw CA1,2,3*, Kette SD4, Davidson RM5 and Seneff S6
1. Neural Dynamics Research Group, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
828 W. 10th Ave., Vancouver, British Columbia, V5Z1L8, Canada
2. Program Experimental Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V5Z1L8, Canada
3. Program in Neurosciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V5Z1L8, Canada
4. Independent researcher, Hudson, FL 34667, USA
5. Internal Medicine Group Practice, PhyNet, Inc., 4002 Technology Center, Longview, TX 75605, USA
6. MIT Computer Science and Arti cial Intelligence Laboratory, 32 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

Abstract
Multisystem interactions are well established in neurological disorders, in spite of conventional
views that only the central nervous system (CNS) is impacted. We review evidence for mutual interactions between the immune and nervous systems and show how these seem to be implicated in
the origin and progression of nervous system disorders. Well-established immune system triggers
leading to autoimmune reactions are considered. Of these, aluminum, a known neurotoxicant,
may be of particular importance. We have demonstrated elsewhere that aluminum has the potential to induce damage at a range of levels in the CNS leading to neuronal death, circuit malfunction and ultimately, system failure. Aluminum is widely used as an adjuvant in various vaccine
formulations and has been implicated in a multisystem disorder termed “autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants” (ASIA). The implications of aluminum-induced ASIA in
some disorders of the CNS are considered. We propose a unified theory capturing a progression
from a local response to a systemic response initiated by disruption of water-based interfaces of
exposed cells.
https://people.csail.mit.edu/seneff/Shaw_et_al_Immunome_Res_2013.pdf

“The implications of aluminum-induced ASIA
in some disorders of the Central Nervous System are considered.”

“Unfortunately, despite its favorable safety profile, aluminum hydroxide
can only weakly or moderately potentiate antigen-specific antibody responses.
Simply reducing the particle size of the traditional aluminum hydroxide adjuvant into nanometers
represents a novel and effective approach to improve its adjuvanticity.”
Journal Of Controlled Release • January 2014

Aluminum hydroxide nanoparticles
show a stronger vaccine adjuvant activity
than traditional aluminum hydroxide microparticles
Author information
Li X, Aldayel AM, Cui Z.
The University of Texas at Austin
College of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutics Division
Austin, TX 78712, USA
Abstract
Aluminum hydroxide is used as a vaccine adjuvant in various human vaccines. Unfortunately, despite its favorable safety profile, aluminum hydroxide
can only weakly or moderately potentiate antigen-specific antibody responses. When dispersed in an aqueous solution, aluminum hydroxide forms
particulates of 1-20μm. There is increasing evidence that nanoparticles around or less than 200nm as vaccine or antigen carriers have a more potent
adjuvant activity than large microparticles. In the present study, we synthesized aluminum hydroxide nanoparticles of 112nm. Using ovalbumin and
Bacillus anthracis protective antigen protein as model antigens, we showed that protein antigens adsorbed on the aluminum hydroxide nanoparticles
induced a stronger antigen-specific antibody response than the same protein antigens adsorbed on the traditional aluminum hydroxide microparticles of
around 9.3μm. The potent adjuvant activity of the aluminum hydroxide nanoparticles was likely related to their ability to more effectively facilitate the
uptake of the antigens adsorbed on them by antigen-presenting cells. Finally, the local inflammation induced by aluminum hydroxide nanoparticles in
the injection sites was milder than that induced by microparticles. Simply reducing the particle size of the traditional aluminum hydroxide adjuvant into
nanometers represents a novel and effective approach to improve its adjuvanticity.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3918952/

Bulletin de l’Academie Nationale de Medecine • January 2014

Biopersistence and systemic distribution
of intramuscularly injected particles:
what impact on long-term tolerability of alum adjuvants?
Gherardi RK, Cadusseau J, Authier FJ.
Abstract
Aluminium oxyhydroxide (alum), a nanocrystalline compound that forms agglomerates,
has been widely used as a vaccine adjuvant since 1927, but the mechanisms by which it
stimulates immune responses remain poorly understood. Although generally well tolerated,
alum may occasionally cause chronic health problems in presumably susceptible individuals. Some individuals may rarely develop delayed-onset diffuse myalgia, chronic exhaustion
and cognitive dysfunction, associated with long-term persistence (up to 12 years) of alumloaded macrophages at site of i.m. immunization, defining so-called macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF). Symptoms are consistent with the chronic fatigue/myalgic encephalomyelitis
(CFS/ME) syndrome, and have been used as a paradigm of the “autoimmune/inflammatory
syndrome induced by adjuvants” (ASIA). Cognitive dysfunction is reminiscent of that described in workers exposed to inhaled Al particles. Individual susceptibility may influence
both alum biopersistence and difusion away from injection sites. Biopersistent particles such
as fluorescent alum-coated nanohybrids, when injected into mouse muscle, are captured by
monocyte-lineage cells and then carried to distant organs, draining lymph nodes and blood,
probably via the thoracic duct, with delayed and accumulative translocation to the brain (microglial cells). Brain penetration occurs at extremely low levels in normal conditions, possibly explaining the good tolerance of alum despite its high neurotoxic potential. However,
systemic diffusion is considerably enhanced by the potentiating effect of MCP-1, the main
monocyte chemoattractant factor, the production of which is subject to marked variations
linked to age and to genetic and environmental factors. Selective MCP-1 elevation is the
only known circulating biomarker of MMF.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26259285

“Biopersistent particles such as
fluorescent alum-coated nanohybrids, when injected into mouse
muscle, are captured by monocyte-lineage cells and then carried
to distant organs, draining lymph nodes and blood, probably via
the thoracic duct, with delayed and accumulative translocation
to the brain (microglial cells). Brain penetration occurs at
extremely low levels in normal conditions, possibly explaining
the good tolerance of alum despite its high neurotoxic potential.”

Clinical And Experimental Immunology • January 2014

Effects of adjuvants for human use
in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-prone
(New Zealand black/New Zealand white) F1 mice
Author information
Favoino E1, Favia EI, Digiglio L,
Racanelli V, Shoenfeld Y, Perosa F.
Department of Internal Medicine (DIMO)
Rheumatologic and Systemic Autoimmune Diseases
and Internal Medicine Section
University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy
Abstract
The safety of four different adjuvants was assessed in lupus-prone New Zealand black/New Zealand white (BW)F1 mice. Four groups of mice were injected intraperitoneally with incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (IFA), complete
Freund’s adjuvant (CFA), squalene (SQU) or aluminium hydroxide (ALU). An
additional group received plain phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (UNT group).
Mice were primed at week 9 and boosted every other week up to week 15. Proteinuria became detectable at weeks 17 (IFA group), 24 (CFA group), 28 (SQU
and ALU groups) and 32 (UNT group). Different mean values were obtained
among the groups from weeks 17 to 21 [week 17: one-way analysis of variance
(anova) P = 0·016; weeks 18 and 19: P = 0·048; weeks 20 and 21: P = 0·013]
being higher in the IFA group than the others [Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post-test P < 0·05]. No differences in anti-DNA antibody levels
were observed among groups. Anti-RNP/Sm antibody developed at week 19 in
only one CFA-treated mouse. Mean mouse weight at week 18 was lower in the
ALU group than the IFA (Tukey’s HSD post-test P = 0·04), CFA (P = 0·01) and
SQU (P < 0·0001) groups, while the mean weight in the SQU group was higher
than in the IFA (P = 0·009), CFA (P = 0·013) and UNT (P = 0·005) groups. The
ALU group weight decreased by almost half between weeks 29 and 31, indicating some toxic effect of ALU in the late post-immunization period. Thus,
SQU was the least toxic adjuvant as it did not (i) accelerate proteinuria onset
compared to IFA; (ii) induce toxicity compared to ALU or (iii) elicit anti-RNP/
Sm autoantibody, as occurred in the CFA group.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24112107

“The aluminum group weight
decreased by almost half between weeks 29 and 31,
indicating some toxic effect of aluminum
in the late post-immunization period.”

Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology • January 2014

Aluminium adjuvants
and adverse events in
sub-cutaneous allergy immunotherapy
Christopher Exley
The Birchall Centre
Lennard-Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
c.exley@keele.ac.uk
Abstract
Sub-cutaneous immunotherapy is an effective treatment for allergy.
It works by helping to modify or re-balance an individual’s immune
response to allergens and its efficacy is greatly improved by the use
of adjuvants, most commonly, aluminium hydroxide. Aluminium salts
have been used in allergy therapy for many decades and are assumed to
be safe with few established side-effects. This assumption belies their
potency as adjuvants and their potential for biological reactivity both at
injection sites and elsewhere in the body. There are very few data purporting to the safety of aluminium adjuvants in allergy immunotherapy
and particularly so in relation to longer term health effects. There are,
if only few, published reports of adverse events following allergy immunotherapy and aluminium adjuvants are the prime suspects in the
majority of such incidents. Aluminium adjuvants are clearly capable
of initiating unwanted side effects in recipients of immunotherapy and
while there is as yet no evidence that such are commonplace it is complacent to consider aluminium salts as harmless constituents of allergy
therapies. Future research should establish the safety of the use of aluminium adjuvants in sub-cutaneous allergy immunotherapy.
http://www.aacijournal.com/content/10/1/4

“Aluminium salts
have been used in allergy therapy for
many decades and are assumed to be
safe with few established side-effects.
This assumption belies their potency as
adjuvants and their potential for
biological reactivity both at injection
sites and elsewhere in the body.”

Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal • March 2014

Aluminium in Biological Environments:
A Computational Approach
Author Information
Jon I Mujika,a Elixabete Rezabal,b
Jose M Mercero,a Fernando Ruipérez,c Dominique Costa,d
Jesus M Ugalde,a and Xabier Lopeza
a. Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU)
and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)
P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
b. Laboratoire de Chimie Moleculaire
Department of Chemistry, Ecole Polytechnique and CNRS
91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
c. POLYMAT, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU
Joxe Mari Korta zentroa, Tolosa Etorbidea 72
20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Euskadi, Spain
d. Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie des Surfaces (UMR 7045)
ENSCP Chimie-Paristech, 11 rue P. et M. Curie, 75005 Paris, France
Abstract
The increased availability of aluminium in biological environments, due to human intervention in
the last century, raises concerns on the effects that this so far “excluded from biology” metal might
have on living organisms. Consequently, the bioinorganic chemistry of aluminium has emerged as
a very active field of research. This review will focus on our contributions to this field, based on
computational studies that can yield an understanding of the aluminum biochemistry at a molecular
level. Aluminium can interact and be stabilized in biological environments by complexing with
both low molecular mass chelants and high molecular mass peptides. The speciation of the metal
is, nonetheless, dictated by the hydrolytic species dominant in each case and which vary according
to the pH condition of the medium. In blood, citrate and serum transferrin are identified as the main
low molecular mass and high molecular mass molecules interacting with aluminium. The complexation of aluminium to citrate and the subsequent changes exerted on the deprotonation pathways
of its tritable groups will be discussed along with the mechanisms for the intake and release of aluminium in serum transferrin at two pH conditions, physiological neutral and endosomatic acidic.
Aluminium can substitute other metals, in particular magnesium, in protein buried sites and trigger
conformational disorder and alteration of the protonation states of the protein’s sidechains. A detailed account of the interaction of aluminium with proteic sidechains will be given. Finally, it will
be described how alumnium can exert oxidative stress by stabilizing superoxide radicals either as
mononuclear aluminium or clustered in boehmite. The possibility of promotion of Fenton reaction,
and production of hydroxyl radicals will also be discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3995234/

“The increased availability of aluminium
in biological environments, due to human
intervention in the last century, raises concerns
on the effects that this so far “excluded from biology”
metal might have on living organisms.”

“There is prolonged retention of a fraction of aluminium that enters the brain ...”

Neurotoxicology • March 2014

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction
in aluminium neurotoxicity and its amelioration: a review
Author information
Kumar V1, Gill KD2.
1. Department of Biochemistry, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India
2. Department of Biochemistry, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India
Department of Biochemistry, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research
Chandigarh, India
kdgill2002@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Aluminium is light weight and toxic metal present ubiquitously on earth which has gained considerable attention due to its neurotoxic effects. The widespread use of products made from or containing
aluminium is ensuring its presence in our body. There is prolonged retention of a fraction of aluminium
that enters the brain, suggesting its potential for accumulation with repeated exposures. There is no
known biological role for aluminium within the body but adverse physiological effects of this metal
have been observed in mammals. The generation of oxidative stress may be attributed to its toxic
consequences in animals and humans. The oxidative stress has been implicated in pathogenesis of
various neurodegenerative conditions including Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Though
it remains unclear whether oxidative stress is a major cause or merely a consequence of cellular dysfunction associated with neurodegenerative diseases, an accumulating body of evidence implicates that
impaired mitochondrial energy production and increased mitochondrial oxidative damage is associated
with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Being involved in the production of reactive
oxygen species, aluminium may impair mitochondrial bioenergetics and may lead to the generation of
oxidative stress. In this review, we have discussed the oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunctions
occurring in Al neurotoxicity. In addition, the ameliorative measures undertaken in aluminium induced
oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunctions have also been highlighted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24560992

Journal Of Trace Elements In Medical Biology • April 2014

If exposure to aluminium in antiperspirants
presents health risks, its content should be reduced
Author information
Pineau A1, Fauconneau B2, Sappino AP3, Deloncle R4, Guillard O5.
1. Université de Nantes, Faculté de Pharmacie
Laboratoire de Toxicologie, 44035 Nantes, France
2. Université de Poitiers, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie
Service de Pharmacologie clinique, CHU Poitiers, 86021 Poitiers, France
3. Clinique des Grangettes, Chemin des Grangettes 7
1224 Chêne-Bougeries, Confédération Helvétique, Switzerland
4. Université de Tours, Faculté de Pharmacie, Laboratoire de Toxicologie, 37000 Tours, France
5. Université de Poitiers, Faculté de Médecine et Pharmacie
6 rue de la Milétrie, 86034 Poitiers, France
olivier.guillard@univ-poitiers.fr
Abstract
Since aluminium (Al) pervades our environment, the scientific community has for many years
raised concerns regarding its safety in humans. Al is present in numerous cosmetics such as antiperspirants, lipsticks and sunscreens. Al chlorohydrate is the active antiperspirant agent in underarm cosmetics and may constitute for Al a key exposure route to the human body and a potential
source of damage. An in vitro study has demonstrated that Al from antiperspirant can be absorbed
through viable human stripped skin. The potential toxicity of Al has been clearly shown and recent works convincingly argue that Al could be involved in cancerogenic processes. Nowadays,
for example, Al is suspected of being involved in breast cancer. Recent work in cells in culture
has lent credence to the hypothesis that this metal could accumulate in the mammary gland and
selectively interfere with the biological properties of breast epithelial cells, thereby promoting a
cascade of alterations reminiscent of the early phases of malignant transformation. In addition,
several studies suggest that the presence of Al in human breast could influence metastatic process.
As a consequence, given that the toxicity of Al has been widely recognized and that it is not a
physiological component in human tissues, reducing the concentration of this metal in antiperspirants is a matter of urgency.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24418462

“Al chlorohydrate is the active antiperspirant agent
in underarm cosmetics and may constitute for Aluminum
a key exposure route to the human body and a potential source
of damage. An in vitro study has demonstrated that Aluminum
from antiperspirant can be absorbed through viable human
stripped skin. The potential toxicity of Aluminum has
been clearly shown and recent works convincingly argue that
Aluminum could be involved in cancerogenic processes.”

World Journal Of Pediatrics • May 2014

Aluminum exposure and toxicity in neonates:
a practical guide to halt aluminum overload
in the prenatal and perinatal periods
Author information
Fanni D1, Ambu R, Gerosa C, Nemolato S,
Iacovidou N, Van Eyken P, Fanos V, Zaffanello M, Faa G.
Department of Pathology
University Hospital San Giovanni di Dio
AOU Cagliari and University of Cagliari
Cagliari, Italy
Abstract
BACKGROUND
During the last years, human newborns have been overexposed to biologically reactive
aluminum, with possible relevant consequences on their future health and on their susceptibility to a variety of diseases. Children, newborns and particularly preterm neonates are
at an increased risk of aluminum toxicity because of their relative immaturity.
DATA SOURCES
Based on recent original publications and classical data of the literatures, we reviewed the
aluminum content in mother’s food during the intrauterine life as well as in breast milk
and infant formula during lactation. We also determined the possible role of aluminum in
parenteral nutrition solutions, in adjuvants of vaccines and in pharmaceutical products. A
special focus is placed on the relationship between aluminum overexposure and the insurgence of bone diseases.
RESULTS
Practical points of management and prevention are suggested. Aluminum sources that infants may receive during the first 6 months of life are presented. In the context of prevention of possible adverse effects of aluminum overload in fetal tissues during development,
simple suggestions to pregnant women are described. Finally, practical points of management and prevention are suggested.
CONCLUSIONS
Pediatricians and neonatologists must be more concerned about aluminum content in all
products our newborns are exposed to, starting from monitoring aluminum concentrations
in milk- and soy-based formulas in which, on the basis of recent studies, there is still too
much aluminum.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24801228

“Pediatricians and neonatologists
must be more concerned about aluminum content
in all products our newborns are exposed to, starting from
monitoring aluminum concentrations in milk and soy
based formulas in which, on the basis of recent studies,
there is still too much aluminum.”

Mucosal Immunology • May 2014

Aluminum enhances inflammation
and decreases mucosal healing in
experimental colitis in mice
Author information
Pineton de Chambrun G1, Body-Malapel M2,
Frey-Wagner I3, Djouina M2, Deknuydt F4, Atrott K3,
Esquerre N2, Altare F4, Neut C5, Arrieta MC6, Kanneganti TD7,
Rogler G3, Colombel JF1, Cortot A1, Desreumaux P1, Vignal C2
1. Univ Lille Nord de France, Lille, France [2] Inserm U995, Lille, France [3] UDSL, Lille, France [4]
Hepato-Gastroenterology Department, CHU Lille, Lille, France
2. Univ Lille Nord de France, Lille, France [2] Inserm U995, Lille, France [3] UDSL, Lille, France
3. Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
4. INSERM, UMR892, Nantes, France [2] CNRS, UMR6299, Nantes, France [3]
Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
5. Univ Lille Nord de France, Lille, France [2] Inserm U995, Lille, France [3]
UDSL, Lille, France [4] Clinical Bacteriology, College of Pharmacy, Lille, France
6. Finlay Lab, Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
7. Department of Immunology, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA

Abstract
The increasing incidence of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) in developing countries has highlighted the critical role of environmental pollutants as causative factors in
their pathophysiology. Despite its ubiquity and immune toxicity, the impact of aluminum in the gut is not known. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of environmentally relevant intoxication with aluminum in murine models of colitis and to explore the
underlying mechanisms. Oral administration of aluminum worsened intestinal inflammation in mice with 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid- and dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis and chronic colitis in interleukin 10-negative (IL10(-/-)) mice. Aluminum
increased the intensity and duration of macroscopic and histologic inflammation, colonic myeloperoxidase activity, inflammatory cytokines expression, and decreased the epithelial cell renewal compared with control animals. Under basal conditions, aluminum
impaired intestinal barrier function. In vitro, aluminum induced granuloma formation
and synergized with lipopolysaccharide to stimulate inflammatory cytokines expression by epithelial cells. Deleterious effects of aluminum on intestinal inflammation and
mucosal repair strongly suggest that aluminum might be an environmental IBD risk
factor.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24129165

“Deleterious effects of aluminum on
intestinal inflammation and mucosal repair
strongly suggest that aluminum might be an
environmental Inflammatory Bowel Disease risk factor.”

Expert Reviews In Neurotherapy • June 2014

What is the risk of aluminium as a neurotoxin?
by Christopher Exley
The Birchall Centre
Lennard- Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
The body burden of aluminium:
To understand or even appreciate the risk that aluminium poses as a neurotoxin, we will need to further our understanding of the body burden of
aluminium and we will need to implement measures to reduce the body
burden to a lowest practical limit. I have recently reformulated the definition of aluminium’s body burden placing it into the context of what I have
called aluminium’s exposome [13]. We have also been investigating noninvasive ways to reduce the uptake of aluminium into the body and, importantly, to facilitate the excretion of aluminium from the body. We were
successful in lowering the body burden of aluminium in individuals with
moderate-to-severe AD and concomitantly we were able to demonstrate
clinically significant improvements in cognitive performance in some individuals [14]. These experiments offer some hope that the aluminium
hypothesis of AD, and indeed other neurodegenerative diseases, might be
tested by lowering the body burden of aluminium in affected individuals.
Then we might be able to ascertain if AD, for example, is the human manifestation of the risk of aluminium as a known neurotoxin.

“Then we might be able to ascertain
if AD, for example, is the human
manifestation of the risk of
aluminium as a known neurotoxin.”

https://www.futsci.com/uploads/project/file/da0e1cb2dbea30e405db672eea4290b35a0d6a90.pdf

“There is now sufficient evidence from both human and animal studies
showing that cumulative exposure to aluminium adjuvants is not as benign as previously assumed.”
Autism • Causes & Prevalence • June 2014

Etiology of autism spectrum disorders: Genes, environment, or both?
C Shaw1*, S Sheth1, D Li1, L Tomljenovic1
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
cashawlab@gmail.com
Abstract
Thus far, most of the research on both neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders has been focused on finding the
presumed underlying genetic causes, while much less emphasis has been put on potential environmental factors. While some
forms of autism are clearly genetic, the fact remains that heritability factors cannot adequately explain all reported cases nor
their drastic increase over the last few decades. In particular, studies on twins have now shown that common environmental
factors account for 55% of their risk for developing autism while genetic susceptibility explains only 37% of cases. Because
the prenatal environment and early postnatal environment are shared between twins and because overt symptoms of autism
emerge around the end of the first year of life, it is likely that at least some of the environmental factors contributing to the
risk of autism exert their deleterious neurodevelopmental effect during this early period of life. Indeed, evidence has now
emerged showing that autism may in part result from early-life immune insults induced by environmental xenobiotics. One
of the most common xenobiotic with immuno-stimulating as well as neurotoxic properties to which infants under two years
of age are routinely exposed worldwide is the aluminum (Al) vaccine adjuvant. In this review we discuss the mechanisms
by which Al can induce adverse neurological and immunological effects and how these may provide important clues of Al’s
putative role in autism. Because of the tight connection between the development of the immune and the central nervous
system, the possibility that immune-overstimulation in early infancy via vaccinations may play a role in neurobehavioural
disorders needs to be carefully considered.
Conclusion
There is now sufficient evidence from both human and animal studies showing that cumulative exposure to aluminium
adjuvants is not as benign as previously assumed. Given that vaccines are the only medical intervention that we attempt to
deliver to every living human on earth and that by far the largest target population for vaccination are healthy children, a
better appreciation and understanding of vaccine adjuvant risks appears warranted.
http://www.oapublishinglondon.com/article/1368

Vaccine • July 2014

Aluminium
in allergen-specific subcutaneous immunotherapy—
a German perspective
Author information
Kramer MF1, Heath MD2.
1. Bencard Allergie GmbH, Messerschmittstr. 4, 80992 München, Germany.
2. Allergy Therapeutics, Plc. Dominion Way, Worthing BN14 8SA, United Kingdom
matthew.heath@allergytherapeutics.com
Abstract
We are living in an “aluminium age” with increasing bioavailability of the metal for approximately 125 years,
contributing significantly to the aluminium body burden of humans. Over the course of life, aluminium accumulates and is stored predominantly in the lungs, bones, liver, kidneys and brain. The toxicity of aluminium in
humans is briefly summarised, highlighting links and possible causal relationships between a high aluminium
body burden and a number of neurological disorders and disease states. Aluminium salts have been used as depot-adjuvants successfully in essential prophylactic vaccinations for almost 100 years, with a convincing positive benefit-risk assessment which remains unchanged. However, allergen-specific immunotherapy commonly
consists of administering a long-course programme of subcutaneous injections using preparations of relevant
allergens. Regulatory authorities currently set aluminium limits for vaccines per dose, rather than per treatment
course. Unlike prophylactic vaccinations, numerous injections with higher proportions of aluminium-adjuvant
per injection are applied in subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) and will significantly contribute to a higher
cumulative life dose of aluminium. While the human body may cope robustly with a daily aluminium overload
from the environment, regulatory cumulative threshold values in immunotherapy need further addressing. Based
on the current literature, predisposing an individual to an unusually high level of aluminium, such as through
subcutaneous immunotherapy, has the potential to form focal accumulations in the body with the propensity to
exert forms of toxicity. Particularly in relation to longer-term health effects, the safety of aluminium adjuvants in
immunotherapy remains unchallenged by health authorities - evoking the need for more consideration, guidance,
and transparency on what is known and not known about its safety in long-course therapy and what measures can
be taken to prevent or minimise its risks. The possibility of providing an effective means of measuring aluminium
accumulation in patients undergoing long-term SCIT treatment as well as reducing their aluminium body burden
is discussed.
Full Report
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X14007397

“... the safety of aluminium adjuvants
in immunotherapy remains unchallenged
by health authorities - evoking the need
for more consideration ...”

“... there is only a limited understanding of the response of regulatory T cells
to aluminum adjuvants and the vaccines that contain them.”
Vaccine • September 2014

A role for impaired regulatory T cell function
in adverse responses to aluminum adjuvant-containing vaccines
in genetically susceptible individuals
Author information
Terhune TD, Deth RC.
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
toddterhune@comcast.net
Abstract
Regulatory T cells play a critical role in the immune response to vaccination, but there is only a limited understanding of the response of regulatory T cells to aluminum adjuvants and the vaccines that contain them. Available studies in animal models show that although induced T regulatory cells may be induced concomitantly with
effector T cells following aluminum-adjuvanted vaccination, they are unable to protect against sensitization,
suggesting that under the Th2 immune-stimulating effects of aluminum adjuvants, Treg cells may be functionally compromised. Allergic diseases are characterized by immune dysregulation, with increases in IL-4 and IL-6,
both of which exert negative effects on Treg function. For individuals with a genetic predisposition, the beneficial
influence of adjuvants on immune responsiveness may be accompanied by immune dysregulation, leading to allergic diseases. This review examines aspects of the regulatory T cell response to aluminum-adjuvanted immunization and possible genetic susceptibility factors related to that response.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25066736

Journal Of Toxicology • October 2014

Aluminum-induced entropy in biological systems:
implications for neurological disease
Author information
Shaw CA1, Seneff S2, Kette SD3,
Tomljenovic L4, Oller JW Jr5, Davidson RM6.
1. Neural Dynamics Research Group, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
828 W. 10th Avenue, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 1L8; Program
Experimental Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V5Z 1L8
Program in Neurosciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V5Z 1L8
2. MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
32 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
3. Hudson, FL 34667, USA
4. Neural Dynamics Research Group, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences,
828 W. 10th Avenue, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 1L8
5. Department of Communicative Disorders, University of Louisiana
Lafayette, LA 70504-3170, USA
6. Internal Medicine Group Practice, PhyNet Inc., 4002 Technology Center
Longview, TX 75605, USA

Abstract
Over the last 200 years, mining, smelting, and refining of aluminum (Al) in
various forms have increasingly exposed living species to this naturally abundant metal. Because of its prevalence in the earth’s crust, prior to its recent
uses it was regarded as inert and therefore harmless. However, Al is invariably
toxic to living systems and has no known beneficial role in any biological
systems. Humans are increasingly exposed to Al from food, water, medicinals, vaccines, and cosmetics, as well as from industrial occupational exposure. Al disrupts biological self-ordering, energy transduction, and signaling
systems, thus increasing biosemiotic entropy. Beginning with the biophysics
of water, disruption progresses through the macromolecules that are crucial to
living processes (DNAs, RNAs, proteoglycans, and proteins). It injures cells,
circuits, and subsystems and can cause catastrophic failures ending in death.
Al forms toxic complexes with other elements, such as fluorine, and interacts
negatively with mercury, lead, and glyphosate. Al negatively impacts the central nervous system in all species that have been studied, including humans.
Because of the global impacts of Al on water dynamics and biosemiotic systems, CNS disorders in humans are sensitive indicators of the Al toxicants to
which we are being exposed.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4202242/

“Beginning with the biophysics of water, disruption progresses through the
macromolecules that are crucial to living processes (DNAs, RNAs, proteoglycans,
and proteins). It injures cells, circuits, and subsystems and can cause catastrophic
failures ending in death. Aluminum forms toxic complexes with other elements,
such as fluorine, and interacts negatively with mercury, lead, and glyphosate.

Aluminum negatively impacts the central nervous system in all species
that have been studied, including humans. Because of the global impacts
of Aluminum on water dynamics and biosemiotic systems, Central Nervous System
disorders in humans are sensitive indicators of the Aluminum toxicants to
which we are being exposed.

... vaccine trials often treat an Aluminum adjuvant-containing injection as a
harmless “ placebo “ (a comparison benchmark or control treatment) or they use another Al-containing vaccine to treat a “ control group, “ despite evidence that
Aluminum in vaccine-relevant exposures is universally toxic to humans and animals. Its use in a supposed “ placebo “ or in any “ control “ treatment in
vaccine trials is indefensible.”

Critical Reviews In Toxicology • October 2014

Systematic review of potential health risks posed by pharmaceutical,
occupational and consumer exposures to metallic and nanoscale aluminum,
aluminum oxides, aluminum hydroxide and its soluble salts
Author information
Willhite CC1, Karyakina NA, Yokel RA, Yenugadhati N, Wisniewski TM, Arnold IM, Momoli F, Krewski D.
Risk Sciences International, Ottawa, ON , Canada
Abstract
Abstract Aluminum (Al) is a ubiquitous substance encountered both naturally (as the third most abundant
element) and intentionally (used in water, foods, pharmaceuticals, and vaccines); it is also present in ambient
and occupational airborne particulates. Existing data
underscore the importance of Al physical and chemical
forms in relation to its uptake, accumulation, and systemic bioavailability. The present review represents a
systematic examination of the peer-reviewed literature
on the adverse health effects of Al materials published
since a previous critical evaluation compiled by Krewski
et al. (2007) . Challenges encountered in carrying out the
present review reflected the experimental use of different
physical and chemical Al forms, different routes of administration, and different target organs in relation to the
magnitude, frequency, and duration of exposure. Wide
variations in diet can result in Al intakes that are often
higher than the World Health Organization provisional
tolerable weekly intake (PTWI), which is based on studies with Al citrate. Comparing daily dietary Al exposures
on the basis of “total Al”assumes that gastrointestinal
bioavailability for all dietary Al forms is equivalent to
that for Al citrate, an approach that requires validation.
Current occupational exposure limits (OELs) for identical Al substances vary as much as 15-fold. The toxicity of different Al forms depends in large measure on
their physical behavior and relative solubility in water.
The toxicity of soluble Al forms depends upon the delivered dose of Al(+3) to target tissues. Trivalent Al reacts
with water to produce bidentate superoxide coordination
spheres [Al(O2)(H2O4)(+2) and Al(H2O)6 (+3)] that after complexation with O2(•-), generate Al superoxides

[Al(O2(•))](H2O5)](+2). Semireduced AlO2(•) radicals
deplete mitochondrial Fe and promote generation of
H2O2, O2 (•-) and OH(•). Thus, it is the Al(+3)-induced
formation of oxygen radicals that accounts for the oxidative damage that leads to intrinsic apoptosis. In contrast,
the toxicity of the insoluble Al oxides depends primarily on their behavior as particulates. Aluminum has been
held responsible for human morbidity and mortality, but
there is no consistent and convincing evidence to associate the Al found in food and drinking water at the doses
and chemical forms presently consumed by people living in North America and Western Europe with increased
risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Neither is there clear
evidence to show use of Al-containing underarm antiperspirants or cosmetics increases the risk of AD or breast
cancer. Metallic Al, its oxides, and common Al salts have
not been shown to be either genotoxic or carcinogenic.
Aluminum exposures during neonatal and pediatric parenteral nutrition (PN) can impair bone mineralization and
delay neurological development. Adverse effects to vaccines with Al adjuvants have occurred; however, recent
controlled trials found that the immunologic response to
certain vaccines with Al adjuvants was no greater, and
in some cases less than, that after identical vaccination
without Al adjuvants. The scientific literature on the adverse health effects of Al is extensive. Health risk assessments for Al must take into account individual co-factors
(e.g., age, renal function, diet, gastric pH). Conclusions
from the current review point to the need for refinement
of the PTWI, reduction of Al contamination in PN solutions, justification for routine addition of Al to vaccines,
and harmonization of OELs for Al substances.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25233067

“The scientific literature on the
adverse health effects of Al is extensive.
Conclusions from the current review point to the
need for refinement of the provisional tolerable
weekly intake (PTWI), reduction of Aluminum
contamination in parenteral nutrition (PN)
solutions, justification for routine addition of
Aluminum to vaccines ...”

Frontiers In Neurology • October 2014

Why industry propaganda and political interference
cannot disguise the inevitable role played by human exposure
to aluminum in neurodegenerative diseases,
including Alzheimer’s disease
Author Information

“Herein, I will make the case

Christopher Exley

that it is inevitable both today and in the

The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK
Abstract
In the aluminum age, it is clearly unpalatable for aluminum, the globe’s most successful metal,
to be implicated in human disease. It is unpalatable because for approximately 100 years human
beings have reaped the rewards of the most abundant metal of the Earth’s crust without seriously considering the potential consequences for human health. The aluminum industry is a pillar of the developed and developing world and irrespective of the tyranny of human exposure to
aluminum it cannot be challenged without significant consequences for businesses, economies,
and governments. However, no matter how deep the dependency or unthinkable the withdrawal,
science continues to document, if not too slowly, a burgeoning body burden of aluminum in human beings. Herein, I will make the case that it is inevitable both today and in the future that an
individual’s exposure to aluminum is impacting upon their health and is already contributing to,
if not causing, chronic diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. This is the logical, if uncomfortable,
consequence of living in the aluminum age.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4209859/

future that an individual’s exposure to aluminum
is impacting upon their health and is already
contributing to, if not causing, chronic diseases
such as Alzheimer’s disease. This is the logical,
if uncomfortable, consequence of living
in the aluminum age.”

Environmental Science And Pollution Research International • November 2014

Effects of aluminium and bacterial lipopolysaccharide
on oxidative stress and immune parameters
in roach, Rutilus rutilus L
Author information
Jolly S1, Jaffal A, Delahaut L, Palluel O,
Porcher JM, Geffard A, Sanchez W, Betoulle S.
Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne
UMR-I02 SEBIO, BP 1039, 51687
Reims Cedex 2, France
sabrina.jolly@univ-reims.fr
Abstract
Aluminium is used in diverse anthropogenic processes at the origin of pollution
events in aquatic ecosystems. In the Champagne region (France), high concentrations
of aluminium (Al) are detected due to vine-growing practices. In fish, little is known
about the possible immune-related effects at relevant environmental concentrations.
The present study analyzes the simultaneous effects of aluminium and bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), alone and in combination, on toxicological biomarkers in the
freshwater fish species Rutilus rutilus. For this purpose, roach treated or not with LPS
were exposed to environmental concentrations of aluminium (100 μg/L) under laboratory-controlled conditions for 2, 7, 14 and 21 days. After each exposure time, we
assessed hepatic lipoperoxidation, catalase activity, glutathione reductase activity and
total glutathione content. We also analyzed cellular components related to the LPSinduced inflammatory response in possible target tissues, i.e. head kidney and spleen.
Our results revealed a significant prooxidant effect in the liver cells and head kidney
leukocytes of roach exposed to 100 μg of Al/L for 2 days. In liver, we observed more
lipoperoxidation products and lower endogenous antioxidant activity levels such as
glutathione reductase activity and total glutathione content. These prooxidant effects
were associated with a higher oxidative burst in head kidney leukocytes, and they
were all the more important in fish stimulated by LPS injection. These findings demonstrate that environmental concentrations of Al induce oxidative and immunotoxic
effects in fish and are associated to an immunomodulatory process related to the inflammatory response.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24996940

“These findings demonstrate that
environmental concentrations of Aluminum
induce oxidative and immunotoxic effects in fish
and are associated to an immunomodulatory
process related to the inflammatory response.”

Science Reports • September 2014

Unequivocal identification
of intracellular aluminium adjuvant
in a monocytic THP-1 cell line
Author information
Mold M1, Eriksson H2, Siesjö P3, Darabi A3, Shardlow E1, Exley C1.
1. The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University
Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
2. Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health and Society
Malmö University, SE-205 06 Malmö, Sweden
3. Glioma Immunotherapy Group, Department of Clinical Sciences
BMC D14, Lund University, SE-221 84 Lund, Sweden
Abstract
Aluminium-based adjuvants (ABA) are the predominant adjuvants used in human
vaccinations. While a consensus is yet to be reached on the aetiology of the biological
activities of ABA several studies have identified shape, crystallinity and size as critical factors affecting their adjuvanticity. In spite of recent advances, the fate of ABA
following their administration remains unclear. Few if any studies have demonstrated
the unequivocal presence of intracellular ABA. Herein we demonstrate for the first
time the unequivocal identification of ABA within a monocytic T helper 1 (THP-1)
cell line, using lumogallion as a fluorescent molecular probe for aluminium. Use of
these new methods revealed that particulate ABA was only found in the cell cytoplasm. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that ABA were contained within
vesicle-like structures of approximately 0.5-1 μm in diameter.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4155332/

“In spite of recent advances,
the fate of Aluminium-based adjuvants following
their administration remains unclear. Herein we demonstrate
for the first time the unequivocal identification of ABA within a
monocytic T helper 1 cell line, using lumogallion as a
fluorescent molecular probe for aluminium. Use of
these new methods revealed that particulate
Aluminium-based adjuvants was only
found in the cell cytoplasm.”

“This short “Opinion” paper will overview and comment on
the current massive mobilization of aluminum into the earth’s biosphere.”
Frontiers In Neurology • December 2014

The mobilization of aluminum into the biosphere
Aileen I. Pogue1 and Walter J. Lukiw2,3*
1. Alchem Biotech, Toronto, ON, Canada
2. Louisiana State University Neuroscience Center and Department of Ophthalmology
Louisiana State University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
3. Department of Neurology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center
New Orleans, LA, USA
Abstract
Aluminum is currently the most widely used non-ferrous metal, and its extraction and purification from geological stores exceeds that of any other metal except iron (1, 2). In 2013, global primary aluminum production was
~52 million tons (104 billion pounds) or about 15 pounds for very person on the earth (1–4). The global outlook
for aluminum demand from developing countries such as Brazil, China, India, and Indonesia is rapidly increasing,
due to new applications for aluminum and aluminum alloys in infrastructural support, transportation including
automobiles, aviation and aerospace applications, electrical transmission, and the generation of energy, including
catalytic zeolites in the petroleum and petrochemical industries (5). Interestingly, the largest “machine” built by
humankind is the domestic and international networks for the transmission of electricity. Although traditionallyused copper has a higher electrical conductivity, aluminum is only slightly less so, being lighter, more ductile,
and less expensive; aluminum is now widely used for both high-voltage tower construction and the electrical
transmission wires themselves (2–5). It has been estimated that within the next 10 years aluminum production
will exceed that of the previous 150 years (1–3). This prolific de novo generation of aluminum combined with its
highly efficient recycling means this metal is becoming increasingly present in our biosphere, defined as the sum
of all ecosystems and living organisms on the earth. This short “Opinion” paper will overview and comment on
the current massive mobilization of aluminum into the earth’s biosphere.
http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fneur.2014.00262/full

Immunology Research • December 2014

Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants (ASIA):
clues and pitfalls in the pediatric background
Author information
Esposito S1, Prada E, Mastrolia MV,
Tarantino G, Codecà C, Rigante D.
Pediatric Highly Intensive Care Unit
Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation
Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda
Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico
Università degli Studi di Milano
Via Commenda 9, 20122, Milan, Italy
susanna.esposito@unimi.it
Abstract
The development and increasing diffusion of new vaccinations and global immunization protocols have aroused burning debates about safety of adjuvants and
their immunogenicity-enhancing effect in vaccines. Shoenfeld and Agmon-Levin
have grouped under the term “autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by
adjuvants” (ASIA) a complex of variable signs and symptoms that may occur
after a previous exposure to different adjuvants and also external environmental
triggers, even eliciting specific overt immune-mediated disorders. This entity subsumes five medical conditions: post-vaccination phenomena, gulf war syndrome,
macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome, siliconosis, and sick building syndrome, but
the relevance and magnitude of the syndrome in the pediatric age is fundamentally limited to post-vaccination autoimmune or inflammatory disorders. The occurrence of vaccine-triggered phenomena represents a diagnostic challenge for
clinicians and a research conundrum for many investigators. In this paper, we will
analyze the general features of ASIA and focus on specific post-vaccination events
in relation with the pediatric background. In the presence of a favorable genetic
background, many autoimmune/inflammatory responses can be triggered by adjuvants and external factors, showing how the man himself might breach immune
tolerance and drive many pathogenetic aspects of human diseases. Nonetheless,
the elective application of ASIA diagnostic criteria to the pediatric population requires further assessment and evaluations. Additional studies are needed to help
clarify connections between innate or adaptive immunity and pathological and/or
protective autoantibodies mostly in the pediatric age, as children and adolescents
are mainly involved in the immunization agendas related to vaccine-preventable
diseases.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25395340

“In the presence of a favorable genetic background,
many autoimmune/inflammatory responses can be triggered by adjuvants
and external factors, showing how the man himself might breach immune
tolerance and drive many pathogenetic aspects of human diseases.”

Reproductive Toxicology • December 2014

Aluminum content of human semen:
implications for semen quality
Author information
Klein JP1, Mold M2, Mery L3, Cottier M4, Exley C5.
1. Université de Lyon, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, EA 4624, SFR IFRESIS, France
Université Jean Monnet and CHU de Saint-Etienne, France
2. The Birchall Centre, Lennard Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
3. Université de Lyon, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, EA 4624, SFR IFRESIS, France
Université Jean Monnet and CHU de Saint-Etienne, France
4. Université de Lyon, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, EA 4624, SFR IFRESIS, France
Université Jean Monnet and CHU de Saint-Etienne, France
5. The Birchall Centre, Lennard Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
c.exley@keele.ac.uk
Abstract
A deterioration of human semen quality has been observed over recent decades.
A possible explanation could be an increased exposure to environmental pollutants, including aluminum. Our aim was to measure the aluminum concentration
in the semen of 62 patients and to carry out a preliminary evaluation on its impact
on specific semen parameters. For each patient, semen analyses were performed
according to WHO guidelines. A graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry method was used to determine semen aluminum concentration. A cytological analysis using an aluminum-specific fluor, lumogallion, was also performed.
The mean aluminum concentration in human semen was 339 μg/L. Patients with
oligozoospermia had a statistically higher aluminum concentration than others.
No significant difference was observed for other semen parameters. Cytological
analysis showed the presence of aluminum in spermatozoa. This study provided
unequivocal evidence of high concentrations of aluminum in human semen and
suggested possible implications for spermatogenesis and sperm count.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25461904

“This study provided unequivocal evidence
of high concentrations of aluminum in human
semen and suggested possible implications for
spermatogenesis and sperm count.”

Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease • 2014

Chronic aluminum intake
causes Alzheimer’s disease:
applying Sir Austin Bradford Hill’s
causality criteria
Walton JR
Faculty of Medicine
University of New South Wales
St George Hospital, Sydney, Australia
Industrialized societies produce many convenience foods with aluminum additives
that enhance various food properties and use alum (aluminum sulfate or aluminum
potassium sulfate) in water treatment to enable delivery of large volumes of drinking water to millions of urban consumers. The present causality analysis evaluates
the extent to which the routine, life-long intake, and metabolism of aluminum compounds can account for Alzheimer’s disease (AD), using Austin Bradford Hill’s
nine epidemiological and experimental causality criteria, including strength of the
relationship, consistency, specificity, temporality, dose-dependent response, biological rationale, coherence with existing knowledge, experimental evidence, and
analogy. Mechanisms that underlie the risk of low concentrations of aluminum relate to (1) aluminum’s absorption rates, allowing the impression that aluminum is
safe to ingest and as an additive in food and drinking water treatment, (2) aluminum’s slow progressive uptake into the brain over a long prodromal phase, and (3)
aluminum’s similarity to iron, in terms of ionic size, allows aluminum to use ironevolved mechanisms to enter the highly-active, iron-dependent cells responsible for
memory processing. Aluminum particularly accumulates in these iron-dependent
cells to toxic levels, dysregulating iron homeostasis and causing microtubule depletion, eventually producing changes that result in disconnection of neuronal afferents
and efferents, loss of function and regional atrophy consistent with MRI findings in
AD brains. AD is a human form of chronic aluminum neurotoxicity. The causality
analysis demonstrates that chronic aluminum intake causes AD.
http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/24577474

“Aluminum particularly accumulates
in these iron-dependent cells to toxic levels,
dysregulating iron homeostasis and causing
microtubule depletion, eventually producing
changes that result in disconnection of
neuronal afferents and efferents, loss of
function and regional atrophy consistent with
MRI findings in AD brains. AD is a human form
of chronic aluminum neurotoxicity. The
causality analysis demonstrates that
chronic aluminum intake causes AD.”

Immunotherapy • 2014

Are there negative CNS impacts
of aluminum adjuvants used
in vaccines and immunotherapy?
Author information
Shaw CA1, Li D, Tomljenovic L.
Neural Dynamics Research Group
828 W. 10th Ave, Vancouver
BC, V5Z 1L8, Canada
Abstract
In spite of a common view that aluminum (Al) salts are inert
and therefore harmless as vaccine adjuvants or in immunotherapy, the reality is quite different. In the following article
we briefly review the literature on Al neurotoxicity and the
use of Al salts as vaccine adjuvants and consider not only
direct toxic actions on the nervous system, but also the potential impact for triggering autoimmunity. Autoimmune and
inflammatory responses affecting the CNS appear to underlie
some forms of neurological disease, including developmental
disorders. Al has been demonstrated to impact the CNS at
every level, including by changing gene expression. These
outcomes should raise concerns about the increasing use of
Al salts as vaccine adjuvants and for the application as more
general immune stimulants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25428645

“Aluminum has been demonstrated
to impact the Central Nervous System at every level,
including by changing gene expression. These outcomes
should raise concerns about the increasing use of
Aluminum salts as vaccine adjuvants and for the
application as more general immune stimulants.”

“Currently, ethylmercury (EtHg) and adjuvant-Aluminum are the dominating interventional exposures
encountered by fetuses, newborns, and infants due to immunization with Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs).
Despite their long use as active agents of medicines and fungicides, the safety levels of these substances have never been determined,
either for animals or for adult humans—much less for fetuses, newborns, infants, and children.”
International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health • January 2015

Exposure to mercury and aluminum in early life:
developmental vulnerability as a modifying factor
in neurologic and immunologic effects
Author information
Dórea JG.
Department of Nutrition
Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasilia
70919-970 DF Brasilia, Brazil
jg.dorea@gmail.com
Abstract
Currently, ethylmercury (EtHg) and adjuvant-Al are the dominating interventional exposures encountered by
fetuses, newborns, and infants due to immunization with Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs). Despite their
long use as active agents of medicines and fungicides, the safety levels of these substances have never been
determined, either for animals or for adult humans—much less for fetuses, newborns, infants, and children. I reviewed the literature for papers reporting on outcomes associated with (a) multiple exposures and metabolism of
EtHg and Al during early life; (b) physiological and metabolic characteristics of newborns, neonates, and infants
relevant to xenobiotic exposure and effects; (c) neurobehavioral, immunological, and inflammatory reactions to
Thimerosal and Al-adjuvants resulting from TCV exposure in infancy. Immunological and neurobehavioral effects of Thimerosal-EtHg and Al-adjuvants are not extraordinary; rather, these effects are easily detected in high
and low income countries, with co-exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) or other neurotoxicants. Rigorous and
replicable studies (in different animal species) have shown evidence of EtHg and Al toxicities. More research attention has been given to EtHg and findings have showed a solid link with neurotoxic effects in humans; however,
the potential synergic effect of both toxic agents has not been properly studied. Therefore, early life exposure to
both EtHg and Al deserves due consideration.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4344667

Frontiers In Neurology • February 2015

Biopersistence and brain translocation
of aluminum adjuvants of vaccines
Author information
Gherardi RK1, Eidi H1, Crépeaux G1, Authier FJ1, Cadusseau J1.
Faculté de Médecine and Faculté des Sciences et Technologie
INSERM U955 Team 10, Université Paris Est-Créteil
Créteil, France
Abstract
Aluminum oxyhydroxide (alum) is a crystalline compound widely used as an immunological adjuvant of vaccines. Concerns linked to the use of alum particles
emerged following recognition of their causative role in the so-called macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) lesion detected in patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue/syndrome. MMF revealed an unexpectedly long-lasting
biopersistence of alum within immune cells in presumably susceptible individuals, stressing the previous fundamental misconception of its biodisposition. We
previously showed that poorly biodegradable aluminum-coated particles injected
into muscle are promptly phagocytosed in muscle and the draining lymph nodes,
and can disseminate within phagocytic cells throughout the body and slowly accumulate in brain. This strongly suggests that long-term adjuvant biopersistence
within phagocytic cells is a prerequisite for slow brain translocation and delayed
neurotoxicity. The understanding of basic mechanisms of particle biopersistence
and brain translocation represents a major health challenge, since it could help to
define susceptibility factors to develop chronic neurotoxic damage. Biopersistence
of alum may be linked to its lysosome-destabilizing effect, which is likely due to
direct crystal-induced rupture of phagolysosomal membranes. Macrophages that
continuously perceive foreign particles in their cytosol will likely reiterate, with
variable interindividual efficiency, a dedicated form of autophagy (xenophagy)
until they dispose of alien materials. Successful compartmentalization of particles
within double membrane autophagosomes and subsequent fusion with repaired
and re-acidified lysosomes will expose alum to lysosomal acidic pH, the sole
factor that can solubilize alum particles. Brain translocation of alum particles is
linked to a Trojan horse mechanism previously described for infectious particles
(HIV, HCV), that obeys to CCL2, signaling the major inflammatory monocyte
chemoattractant.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4318414/

“This strongly suggests
that long-term adjuvant biopersistence
within phagocytic cells is a prerequisite for
slow brain translocation and delayed neurotoxicity.”

Biotechnic And Histochemistry • February 2015

A histological study of toxic effects
of aluminium sulfate on rat hippocampus
Author information
Çabus N1, Oguz EO, Tufan AÇ, Adıgüzel E.
Department of Histology and Embryology
Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University
Sihhiye Ankara, Turkey
Abstract
Aluminium has toxic effects on many organ systems of the human body. Aluminium toxicity also is a factor in many neurodegenerative diseases. We investigated changes in numbers of hippocampal neurons in rats exposed to aluminium using an optical fractionator and we investigated aluminium-induced
apoptosis using the transferase mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)
assay. Twenty-four female rats were divided equally into control, sham and
aluminium-exposed groups. The control group received no treatment. The
two treatment groups were injected intraperitoneally with 1 ml 0.9% saline
without (sham) and with 3 mg/ml aluminium sulfate every day for two weeks.
Following the treatments, the brains were removed, the left hemisphere was
used for hippocampal neuron counting using an optical fractionator and the
right hemisphere was investigated using hippocampal TUNEL assay to determine the apoptotic index. The number of neurons in the stratum pyramidale
of the hippocampus was significantly less in the aluminium group than in the
control and sham groups; there was no significant difference between the control and sham groups. The apoptotic index also was significantly higher in the
aluminium group than in the other two groups. We quantified the toxic effects
of aluminium on the rat hippocampus and determined that apoptosis was the
mechanism of aluminium-induced neuron death in the hippocampus.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25314162

“Aluminium has toxic effects
on many organ systems of the human body.
We quantified the toxic effects of aluminium
on the rat hippocampus and determined that
apoptosis was the mechanism of aluminiuminduced neuron death in the hippocampus.”

Journal Of Trace Elements In Medicine And Biology • April 2015

The binding, transport and fate of aluminium in biological cells
Author information
Exley C1, Mold MJ2.
The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories
Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
c.exley@keele.ac.uk
Abstract
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust and yet, paradoxically, it has no known
biological function. Aluminium is biochemically reactive, it is simply that it is not required for any
essential process in extant biota. There is evidence neither of element-specific nor evolutionarily
conserved aluminium biochemistry. This means that there are no ligands or chaperones which are
specific to its transport, there are no transporters or channels to selectively facilitate its passage
across membranes, there are no intracellular storage proteins to aid its cellular homeostasis and
there are no pathways which evolved to enable the metabolism and excretion of aluminium. Of
course, aluminium is found in every compartment of every cell of every organism, from virus
through to Man. Herein we have investigated each of the ‘silent’ pathways and metabolic events
which together constitute a form of aluminium homeostasis in biota, identifying and evaluating as
far as is possible what is known and, equally importantly, what is unknown about its uptake, transport, storage and excretion.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25498314

“Of course, aluminium is found in every compartment
of every cell of every organism, from virus through to Man.
Herein we have investigated each of the ‘silent’ pathways
and metabolic events which together constitute a form of
aluminium homeostasis in biota, identifying and evaluating
as far as is possible what is known and, equally importantly,
what is unknown about its uptake, transport, storage and excretion.”

PLoS One • June 2015

Bumblebee pupae
contain high levels of aluminium
Author information
Exley C1, Rotheray E2, Goulson D2.
1. The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University
Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
2. Evolution, Behaviour & Ecology, School of Life Sciences
University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
Abstract
The causes of declines in bees and other pollinators remains an on-going debate.
While recent attention has focussed upon pesticides, other environmental pollutants
have largely been ignored. Aluminium is the most significant environmental contaminant of recent times and we speculated that it could be a factor in pollinator decline. Herein we have measured the content of aluminium in bumblebee pupae taken
from naturally foraging colonies in the UK. Individual pupae were acid-digested in a
microwave oven and their aluminium content determined using transversely heated
graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Pupae were heavily contaminated
with aluminium giving values between 13.4 and 193.4 μg/g dry wt. and a mean (SD)
value of 51.0 (33.0) μg/g dry wt. for the 72 pupae tested. Mean aluminium content
was shown to be a significant negative predictor of average pupal weight in colonies.
While no other statistically significant relationships were found relating aluminium to
bee or colony health, the actual content of aluminium in pupae are extremely high and
demonstrate significant exposure to aluminium. Bees rely heavily on cognitive function and aluminium is a known neurotoxin with links, for example, to Alzheimer’s
disease in humans. The significant contamination of bumblebee pupae by aluminium
raises the intriguing spectre of cognitive dysfunction playing a role in their population decline.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4456414/

“the actual content
of aluminium in pupae
are extremely high and
demonstrate significant
exposure to aluminium.”

Pharmacology Research • October 2015

Vaccines, adjuvants and autoimmunity
Author information
Guimarães LE1, Baker B1, Perricone C2, Shoenfeld Y3.
1. The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
2. Reumatologia, Dipartimento di Medicina Interna e Specialità Mediche, Sapienza Università di Roma, Italy
3. Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Chaim Sheba Medical Ctr, Tel-Hashomer, Israel; Incumbentof the
Laura Schwarz-kipp chair for research of autoimmune diseases, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il

Abstract
Vaccines and autoimmunity are linked fields. Vaccine efficacy is based on whether host immune response
against an antigen can elicit a memory T-cell response over time. Although the described side effects
thus far have been mostly transient and acute, vaccines are able to elicit the immune system towards
an autoimmune reaction. The diagnosis of a definite autoimmune disease and the occurrence of fatal
outcome post-vaccination have been less frequently reported. Since vaccines are given to previously
healthy hosts, who may have never developed the disease had they not been immunized, adverse events
should be carefully accessed and evaluated even if they represent a limited number of occurrences. In
this review of the literature, there is evidence of vaccine-induced autoimmunity and adjuvant-induced
autoimmunity in both experimental models as well as human patients. Adjuvants and infectious agents
may exert their immune-enhancing effects through various functional activities, encompassed by the adjuvant effect. These mechanisms are shared by different conditions triggered by adjuvants leading to the
autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA syndrome). In conclusion, there are
several case reports of autoimmune diseases following vaccines, however, due to the limited number of
cases, the different classifications of symptoms and the long latency period of the diseases, every attempt
for an epidemiological study has so far failed to deliver a connection. Despite this, efforts to unveil the
connection between the triggering of the immune system by adjuvants and the development of autoimmune conditions should be undertaken. Vaccinomics is a field that may bring to light novel customized,
personalized treatment approaches in the future.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26275795

“In this review of the literature,
there is evidence of vaccine-induced autoimmunity
and adjuvant-induced autoimmunity in both
experimental models as well as human patients.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2015

Highly delayed systemic translocation
of aluminum-based adjuvant in CD1 mice
following intramuscular injections
Author information
Crépeaux G1, Eidi H2, David MO3, Tzavara E4,
Giros B4, Exley C5, Curmi PA3, Shaw CA6, Gherardi RK7, Cadusseau J8.
1. INSERM U955 E10, Paris Est University, Créteil, Franceguillemette.crepeaux@gmail.com.
2. INSERM U955 E10, Paris Est University, Créteil, France; INSERM U1204, Evry University, Evry, France
3. INSERM U1204, Evry University, Evry, France
4. INSERM U1130, CNRS UMR 8246, UPMC UM CR18, Paris, France
5. Birchall Centre, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
6. Department of Ophthalmology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
7. INSERM U955 E10, Paris Est University, Créteil, France
8. INSERM U955 E10, Paris Est University, Créteil, France; Faculté des Sciences & Technologie UPEC, Créteil, France

Abstract
Concerns regarding vaccine safety have emerged following reports of potential adverse events in both
humans and animals. In the present study, alum, alum-containing vaccine and alum adjuvant tagged
with fluorescent nanodiamonds were used to evaluate i) the persistence time at the injection site, ii) the
translocation of alum from the injection site to lymphoid organs, and iii) the behavior of adult CD1 mice
following intramuscular injection of alum (400μgAl/kg). Results showed for the first time a strikingly
delayed systemic translocation of adjuvant particles. Alum-induced granuloma remained for a very
long time in the injected muscle despite progressive shrinkage from day 45 to day 270. Concomitantly,
a markedly delayed translocation of alum to the draining lymph nodes, major at day 270 endpoint, was
observed. Translocation to the spleen was similarly delayed (highest number of particles at day 270). In
contrast to C57BL/6J mice, no brain translocation of alum was observed by day 270 in CD1 mice. Consistently neither increase of Al cerebral content, nor behavioral changes were observed. On the basis of
previous reports showing alum neurotoxic effects in CD1 mice, an additional experiment was done, and
showed early brain translocation at day 45 of alum injected subcutaneously at 200μgAl/kg. This study
confirms the striking biopersistence of alum. It points out an unexpectedly delayed diffusion of the adjuvant in lymph nodes and spleen of CD1 mice, and suggests the importance of mouse strain, route of
administration, and doses, for future studies focusing on the potential toxic effects of aluminum-based
adjuvants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26384437

“Concerns regarding vaccine safety
have emerged following reports of potential adverse
events in both humans and animals. This study
confirms the striking biopersistence of alum. It points
out an unexpectedly delayed diffusion of the adjuvant
in lymph nodes and spleen of CD1 mice ...”

“The well-recognized manifestations of systemic aluminum toxicity include
fracturing osteomalacia, dialysis encephalopathy, and microcytic hypochromic anemia. More recently,
aluminum loading has been demonstrated in premature infants receiving intravenous fluid therapy.”
American Academy Of Pediatrics • December 2015
Committee on Nutrition

Aluminum Toxicity in Infants and Children
Abstract
During the last 15 years, accumulating evidence has implicated aluminum in disorders associated with chronic
renal failure.1-6 The well-recognized manifestations of systemic aluminum toxicity include fracturing osteomalacia, dialysis encephalopathy, and microcytic hypochromic anemia. More recently, aluminum loading has been
demonstrated in premature infants receiving intravenous fluid therapy.7 Although the clinical importance of this
finding is unclear, it warrants careful attention. The association between aluminum excess and neurologic dysfunction, which has been reported in patients with chronic renal failure, suggests the possibility that aluminum
overload may contribute to the pathogenesis of CNS damage in the sick premature infant.7,8
Aluminum Exposure
Aluminum, which is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust, is ubiquitous in its distribution.7 There is constant exposure to this element through ingestion of water and food and exposure to dust particles.10 Because
aluminum sulfate (alum) is used as a flocculating agent in the purification of municipal water supplies, drinking
water may contain high levels of aluminum (up to 1,000 μg/L). Aluminum cans, containers, and cooking utensils,
as well as aluminum-containing medications, are also potential sources of oral intake of aluminum. Increase in
aluminum intake as a result of transfer through the skin is probably negligible; however, exposure is common due
to use of aluminum in deodorants.10 Some inhaled aluminum is retained in pulmonary tissue and in the peribronchial lymph nodes, but it is largely excluded from other tissues. Pulmonary aluminum concentration increases
with age; unlike aluminum levels in other tissues, the concentration in the lung does not correlate with that in
other tissues.
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/78/6/1150

Springer Plus • 2015

The mechanisms of action
of vaccines containing aluminum adjuvants:
an in vitro vs in vivo paradigm
Tirth Raj Ghimire
Division of Veterinary and Primate Health
Global Primate Network, Kathmandu, Nepal
Department of Zoology, Birendra Multiple Campus
Tribhuvan University, Chitwan, Nepal
Abstract
Adjuvants such as the aluminum compounds (alum) have been dominantly used in many vaccines due to their immunopotentiation and safety records since 1920s. However, how these mineral agents influence
the immune response to vaccination remains elusive. Many hypotheses
exist as to the mode of action of these adjuvants, such as depot formation, antigen (Ag) targeting, and the induction of inflammation. These
hypotheses are based on many in vitro and few in vivo studies. Understanding how cells interact with adjuvants in vivo will be crucial to fully
understanding the mechanisms of action of these adjuvants. Interestingly, how alum influences the target cell at both the cellular and molecular
level, and the consequent innate and adaptive responses, will be critical
in the rational design of effective vaccines against many diseases. Thus,
in this review, mechanisms of action of alum have been discussed based
on available in vitro vs in vivo evidences to date.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4406982/

“Adjuvants such as the aluminum compounds
(alum) have been dominantly used in many
vaccines due to their immunopotentiation and
safety records since 1920s. However, how these
mineral agents influence the immune response
to vaccination remains elusive.”

Chapter Four
The Human Papilloma Virus Vaccine
2008 - 2015
Dr. Harper was the lead scientist for Mercks Gardasil vaccine. She explained in a presentation at the
4th International Public Conference on Vaccination in October of 2009 that the cervical cancer risk in
the U.S. is already extremely low, and that vaccinations are unlikely to have any effect upon the rate
of cervical cancer in the United States. In fact, 70% of all HPV infections resolve themselves without
treatment in a year and the number rises to well over 90% in two years. Harper also mentioned the
safety angle. All trials of the vaccines were done on children aged 15 and above, despite them currently
being marketed for 9-year-olds.
So far, 15,037 girls have reported adverse side effects from Gardasil alone to the Vaccine Adverse
Event Reporting System (V.A.E.R.S.), and this number only reflects parents who underwent the hurdles
required for reporting adverse reactions. At the time of writing, over 100 girls are officially known to
have died from this vaccine.
The reported side effects include Guillian Barré Syndrome (paralysis lasting for years, or permanently
— sometimes eventually causing suffocation), lupus, seizures, blood clots, brain inflammation and
more. Parents are usually not made aware of these risks. Dr. Harper, the vaccine developer, claimed that
she was speaking out, so that she might finally be able to sleep at night.
“About eight in every ten women who have been sexually active will have H.P.V. at some stage of their
life. Normally there are no symptoms, and in 98 per cent of cases it clears itself.”
- Dr. Diane Harper
Spanish attorney Don Manuel Saez Ochoa filed a criminal complaint against Merck-Sanofi Pasteur
Laboratories and the Spanish National Health Authorities in the Spanish courts in June of 2014. The
complaint alleges that Merck failed to use an inert placebo during clinical trials thereby manipulating
data and thus Gardasil was marketed under false pretences. Merck-Sanofi Pasteur and Spain’s National
and Regional (La Rioja) health authorities are charged with the following:

• fraudulent marketing and/or administration of an inadequately tested vaccine;
• failure to inform the public about the potential risks of using Gardasil;
• clear infringement of the right to informed consent;
• ignoring new medical conditions in those who used Gardasil despite the similarity of their symptoms
and the relatively short period of time between vaccine administration and the onset of symptoms;
• ignoring established and new scientific evidence illustrating the potential harmful effects of Gardasil
ingredients and manufacturing methods;
• callous disregard for those suffering new medical conditions post-Gardasil;
• failure to inform the public that HPV infections are simply one of the risk factors involved in the
development of cervical cancer;
• failure to inform the public that 90% of all HPV infections clear on their own without medical intervention;
• failure to inform the publlic about alternative methods of controlling cervical cancer;
• and criminal liability for the injuries resulting from the administration of Gardasil.
Thousands of young women around the world are finding themselves in the same position. They have
gone from being happy, active, and healthy to facing a multitude of autoimmune problems and neurological disorders. For them, the ‘possible’ adverse effects of Gardasil have become an all too harsh and
brutal reality.
It is time for those responsible to be held accountable for their actions. Criminal prosecution is quite
possibly the only way to accomplish that goal. Perhaps six to twelve years in prison would remind
those responsible what it means to conduct yourself in an ethical manner.
Perhaps they would remember that their first duty is to maintain the public health, not destroy it. On
July 30, the Judge decided to open criminal proceedings and an investigation of the facts. The first
criminal case in Spain regarding Gardasil injuries and potential criminal liability now begins.

Canadian Medical Association Journal • September 2008

The human papillomavirus vaccine
and risk of anaphylaxis
Neal A. Halsey, MD
From the Institute for Vaccine Safety
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
Baltimore, Md.
Abstract
In this issue of CMAJ, Brotherton and colleagues1 report a comprehensive investigation revealing higher than expected rates of apparent anaphylaxis following vaccination with the quadrivalent human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine in Australian children. The cause of these reactions
remains somewhat unclear and needs further investigation. Of note, rates
of anaphylaxis, if confirmed, may not be as high in other populations.
Further investigations may assist in clarifying differences between the
Australian study and other reports.
The HPV vaccine is associated with high rates of fainting in adolescents,
which can result in serious head injuries. These adverse events emphasize the need for recommendations to keep adolescents and children under close observation (preferably sitting) for at least 15 minutes after
vaccination.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2527389/

“The HPV vaccine
is associated with high rates of fainting
in adolescents, which can result
in serious head injuries.”

Pharmacotherapy • September 2008

Development of unilateral cervical and
supraclavicular lymphadenopathy after
human papilloma virus vaccination
Author information
Studdiford J1, Lamb K,
Horvath K, Altshuler M, Stonehouse A.
Department of Family and Community Medicine
Jefferson University Hospital
Philadelphia Pennsylvania 19107, USA
Abstract
A 26-year-old woman developed significant unilateral anterior cervical and supraclavicular lymphadenopathy 3 days after receiving her first dose (of a total
of three doses) of human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine. She had no history of
lymphadenopathy after other previous immunizations, and had received no vaccines other than HPV at that time. The left-sided lymphadenopathy developed
after she was vaccinated in the left deltoid muscle. The spatial and temporal
relationships between the appearance of the lymphadenopathy and receipt of
the vaccine in the absence of other causal agents strongly suggest that the HPV
vaccine was the causal agent. Use of the Naranjo adverse drug reaction probability scale indicated that the HPV vaccine was a probable (score of 6) cause of
the patient’s adverse reaction. The patient received her second dose of the HPV
vaccine 2 months later without further lymphadenopathy. To prevent unnecessary lymph node biopsies and patient concern, clinicians should be aware that
lymphadenopathy may occur after HPV vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18752390

“clinicians should be aware
that lymphadenopathy may occur
after HPV vaccination.”

Multiple Sclerosis • January 2009

CNS demyelination and
quadrivalent HPV vaccination
Author information
Sutton I1, Lahoria R, Tan I,
Clouston P, Barnett M.
Department of Neurology
St Vincent’s Hospital
Darlinghurst, New South Wales
Australia
Abstract
Vaccination is generally considered safe in patients with
multiple sclerosis (MS). We report five patients who presented with multifocal or atypical demyelinating syndromes
within 21 days of immunization with the quadrivalent human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine, Gardasil. Although the
target population for vaccination, young females, has an inherently high risk for MS, the temporal association with demyelinating events in these cases may be explained by the
potent immuno-stimulatory properties of HPV virus-like
particles which comprise the vaccine. A prospective casecontrol study of patients with MS or clinically isolated demyelinating syndromes receiving the Gardasil vaccine may
provide relevant safety data in this population.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18805844

“We report five patients
who presented with multifocal or atypical
demyelinating syndromes within 21 days of
immunization with the quadrivalent
human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine,
Gardasil ... association with demyelinating
events in these cases may be explained
by the potent immuno-stimulatory
properties of HPV virus-like particles
which comprise the vaccine.”

Obstetrics & Gynecology • February 2009

Cervical cancers
after human papillomavirus vaccination
Author information
Beller U1, Abu-Rustum NR.
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Current randomized clinical trials have shown that the quadrivalent human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine can reduce the morbidity of precancerous lesions associated with HPV infection of
vaccine-related subtypes. However, to date, there is no definite
evidence showing the vaccine reduces the incidence of invasive
cervical carcinoma.
CASES
We present two cases—one young, vaccinated woman who developed cervical carcinoma that was unrelated to HPV and another who developed cervical carcinoma secondary to infection
with an HPV subtype not covered by the vaccine. Both patients
were treated successfully and remained well without evidence of
cancer.
CONCLUSION
Long-term follow-up data are needed to evaluate the prophylactic effectiveness of the current HPV vaccine. These cases could
represent non-vaccine-related HPV infections. Young women
must be thoroughly counseled about the efficacy and limitations
of the vaccine and about continuing lifelong screening even after
vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19155953

“However, to date,
there is no definite evidence
showing the vaccine reduces
the incidence of invasive
cervical carcinoma.”

Vaccine • August 2009

Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus
recombinant vaccine associated lipoatrophy

“Involutional lipoatrophy, a loss of subcutaneous fat, may be

Author information

idiopathic, associated with inflammatory skin conditions, or

Ojaimi S1, Buttery JP, Korman TM.
Department of Infectious Diseases
Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Monash University
246 Clayton Rd, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
samojaimi@yahoo.com.au
Abstract
Involutional lipoatrophy, a loss of subcutaneous fat, may be idiopathic, associated with inflammatory skin conditions, or trauma, and
has also been reported following injections of medications including
insulin, corticosteroids and penicillin. There have also been reports
in association with Diptheria Pertussis Tetanus (DPT) vaccine. We
report on two cases of lipoatrophy associated with the new Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus (HPV) recombinant vaccine (Gardasil).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19555713

trauma, and has also been reported following injections of
medications including insulin, corticosteroids and penicillin.
There have also been reports in association with Diptheria
Pertussis Tetanus (DPT) vaccine. We report on two cases of
lipoatrophy associated with the new Quadrivalent Human
Papillomavirus (HPV) recombinant vaccine (Gardasil).”

4th International Public Conference on Vaccination • October 2nd through 4th, 2009

No actual evidence that the vaccine can prevent any cancer
Dr. Diane Harper
Lead Vaccine Researcher
Merck Gardasil And Cervarix Vaccines
Abstract
Dr. Diane Harper was the lead researcher in the development of the human papilloma virus vaccines, Gardasil and Cervarix. She is the latest to
come forward and question the safety and effectiveness of these vaccines.
She made the surprising announcement at the 4th International Public Conference on Vaccination, which took place in Reston, Virginia on Oct. 2nd
through 4th, 2009.
Her speech was supposed to promote the Gardasil and Cervarix vaccines,
but she instead turned on her corporate bosses in a very public way. When
questioned about the presentation, audience members remarked that they
came away feeling that the vaccines should not be used. “I came away from
the talk with the perception that the risk of adverse side effects is so much
greater than the risk of cervical cancer, I couldn’t help but question why we
need the vaccine at all.” – Joan Robinson
Dr. Harper explained in her presentation that the cervical cancer risk in the
U.S. is already extremely low, and that vaccinations are unlikely to have
any effect upon the rate of cervical cancer in the United States. In fact, 70%
of all H.P.V. infections resolve themselves without treatment in a year, and
the number rises to well over 90% in two years. Harper also mentioned the
safety angle. All trials of the vaccines were done on children aged 15 and
above, despite them currently being marketed for 9-year-olds.
So far, 15,037 girls have reported adverse side effects from Gardasil alone to
the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (V.A.E.R.S.), and this number
only reflects parents who underwent the hurdles required for reporting adverse reactions. At the time of writing, 44 girls are officially known to have
died from these vaccines.

The reported side effects include Guillian Barré Syndrome (paralysis lasting for years, or permanently — sometimes eventually causing suffocation),
lupus, seizures, blood clots, and brain inflammation. Parents are usually not
made aware of these risks. Dr. Harper, the vaccine developer, claimed that
she was speaking out, so that she might finally be able to sleep at night.
“About eight in every ten women who have been sexually active will have
H.P.V. at some stage of their life. Normally there are no symptoms, and in
98 per cent of cases it clears itself. But in those cases where it doesn’t, and
isn’t treated, it can lead to pre-cancerous cells which may develop into cervical cancer.” - Dr. Diane Harper
One must understand how the establishment’s word games are played to
truly understand the meaning of the above quote, and one needs to understand its unique version of “science”. When they report that untreated cases
“can” lead to something that “may” lead to cervical cancer, it really means
that the relationship is merely a hypothetical conjecture that is profitable if
people actually believe it. In other words, there is no demonstrated relationship between the condition being vaccinated for and the rare cancers that
the vaccine might prevent, but it is marketed to do that nonetheless. In fact,
there is no actual evidence that the vaccine can prevent any cancer.
From the manufacturers own admissions, the vaccine only works on 4
strains out of 40 for a specific venereal disease that dies on its own in a
relatively short period, so the chance of it actually helping an individual is
about about the same as the chance of him being struck by a meteorite. Why
do nine-year-old girls need vaccinations for extremely rare and symptomless venereal diseases that the immune system usually kills anyway?

http://www.whydontyoutrythis.com/2013/07/the-lead-vaccine-developer-comes-clean-so-she-can-sleep-at-night.html

Dermatology • July 2010

The quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine:
erythema multiforme and cutaneous side effects
after administration
Author information
Pérez-Carmona L1, Aguayo-Leiva I,
González-García C, Jaén-Olasolo P.
Ramón y Cajal Hospital
Madrid, Spain
lpcarmona@hotmail.com
Abstract
The quadrivalent human papillomavirus (qHPV) vaccine, the first vaccine for
use in the prevention of cervical cancer and condyloma acuminatum, was approved in June 2006. In 2008, the mass media reported suspected links between
the qHPV vaccine and serious adverse events; however, several studies have
found that the vaccine is safe and the main adverse events are mild local reactions. Erythema multiforme (EM) is an acute self-limited cutaneous or mucocutaneous syndrome characterized by the abrupt onset of symmetric target lesions.
The clinical manifestations and histological features of EM, Stevens-Johnson
syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis show considerable overlap, and they
are classically considered to represent a spectrum of skin disorders. We present a
case of EM following qHPV vaccination to review the cutaneous side effects of
this vaccine and the possibility of more serious side effects with the administration of booster doses.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20861606

“We present a case of Erythema multiforme
following qHPV vaccination to review the
cutaneous side effects of this vaccine and the
possibility of more serious side effects with
the administration of booster doses.”

Journal Of Vaccines & Vaccination • November 2010

Review of Gardasil
Author information
Harper DM1, Vierthaler SL, Santee JA.
Professor of Medicine, Director
Center of Excellence in Women’s Health
University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine
Departments of Biomedical and Health Informatics
Obstetrics and Gynecology and Community and Family Medicine
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is necessary for the development of cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women worldwide but 80% occurs in developing countries, not countries
with Pap screening programs. Pap screening programs in industrialized
countries have reduced the incidence of cervical cancer to 4-8/100,000
women. HPV vaccines may be a promising strategy for cervical cancer in women without access to screening programs. In industrialized
countries, the benefit of HPV vaccines focuses on individual abnormal
Pap test reduction not cancer prevention. The focus of this review is to
cover the side effects of Gardasil in perspective with the limited population benefit cervical cancer reduction in countries with organized Pap
screening programs. In addition, information about Gardasil benefits,
risks and unknowns for individual patient decision making for vaccination is presented. Gardasil offers protection against CIN 2+ lesions
caused by HPV 16/18 and against genital warts caused by HPV 6/11
for at least 5 years. Combining Gardasil with repeated cytology screenings may reduce the proportion of abnormal cytology screens and hence
reduce the associated morbidity with the subsequent colposcopies and
excisional procedures.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23805398

“Pap screening programs
in industrialized countries
have reduced the incidence of cervical cancer
to 4-8/100,000 women.

HPV vaccines
may be a promising strategy
for cervical cancer in women
without access to screening programs.”

Dermatology • November 2010

Erythema multiforme
following vaccination for human papillomavirus
Author information
Katoulis AC1, Liakou A, Bozi E, Theodorakis M,
Alevizou A, Zafeiraki A, Mistidou M, Stavrianeas NG.
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Medical School, 2nd Department of Dermatology and Venereology
Attikon General University Hospital, Athens, Greece
alexanderkatoulis @ yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
Erythema multiforme (EM) is an acute self-limited immune-mediated reaction manifested by target skin lesions with mucous membrane involvement.
The most common causes are infections and drugs. Vaccinations have been
reported as a triggering factor, and they may be a frequent cause of EM in
childhood. A 19-year-old female developed several target lesions of the hands
and feet 10 days after the second dose of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine. Clinico-histologically, a diagnosis of EM minor was made. Treatment
with topical corticosteroids and oral antihistamines resulted in complete clearance of the rash. Four months later, she received the last booster dose of the
vaccine. A few subtle lesions appeared and disappeared spontaneously after a
few days. Gardasil is a non-infectious vaccine, developed for the prevention of
cervical cancer, precancerous genital lesions and genital warts. It delivers the
major capsid (L1) protein of HPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18. Mild local reactions
are the main adverse events. The only serious events are very rare cases of anaphylaxis. In our patient, the temporal relationship between the development of
EM and the vaccination suggests that the HPV vaccine probably was the causal
agent. This is the first published case of EM following HPV vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19887766

“In our patient,
the temporal relationship between
the development of Erythema multiforme
and the vaccination suggests that the
HPV vaccine probably was the causal agent.
This is the first published case of
Erythema multiforme following HPV vaccination.”

Vaccine • January 2011

Guillain-Barré syndrome after Gardasil vaccination:
data from Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
2006-2009
Author information
Souayah N1, Michas-Martin PA, Nasar A,
Krivitskaya N, Yacoub HA, Khan H, Qureshi AI.
Department of Neurology
University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
Newark, NJ 07103, USA
souayani@umdnj.edu

“The estimated weekly reporting rate
of post-Gardasil Guillain-Barré Syndrome
within the first 6 weeks (6.6 per 10,000,000)
was higher than that of the general population,
and higher than post-Menactra and
post-influenza vaccinations.”

Abstract
Using data from Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System, we identified 69 reports of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) after Gardasil vaccination that occurred
in the United States between 2006 and 2009. The onset of symptoms was within
6 weeks after vaccination in 70% of the patients in whom the date of vaccination
was known. The estimated weekly reporting rate of post-Gardasil GBS within the
first 6 weeks (6.6 per 10,000,000) was higher than that of the general population,
and higher than post-Menactra and post-influenza vaccinations. Further prospective active surveillance for accurate ascertainment and identification of high-risk
groups of GBS after Gardasil vaccination is warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20869467

[for every 100 million women vaccinated
it is known and recognized that there will
be an estimated 66 cases of collateral damage
in the form of Guillain-Barré Syndrome]

Vaccine • June 2011

Autoimmune hepatitis type 2
following anti-papillomavirus vaccination
in a 11-year-old girl
Author information
Della Corte C1, Carlucci A,
Francalanci P, Alisi A, Nobili V.
Unit of Liver Research
Department of Pathology
Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital
IRCCS, P.le S. Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
claudia.dellacorte@opbg.net
Abstract
In the last years numerous reports describing a possible association
between administration of vaccines and development of autoimmune
phenomena and overt autoimmune disease were published. Possible
mechanisms of induction of autoimmune phenomena by vaccines and
their excipients are probably similar to those implicated in induction
by infectious agents. Here we report the case of an 11-year-old girl
who developed autoimmune hepatitis type II after four weeks from
vaccination against human papillomavirus. The possible relationships
between the use of adjuvated vaccine against papillomavirus and autoimmune hepatitis are discussed. Although we do not provide evidence
for a causal link, we suggest that the occurrence of the autoimmune
hepatitis may be related to the stimulation of immune system by adjuvated-vaccine, that could have triggered the disease in a genetically
predisposed individual. Therefore a monitoring of liver function test
following administration of vaccine against papillomavirus may be
useful in adolescent girl with signs of hepatopathy, as jaundice, dark
urine or hepatomegaly, to early identify and to promptly treat autoimmune liver disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21596082

“In the last years
numerous reports
describing a possible
association between
administration of
vaccines and development
of autoimmune phenomena
and overt autoimmune
disease were published.”

Lupus • February 2012

Systemic lupus erythematosus
following HPV immunization or infection?
Author information
Soldevilla HF1, Briones SF, Navarra SV.
1University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
helmar_110576@yahoo.com
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
The link between autoimmunity and infectious agents has been strongly suggested by
reports of lupus or lupus-like syndromes following immunization. This report describes
three patients with either newly diagnosed systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or SLE
flare, following vaccination for human papilloma virus (HPV). CASE 1: A 17-year-old female completed two doses of HPV vaccine uneventfully. Two months later, she developed
arthralgias with pruritic rashes on both lower extremities, later accompanied by livedo
reticularis, bipedal edema with proteinuria, anemia, leucopenia, hypocomplementemia and
high titers of anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) and anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA).
Kidney biopsy showed International Society of Nephrology/Renal Pathology Society Class
III lupus nephritis. She was started on high dose steroids followed by pulse cyclophosphamide therapy protocol for lupus nephritis, and subsequently went into remission. CASE 2:
A 45-year-old housewife, previously managed for 11 years as having rheumatoid arthritis,
had been in clinical remission for a year when she received two doses of HPV immunization. Four months later, she developed fever accompanied by arthritis, malar rash, oral ulcers, recurrent ascites with intestinal pseudo-obstruction, and behavioral changes. Cranial
MRI showed vasculitic lesions on the frontal and parietal lobes. Laboratory tests showed
anemia with leucopenia, hypocomplementemia, proteinuria, ANA positive at 1:320, and
antibodies against dsDNA, Ro/SSA, La/SSB and histone. She improved following pulse
methylprednisolone with subsequent oral prednisone combined with hydroxychloroquine.
CASE 3: A 58-year-old housewife diagnosed with SLE had been in clinical remission for
8 years when she received two doses of HPV immunization. Three months later, she was
admitted to emergency because of a 1-week history of fever, malar rash, easy fatigability,
cervical lymph nodes, gross hematuria and pallor. Laboratory exams showed severe anemia, thrombocytopenia, active urine sediments, and hypocomplementemia. Despite pulse
steroid therapy, blood transfusions, intravenous immunoglobulin and aggressive resuscitative measures, she expired a day after hospital admission.
SUMMARY
These cases narrate instances of the onset or exacerbation of lupus following HPV immunization suggesting adjuvant-induced autoimmunity. On the other hand, there are reports
of higher incidence of HPV infection in SLE, with the infection per se possibly contributing to disease activity. Thus, the benefit of HPV immunization may still outweigh the risk
among these individuals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22235047

“These cases narrate
instances of the onset
or exacerbation of lupus
following HPV immunization
suggesting adjuvant-induced
autoimmunity.”

American Journal Of Public Health • May 2012

Pharmaceutical companies’ role
in state vaccination policymaking:
the case of human papillomavirus vaccination
Author information
Mello MM1, Abiola S, Colgrove J.
Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
mmello@hsph.harvard.edu
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
We sought to investigate roles that Merck & Co Inc played in state human papillomavirus (HPV) immunization policymaking, to elicit key
stakeholders’ perceptions of the appropriateness of these activities, and
to explore implications for relationships between health policymakers
and industry.

“Most stakeholders

METHODS
We used a series of state case studies combining data from key informant interviews with analysis of media reports and archival materials.
We interviewed 73 key informants in 6 states that were actively engaged in HPV vaccine policy deliberations.

acceptable in principle,

RESULTS
Merck promoted school-entry mandate legislation by serving as an
information resource, lobbying legislators, drafting legislation, mobilizing female legislators and physician organizations, conducting consumer marketing campaigns, and filling gaps in access to the vaccine.
Legislators relied heavily on Merck for scientific information. Most
stakeholders found lobbying by vaccine manufacturers acceptable in
principle, but perceived that Merck had acted too aggressively and nontransparently in this case.
CONCLUSIONS
Although policymakers acknowledge the utility of manufacturers’ involvement in vaccination policymaking, industry lobbying that is overly aggressive, not fully transparent, or not divorced from financial contributions to lawmakers risks undermining the prospects for legislation
to foster uptake of new vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22420796

found lobbying by
vaccine manufacturers

but perceived that Merck
had acted too aggressively
and nontransparently in this case.”

American Journal Of Public Health • September 2012

Who Profits From Uncritical Acceptance
of Biased Estimates of Vaccine Efficacy and Safety?
Lucija Tomljenovic, PhD and Christopher A. Shaw, PhD
At the time of the writing, Lucija Tomljenovic and Christopher A. Shaw
were with the Neural Dynamics Research Group
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Abstract
We read with great interest the analysis by Mello et al.1 on how Merck & Co., Inc. (Merck) influenced state human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination policymaking. The exclusive reliance
on Merck for scientific information on behalf of the legislators is unfortunate, especially in the
light of independent research which has repeatedly warned that drug companies may manipulate
clinical trial designs and subsequent data analysis and reporting to make their drugs look better
and safer.2–4 Indeed, careful scrutiny of Gardasil clinical trials shows that their design, as well
as data reporting and interpretation, were largely inadequate.4–6
Given this, the widespread public optimism regarding Gardasil’s clinical benefits appears to rest
on an extremely weak base built on a number of untested assumptions and significant misinterpretation of factual evidence. For example, the claim that Gardasil vaccination will result in
approximately 70% reduction of cervical cancers7,8 is made despite the fact that the clinical
trial data have not demonstrated to date that the vaccine has actually prevented a single case
of cervical cancer (let alone cervical cancer death),4 nor that the current overly optimistic surrogate marker–based extrapolations are justified.6 A second equally fallacious claim is that lifelong protection arises from three vaccine doses,7,8 although clinical trial follow-up data do not
extend beyond five years.9 The third claim is that Gardasil may induce only minor side effects
of negligible clinical importance,7,8 although such conclusions are only supported by highly
flawed safety trials design.4,10 Additionally, we note evidence of biased and selective reporting
of results from clinical trials, that is, exclusion of particular vaccine efficacy figures from peerreviewed publications, such as those related to study subgroups in which efficacy might be lower
or even negative.4,5
All of the above issues suggest that the information presented by Merck to the public and the
various state legislators concerning Gardasil safety and true prophylactic value were incomplete
and inaccurate and thus inevitably misleading, particularly in light of data from various vaccine
safety surveillance systems and case reports that continue to raise significant concerns regarding
the safety of Gardasil (Table 1).4
Keeping in mind that “the primary interest of a pharmaceutical company is developing and selling pharmaceutical product,”1 one must ask whether rational vaccine policy decisions should be
based on conclusions derived from an uncritical acceptance of flawed vaccine safety and efficacy
estimates provided by the vaccine manufacturer. Failure to adhere to principles of evidence-based
medicine with respect to Gardasil promotion and vaccination policymaking inevitably raises the
question of whether we have learned anything from the Vioxx debacle.
Full Report with References: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482043/

Age-Adjusted Rate Of Adverse Reactions (ADRs) Related To Gardasil Compared With All Other Vaccines In The United States
Reported To The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) As Of March 25th, 2012.
Event

Gardasil

All Vaccines

Gardasil %

All
Serious
Deaths
Life-Threatening
Permanently Disabled
Prolonged Hospitalization
Emergency Room Visit

14,616
1,272
37
289
468
172
6,892

31,713
2,077
58
444
572
229
12,927

46.1
61.2
63.8
65.1
81.2
75.1
53.3

Note: Compared with all other vaccines, Gardasil alone is associated with >60% of all serious Adverse Reactions (including
63.8% of all deaths and 81.2% cases of permanent disability) in females younger than 30 years. In context, while females in this
age group have a near-zero risk of dying from cervical cancer, they are faced with a risk of dying and a permanently disabling
condition from a vaccine that has not prevented a single case of cervical cancer thus far. For a vaccine with uncertain benefits
designed to prevent a disease that is preventable through Papanicolaou screening combined with the loop electrosurgical excision
procedure, which together carry no such risks, the potental for harm to those vaccinated should be negligible. It is not.

“In context. while females in this age group have a near-zero risk of
dying from cervical cancer, they are faced with a risk of dying and a
permanently disabling condition from a vaccine that has not prevented
a single case of cervical cancer thus far. For a vaccine with uncertain
benefits designed to prevent a disease that is preventable through
Papanicolaou screening combined with the loop electrosurgical precision
procedure, which together carry no such risks, the potential for harm
to those vaccinated should be negligible.”

BMJ Case Report • September 2012

Premature ovarian failure
3 years after menarche in a 16-year-old girl
following human papillomavirus vaccination
Author information
Little DT1, Ward HR.
Department of General Practice
North Bellingen Medical Services, Bellingen, Australia
dradford@wirefree.net.au
Abstract
Its occurrence raises important questions about causation, which may signal other systemic concerns. This patient presented with amenorrhoea after
identifying a change from her regular cycle to irregular and scant periods
following vaccinations against human papillomavirus. She declined the
oral contraceptives initially prescribed for amenorrhoea. The diagnostic
tasks were to determine the reason for her secondary amenorrhoea and then
to investigate for possible causes of the premature ovarian failure identified. Although the cause is unknown in 90% of cases, the remaining chief
identifiable causes of this condition were excluded. Premature ovarian failure was then notified as a possible adverse event following this vaccination.
The young woman was counselled regarding preservation of bone density,
reproductive implications and relevant follow-up. This event could hold
potential implications for population health and prompts further inquiry.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4543769/

“Premature ovarian failure
in a well adolescent is a rare event.
This patient presented with amenorrhoea
after identifying a change from her
regular cycle to irregular and scant
periods following vaccinations against
human papillomavirus. This event could
hold potential implications for population
health and prompts further inquiry.”

Journal of Internal Medicine
Volume 272, Issue 5, pages 514–515 • November 2012

tion [6]. This outcome suggests that rather than preventing future cases of cervical cancer, Gardasil, at best, may
only be effective in postponing them.

Letter to the Editor

In addition, unlike screening and the loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP), Gardasil offers no therapeutic benefits as it cannot cause regression of pre-existing HPV-16/18 infections or associated lesions. On the
contrary, Gardasil may exacerbate cervical cancer disease in women with pre-existing HPV-6/11/16/18 infections
[5]. It thus appears that the current widespread optimism regarding the putative long-term benefits of HPV vaccination has only been made possible by invalid and premature extrapolations from such often inadequate surrogate markers [3, 9, 10]. As recently noted by Gerhardus and Razum [9], the, ‘unwarranted confidence in the new
[HPV] vaccines led to the impression that there was no need to actually evaluate their effectiveness’.

No autoimmune safety signal after vaccination
with quadrivalent HPV vaccine Gardasil?
L. Tomljenovic and C. A. Shaw
Dear sir,
Recently, the Journal of Internal Medicine published a study by Chao et al. [1] on autoimmune conditions following the routine use of Gardasil, which failed to identify any significant autoimmune safety concerns. This study
was conducted in collaboration between two managed care organizations, Kaiser Permanente Southern California
(KPSC) and Kaiser Permanente Northern California (KPNC), as a postlicensure commitment to the FDA, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and other regulatory authorities to help evaluate the autoimmune safety of the
vaccine. In particular, Chao et al. [1] noted that ‘well-designed postlicensure safety studies for newly approved
vaccines facilitate proper evaluation of their autoimmune safety’ [emphasis added]. We certainly do agree with
the authors that such studies are needed for determining whether or not new vaccines have adequate safety profiles. The study population for the autoimmune surveillance by the Kaiser’s research team thus included 189 629
women of diverse ethnical and socio-economic background, 99% of whom were in the recommended age range
for HPV vaccination (9–26 years) [1]. Nonetheless, two potential biases might have influenced the outcome of the
safety analysis conducted by the authors.
First, the study included all women who received at least one dose of Gardasil, thus making this particular population sample less sensitive for the detection of serious adverse reactions (ADRs), as such events may be expected
to occur less frequently if fewer doses of the vaccine are administered. As the authors did not report how many
women actually completed the recommended three-dose HPV vaccination regimen, it is impossible to know what
proportion of the study population was actually at high risk from vaccine-related serious ADRs. Secondly, the
Safety Review Committee (SRC) that reviewed all safety data included a general paediatrician/clinical epidemiologist, a perinatologist/teratologist, a vaccinologist, a paediatric rheumatologist and a pharmacoepidemiologist [1].
In view of the fact that the autoimmune conditions of interest to be examined by this expert Committee included
(i) rheumatologic/autoimmune disorders, (ii) autoimmune endocrine conditions and (iii) autoimmune neurological/ophthalmic disorders [1]; the question must be asked about why the Kaiser’s research team failed to recruit an
expert panel with similar expertise if, in fact, the study aimed to facilitate proper evaluation of autoimmune safety
for Gardasil? It is thus surprising to note the absence of an immunologist/autoimmunologist, neurologist and ophthalmologist from the SRC especially because such experts were in fact present at a later stage, in the analysis of
case reports selected by the SRC [1]. As demonstrated repeatedly in the scientific literature, inadequately designed
research cannot be used to reliably evaluate the safety of any drug [2,3].
We have previously pointed out to existing HPV vaccine-related safety concerns as well as uncertainties about
the efficacy of HPV vaccination against actual cervical cancer incidence [3, 4]. Whilst results from clinical trials show that Gardasil can reduce the incidence of a subset of abnormal CIN 2/3+ cytologies (i.e. those related
to HPV-16/18) in women with no pre-existing HPV infections [5], the vaccine is unlikely to reduce the overall
frequency of cervical cancers (at least not beyond what Pap screening has already accomplished) [6, 7], yet this is
the primary aim for which the vaccine was developed [8]. Furthermore, current data show that antibodies against
HPV-18 after Gardasil fall rapidly, with 35% of women having no measurable antibody titres by 5 years postinjec-

On the other hand, abundant evidence now exists that HPV vaccines can cause serious adverse events, including
death and long-term disabling autoimmune conditions [3, 6]. Moreover, because currently there are no active
surveillance programs for monitoring vaccine safety outcomes anywhere in the world, the true rate of serious
ADRs following Gardasil remains unknown. In context, whilst 12-year-old preadolescents are at zero risk of dying from cervical cancer, they are faced with a risk of death and a permanently disabling lifelong autoimmune
or neurodegenerative condition from a vaccine that thus far has not prevented a single case of cervical cancer,
let alone cervical cancer death. For vaccines with uncertain benefits designed to prevent a disease that is already
preventable by Pap screening and LEEP, both of which carry no such risks, the potential for harm to those vaccinated should be negligible [3, 4].
Conflict of interest statement
Authors LT and CAS conducted a histological analysis
of autopsy brain samples from a Gardasil-suspected death case
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2012.02551.x/full

“the vaccine is unlikely to reduce the overall frequency of
cervical cancers (at least not beyond what Pap screening has
already accomplished), yet this is the primary aim for which
the vaccine was developed. Furthermore, current data show
that antibodies against HPV-18 after Gardasil fall rapidly, with
35% of women having no measurable antibody titres by 5
years postinjection. This outcome suggests that rather than
preventing future cases of cervical cancer, Gardasil, at best,
may only be effective in postponing them.”

The Journal Of Law, Medicine & Ethics • Fall 2012

Too fast or not too fast:
the FDA’s approval of Merck’s
HPV vaccine Gardasil
Author information
Tomljenovic L1, Shaw CA.
University of British Columbia
Abstract
There are not many public health issues where views are
as extremely polarized as those concerning vaccines, and
Merck’s HPV vaccine Gardasil is a case in point. Ever
since gaining the FDA’s approval in 2006, Merck has
been heavily criticized for their overly aggressive marketing strategies and lobbying campaigns aimed at promoting Gardasil as a mandatory vaccine. Subsequently,
questions have been raised as to whether it was appropriate for vaccine manufacturers to partake in public health
policies when their conflicts of interests are so obvious.
Some of their advertising campaign slogans, such as “cervical cancer kills x women per year” and “your daughter
could become one less life affected by cervical cancer,”
seemed more designed to promote fear rather than evidence-based decision making about the potential benefits
of the vaccine. Although, conflicts of interests do not necessarily mean that the product itself is faulty, marketing
claims should be carefully examined against factual science data. Currently Gardasil vaccination is strongly recommended by the U.S. and other health authorities while
public concerns about safety and efficacy of the vaccine
appear to be increasing. This discrepancy leads to some
important questions that need to be resolved. The current
review examines key issues of this debate in light of currently available research evidence.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23061593

“Some of their
advertising campaign slogans, such as
“cervical cancer kills x women per year” and
“your daughter could become one less life affected
by cervical cancer,” seemed more designed to
promote fear rather than evidence-based decision
making about the potential benefits of the vaccine.”

Pharmaceutical Regulatory Affairs • 2012

Death after Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination:
Causal or Coincidental?
Lucija Tomljenovic1* and Christopher A Shaw1,2,3
1. Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia, Canada
2. Program in Experimental Medicine, University of British Columbia, Canada
3. Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Canada
Abstract
Background
The proper understanding of a true risk from vaccines is crucial for avoiding unnecessary adverse reactions
(ADRs). However, to this date no solid tests or criteria have been established to determine whether adverse events
are causally linked to vaccinations.

“Our study suggests that HPV vaccines

Objectives
This research was carried out to determine whether or not some serious autoimmune and neurological ADRs
following HPV vaccination are causal or merely coincidental and to validate a biomarker-based immunohistochemical (IHC) protocol for assessing causality in case of vaccination-suspected serious adverse neurological
outcomes.

inherent risk for triggering potentially fatal

containing HPV-16L1 antigens pose an

autoimmune vasculopathies.”

Results
In both cases, the autopsy revealed no anatomical, microbiological nor toxicological ndings that might have explained the death of the individuals. In contrast, our IHC analysis showed evidence of an autoimmune vasculitis
potentially triggered by the cross-reactive HPV-16L1 antibodies binding to the wall of cerebral blood vessels in
all examined brain samples. We also detected the presence of HPV-16L1 particles within the cerebral vasculature
with some HPV-16L1 particles adhering to the blood vessel walls. HPV-18L1 antibodies did not bind to cerebral
blood vessels nor any other neural tissues. IHC also showed increased T-cell signalling and marked activation of
the classical antibody-dependent complement pathway in cerebral vascular tissues from both cases. This pattern
of complement activation in the absence of an active brain infection indicates an abnormal triggering of the immune response in which the immune attack is directed towards self-tissue.
Conclusions
Our study suggests that HPV vaccines containing HPV-16L1 antigens pose an inherent risk for triggering potentially fatal autoimmune vasculopathies.
Practice implications
Cerebral vasculitis is a serious disease which typically results in fatal outcomes when undiagnosed and left untreated. The fact that many of the symptoms reported to vaccine safety surveillance databases following HPV
vaccination are indicative of cerebral vasculitis, but are unrecognized as such (i.e., intense persistent migraines,
syncope, seizures, tremors and tingling, myalgia, locomotor abnormalities, psychotic symptoms and cognitive de
cits), is a serious concern in light of the present findings. It thus appears that in some cases vaccination may be the
triggering factor of fatal autoimmune/neurological events. Physicians should be aware of this association.
Full Report:
http://sanevax.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Tomljenovic-Shaw-Gardasil-Causal-Coincidental-2167-7689-S12-001.pdf

Current Pharmaceutical Design • 2013

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines
as an option for preventing cervical malignancies:
(how) effective and safe?
Author information
Tomljenovic L1, Spinosa JP, Shaw CA.
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia
828 W. 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L8, Canada
lucijat77@gmail.com
Abstract
We carried out a systematic review of HPV vaccine pre- and post-licensure
trials to assess the evidence of their effectiveness and safety. We find that
HPV vaccine clinical trials design, and data interpretation of both efficacy and
safety outcomes, were largely inadequate. Additionally, we note evidence of
selective reporting of results from clinical trials (i.e., exclusion of vaccine efficacy figures related to study subgroups in which efficacy might be lower or
even negative from peer-reviewed publications). Given this, the widespread
optimism regarding HPV vaccines long-term benefits appears to rest on a
number of unproven assumptions (or such which are at odd with factual evidence) and significant misinterpretation of available data. For example, the
claim that HPV vaccination will result in approximately 70% reduction of
cervical cancers is made despite the fact that the clinical trials data have not
demonstrated to date that the vaccines have actually prevented a single case
of cervical cancer (let alone cervical cancer death), nor that the current overly
optimistic surrogate marker-based extrapolations are justified. Likewise, the
notion that HPV vaccines have an impressive safety profile is only supported
by highly flawed design of safety trials and is contrary to accumulating evidence from vaccine safety surveillance databases and case reports which continue to link HPV vaccination to serious adverse outcomes (including death
and permanent disabilities). We thus conclude that further reduction of cervical cancers might be best achieved by optimizing cervical screening (which
carries no such risks) and targeting other factors of the disease rather than by
the reliance on vaccines with questionable efficacy and safety profiles.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23016780

“We carried out a systematic review of HPV vaccine preand post-licensure trials to assess the evidence of their
effectiveness and safety. We find that HPV vaccine clinical
trials design, and data interpretation of both efficacy and
safety outcomes, were largely inadequate. Given this, the
widespread optimism regarding HPV vaccines long-term
benefits appears to rest on a number of unproven assumptions
(or such which are at odd with factual evidence) and
significant misinterpretation of available data. Likewise, the
notion that HPV vaccines have an impressive safety profile is
only supported by highly flawed design of safety trials and is
contrary to accumulating evidence from vaccine safety
surveillance databases and case reports which continue to link
HPV vaccination to serious adverse outcomes
(including death and permanent disabilities).”

Infectious Agents & Cancer • 2013

HPV vaccines and cancer prevention,
science versus activism
Lucija Tomljenovic,1 Judy Wilyman,2 Eva Vanamee,3
Toni Bark,4 and Christopher A Shaw1
1. Neural Dynamics Research Group
Vancouver General Hospital Research Pavilion
University of British Columbia, 828 W. 10th Ave
Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L8, Canada
2. School of Social Sciences
Media and Communication
University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia
3. Department of Structural and Chemical Biology
Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 1425 Madison Ave
Rm 1623, New York, NY, 10029, USA
4. School of Public Health-Healthcare Emergency Management
Boston University, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
Abstract
The rationale behind current worldwide human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccination programs starts from two
basic premises, 1) that HPV vaccines will prevent cervical cancers and save lives and, 2) have no risk of serious
side effects. Therefore, efforts should be made to get as many pre-adolescent girls vaccinated in order to decrease
the burden of cervical cancer. Careful analysis of HPV vaccine pre- and post-licensure data shows however that
both of these premises are at odds with factual evidence and are largely derived from significant misinterpretation
of available data.
Letter
The recent Editorial by Silvia de Sanjosé* [1] is problematic from a variety of perspectives. Mainly, it attempts
to portray a complex issue as a simple dichotomy between supposedly unjustified “anti-HPV vaccine activism”
and alleged absolute science which has presumably provided indisputable evidence on HPV vaccine safety and
efficacy.
In spite of much unwarranted and premature optimism, the fact is however that HPV vaccines have not thus far
prevented a single case of cervical cancer (let alone cervical cancer death). Instead, what the clinical trials have
shown is that HPV vaccines can prevent some of the pre-cancerous CIN 2/3 lesions associated with HPV-16 and
HPV-18 infection, a large fraction of which would spontaneously resolve regardless of the vaccination status [24]. For example, in adolescent women aged 13 to 24 years, 38% of CIN 2 resolve after one year, 63% after two
and 68% after three years [5]. Moreover, the validity of CIN 2 being a cancer precursor is questionable due to high
misclassification rates and poor intra- and inter-observer reproducibility in diagnosis, as well as high regression
rates [6-9]. According to Castle et al. [7] CIN 2 is the least reproducible of all histopathologic diagnoses and may
in part reflect sampling error. While CIN 3 is a more reliable marker for cancer progression than CIN 2, the use
of this marker is not without caveats [2,10].
Indeed, the optimistic assumption that HPV vaccination (even if proven effective against cervical cancer as
claimed), will result in 70% reduction of cervical cancers appears to be largely based on premature, exaggerated

and invalid surrogate marker-based extrapolations [2,11]. Crucially, these assumptions failed to take into account
several important real-world factors such as:
(1) reliability of surrogate-markers (i.e., whether they can accurately measure what they are purport to measure);
(2) efficacy against oncogenic HPV strains not covered by the vaccine;
(3) possibility of increased frequency of infections with these types;
(4) efficacy in women acquiring multiple HPV types;
(5) effects in women with pre-existing HPV infections
It is also noteworthy that Merck’s HPV vaccine Gardasil received priority Fast Track approval by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) after a 6-month review process, despite the fact that it failed (and still continues
to fail) to meet a single one of the four criteria required by the FDA for Fast Track approval. Gardasil is demonstrably neither safer nor more effective than Pap screening combined with the loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) in preventing cervical cancers, nor can it improve the diagnosis of serious cervical cancer outcomes
[12]. In this regard, Gerhardus and Razum have recently noted that the “…unwarranted confidence in the newHPVvaccines led to the impression that there was no need to actually evaluate their effectiveness” [11].
Similarly, the notion that HPV vaccines have an impressive safety profile can only be supported by highly flawed
design of safety trials [2,13] and is contrary to accumulating evidence from vaccine safety surveillance databases
and case reports which continue to link HPV vaccination to serious adverse outcomes (including death and permanent disabilities) [2,4,14]. For example, compared to all other vaccines in the U.S. vaccination schedule, Gardasil alone is associated with 61% of all serious adverse reactions (including 63.8% of all deaths and 81.2% cases
of permanent disability) in females younger than 30 years of age [12].
Although a report to a vaccine safety surveillance system does not by itself prove that the vaccine caused an adverse reaction, the unusually high frequency of adverse reactions related to HPV vaccines reported worldwide,
as well as their consistent pattern (i.e. nervous system-related disorders rank the highest in frequency), points to
a potentially causal relationship [2]. Furthermore, matching the data from vaccine surveillance databases is an
increasing number of case reports documenting similar serious adverse reactions associated with HPV vaccine
administration, with nervous system and autoimmune disorders being the most frequently reported in the medical
literature [15-24].
In summary, the optimistic claims that HPV vaccines will prevent cervical cancers and save lives, and that they
are extremely safe, rest on assumptions which are misinterpreted and presented to the public as factual evidence.
We thus conclude that further reduction of cervical cancers might be best achieved by optimizing cervical screening (which carries no serious health risks) and targeting other factors of the disease rather than by the reliance on
vaccines with questionable efficacy and safety profiles [2,25].
To those who wish to promote HPV vaccination as a means for reducing cervical cancer burden, perhaps the following should be asked:
1. HPV vaccines have not been demonstrated to prevent any cervical cancers so why are they being promoted as
cervical cancer vaccines?
2. If the majority of HPV infections and a great proportion of pre-cancerous lesions clear spontaneously and without medical treatment and are thus not a reliable indication of cancer later in life, then how can these end-points
be used as a reliable indicator of the number of cervical cancer cases that will be prevented by HPV vaccines?
3. How can the clinical trials make an accurate estimate of the risk associated with HPV-vaccines if they are methodologically biased to produce type-2 errors (false negatives [2,4,13])? [continued next page]

4. Can a passive monitoring system such as that used by most vaccine surveillance systems world-wide allow
the medical regulatory agencies to make accurate estimates on the real frequency of HPV-vaccine related adverse
reactions?
5. Can an accurate estimate of the real frequency of HPV-vaccine related adverse reactions be made if appropriate
follow-up and thorough investigation of suspected vaccine related ADRs is not conducted but instead, these cases
are a-priori dismissed as being unrelated to the vaccine?
6. Why are women not informed of the fact that in some circumstances (i.e., prior exposure to vaccine-targeted
and non-targeted HPV types), HPV vaccination may accelerate the progression of cervical abnormalities [4,2628]?

“ Gardasil is demonstrably neither safer
nor more effective than Pap screening

7. How can women make a fully informed decision about whether or not to consent to vaccination if crucial information regarding HPV vaccine efficacy and safety is not being disclosed to them?

combined with the loop electrosurgical

8. Should the medical health regulators and authorities rely solely on data provided by the vaccine manufacturers
to make vaccine-policy decisions and recommendations [12,29]?

excision procedure (LEEP) in preventing

Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests
Authors’ contributions
LT was involved in choosing the topic and drafting the initial manuscript. CAS, JW, EV and TB were involved
in critically revising the manuscript and additional content. The authors have read and approved the manuscript.
This work was supported by the Dwoskin and Katlyn Fox Family Foundations.
Full Report with References
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3565961/
“As for all vaccines, and in particular for newly marketed ones, the surveillance of adverse events represents an
essential step in the evaluation of a vaccination programme.”
[because all vaccines are part of a long-term human population-wide medical experiment]

cervical cancers, nor can it improve the
diagnosis of serious cervical cancer outcomes.”

Annals Of Medicine • March 2013

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine policy
and evidence-based medicine: are they at odds?
Author information
Tomljenovic L1, Shaw CA.
Neural Dynamics Research Group
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of British Columbia, 828 W. 10th Ave
Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L8, Canada
lucijat77@gmail.com
Abstract
All drugs are associated with some risks of adverse reactions. Because vaccines represent a special category of drugs, generally given to healthy individuals, uncertain benefits mean that only a small level of risk for adverse
reactions is acceptable. Furthermore, medical ethics demand that vaccination should be carried out with the participant’s full and informed consent.
This necessitates an objective disclosure of the known or foreseeable vaccination benefits and risks. The way in which HPV vaccines are often promoted to women indicates that such disclosure is not always given from
the basis of the best available knowledge. For example, while the world’s
leading medical authorities state that HPV vaccines are an important cervical cancer prevention tool, clinical trials show no evidence that HPV vaccination can protect against cervical cancer. Similarly, contrary to claims that
cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women worldwide,
existing data show that this only applies to developing countries. In the
Western world cervical cancer is a rare disease with mortality rates that are
several times lower than the rate of reported serious adverse reactions (including deaths) from HPV vaccination. Future vaccination policies should
adhere more rigorously to evidence-based medicine and ethical guidelines
for informed consent.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22188159

“... while the world’s leading medical authorities state that
HPV vaccines are an important cervical cancer prevention tool,
clinical trials show no evidence that HPV vaccination can protect
against cervical cancer. Similarly, contrary to claims that cervical
cancer is the second most common cancer in women worldwide,
existing data show that this only applies to developing countries.
In the Western world cervical cancer is a rare disease with
mortality rates that are several times lower than the rate
of reported serious adverse reactions (including deaths)
from HPV vaccination.”

Clinical Rheumatology • September 2013

Human papillomavirus vaccine
and systemic lupus erythematosus
Author information
Gatto M1, Agmon-Levin N, Soriano A, Manna R,
Maoz-Segal R, Kivity S, Doria A, Shoenfeld Y.
Department of Medicine
University of Padova, Padova, Italy
Abstract
To investigate the association between human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination and autoimmune manifestations
compatible with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
or SLE-like disease, the medical history of six women
who presented with SLE or SLE-like disease following
HPV immunization was collected. Data regarding type of
vaccine, number of immunization, family and personal,
clinical and serological features, as well as response to
treatments were analyzed. In the reported cases, several
common features were observed, such as personal or familial susceptibility to autoimmunity or adverse response
to a prior dose of the vaccine, both of which may be associated with a higher risk of post-vaccination autoimmunity. Favorable response to immunosuppressant was
observed in all patients. In the current study, a temporal
association between immunization with HPV vaccine
and the appearance of a spectrum of SLE-like conditions
is reported. Additionally, among the patients described,
several common features were observed that may enable
better identification of subjects at risk. Further studies
are required to assess the safety of immunization with
the HPV vaccine in patients with autoimmune-rheumatic
diseases or in subject at risk of autoimmunity as well as
the potential beneficial effect of preventive immunosuppressants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23624585

“In the current study,
a temporal association between
immunization with HPV vaccine
and the appearance of a spectrum of
SLE-like conditions is reported.
Additionally, among the patients described,
several common features were observed
that may enable better identification
of subjects at risk.”

Neuropediatrics • October 2013

Association of acute cerebellar ataxia
and human papilloma virus vaccination:
a case report
Author information
Yonee C1, Toyoshima M, Maegaki Y, Kodama Y,
Hayami H, Takahashi Y, Kusunoki S, Uchibori A, Chiba A, Kawano Y.
Department of Pediatrics
Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences
Kagoshima University, Kagoshima City
Kagoshima, Japan
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
We report the case of a patient who developed symptoms of acute cerebellar
ataxia (ACA) after administration of the human papilloma virus (HPV)-16/18
vaccine.
PATIENT AND METHOD
This patient developed symptoms of ACA, including nausea, vertigo, severe
limb and truncal ataxia, and bilateral spontaneous continuous horizontal nystagmus with irregular rhythm, 12 days after administration of the HPV-16/18
AS04-adjuvanted cervical cancer vaccine. After this, the patient received methylprednisolone pulse and intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapies as well
as immunoadsorption plasmapheresis.
RESULTS
Severe ACA symptoms did not improve after methylprednisolone pulse and
IVIG therapies, but the patient recovered completely after immunoadsorption
plasmapheresis.
CONCLUSION
This temporal association strongly suggests that ACA
was induced by the vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23378179

“This temporal association
strongly suggests that
acute cerebellar ataxia
was induced by the vaccination.”

American Journal Of Reproductive Immunology • October 2013

Human papilloma virus vaccine
and primary ovarian failure:
another facet of the
autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants
Author information
Colafrancesco S1, Perricone C, Tomljenovic L, Shoenfeld Y.
Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel

“We documented here the evidence

Rheumatology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialities
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

of the potential of the HPV vaccine

Abstract

to trigger a life-disabling autoimmune condition.

PROBLEM
Post-vaccination autoimmune phenomena are a major facet of the autoimmune/inflammatory
syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) and different vaccines, including HPV, have been identified as possible causes.

The increasing number of similar reports of

METHOD OF STUDY
The medical history of three young women who presented with secondary amenorrhea following
HPV vaccination was collected. Data regarding type of vaccine, number of vaccination, personal,
clinical and serological features, as well as response to treatments were analyzed.

uncertainty of long-term clinical benefits of HPV

RESULTS
All three patients developed secondary amenorrhea following HPV vaccinations, which did not
resolve upon treatment with hormone replacement therapies. In all three cases sexual development was normal and genetic screen revealed no pertinent abnormalities (i.e., Turner’s syndrome,
Fragile X test were all negative). Serological evaluations showed low levels of estradiol and
increased FSH and LH and in two cases, specific auto-antibodies were detected (antiovarian and
anti thyroid), suggesting that the HPV vaccine triggered an autoimmune response. Pelvic ultrasound did not reveal any abnormalities in any of the three cases. All three patients experienced a
range of common non-specific post-vaccine symptoms including nausea, headache, sleep disturbances, arthralgia and a range of cognitive and psychiatric disturbances. According to these clinical features, a diagnosis of primary ovarian failure (POF) was determined which also fulfilled the
required criteria for the ASIA syndrome.

warrants further rigorous inquiry.”

CONCLUSION
We documented here the evidence of the potential of the HPV vaccine to trigger a life-disabling
autoimmune condition. The increasing number of similar reports of post HPV vaccine-linked
autoimmunity and the uncertainty of long-term clinical benefits of HPV vaccination are a matter
of public health that warrants further rigorous inquiry.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23902317

post HPV vaccine-linked autoimmunity and the

vaccination are a matter of public health that

Current Drug Safety • March 2014

Human papilloma virus
vaccine associated uveitis
Author information
Holt HD, Hinkle DM, Falk NS, Fraunfelder FT, Fraunfelder FW1.
Lions Eye Institute, Albany Medical College, Slingerlands, New York, USA
hncl1983@gmail.com
Abstract
PURPOSE
To report a possible association between human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccination
and uveitis.
METHODS
Spontaneous reports from the National Registry of Drug-Induced Ocular Side effects, World Health Organization and Food and Drug Administration were collected
on uveitis associated with human papilloma virus vaccination. A MEDLINE search
was performed using keywords “uveitis,” “iritis,” “iridocyclitis,” “human papilloma
virus,” “Cervarix”, and “Gardasil.”
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES
Data garnered from spontaneous reports included the age, gender, adverse drug reaction (ADR), date of administration, concomitant administration of other vaccinations, time until onset of ADR, other systemic reactions, and dechallenge and rechallenge data.
RESULTS
A total of 24 case reports of uveitis associated with human papilloma virus vaccination were identified, all cases were female, and the median age was 17. Median time
from HPV vaccination to reported ADR was 30 days (range 0-476 days).
DISCUSSION
According to World Health Organization criteria, the relationship between human
papilloma virus vaccination and uveitis is “possible.” Causality assessments are
based on the time relationship of drug administration, uveitis development and rechallenge data.
CONCLUSIONS
Clinicians should be aware of a possible bilateral uveitis and papillitis following
HPV vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24191906

“A total of 24 case reports
of uveitis associated with human papilloma virus
vaccination were identified, all cases were female,
and the median age was 17. According to World Health
Organization criteria, the relationship between human
papilloma virus vaccination and uveitis is “possible.”

European Journal Of Neurology • September 2014

Postural tachycardia syndrome
following human papillomavirus vaccination
Author information
Blitshteyn S.
Department of Neurology
State University of New York at Buffalo
School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
Buffalo, NY, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
Postural tachycardia syndrome (POTS) is a heterogeneous disorder of the
autonomic nervous system that may have an autoimmune etiology.
METHODS
Six patients who developed new onset POTS 6 days to 2 months following
human papillomavirus vaccination are reported.
RESULTS
Three patients also had neurocardiogenic syncope, and three patients were
diagnosed with possible small fiber neuropathy. Symptoms in all patients
improved over 3 years with pharmacotherapy and non-pharmacological
measures but residual symptoms persisted. Molecular mimicry with formation of cross-reacting autoantibodies to the potential targets of the autonomic ganglia, neurons, cardiac proteins or vascular receptors is considered as a possible pathogenesis of new onset POTS after immunization.
CONCLUSION
Correct diagnosis of POTS and awareness that POTS may occur after vaccination in young women is essential for prompt and effective management
of this condition.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24102827

“Six patients who developed
new onset Postural tachycardia syndrome
6 days to 2 months following human
papillomavirus vaccination are reported.”

Journal Of Investigative Medicine
High Impact Case Reports • October 2014

Adolescent Premature Ovarian Insufficiency
Following Human Papillomavirus Vaccination:
A Case Series Seen in General Practice
Author information
Little DT1, Ward HR2.
1. Bellingen District Hospital, Bellingen, New South Wales, Australia
2. University of New South Wales, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
Abstract
Three young women who developed premature ovarian insufficiency following
quadrivalent human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination presented to a general
practitioner in rural New South Wales, Australia. The unrelated girls were aged
16, 16, and 18 years at diagnosis. Each had received HPV vaccinations prior to
the onset of ovarian decline. Vaccinations had been administered in different regions of the state of New South Wales and the 3 girls lived in different towns in
that state. Each had been prescribed the oral contraceptive pill to treat menstrual
cycle abnormalities prior to investigation and diagnosis. Vaccine research does
not present an ovary histology report of tested rats but does present a testicular histology report. Enduring ovarian capacity and duration of function following vaccination is unresearched in preclinical studies, clinical and postlicensure
studies. Postmarketing surveillance does not accurately represent diagnoses in
adverse event notifications and can neither represent unnotified cases nor compare incident statistics with vaccine course administration rates. The potential
significance of a case series of adolescents with idiopathic premature ovarian
insufficiency following HPV vaccination presenting to a general practice warrants further research. Preservation of reproductive health is a primary concern in
the recipient target group. Since this group includes all prepubertal and pubertal
young women, demonstration of ongoing, uncompromised safety for the ovary is
urgently required. This matter needs to be resolved for the purposes of population
health and public vaccine confidence.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26425627

“Three young women who developed
premature ovarian insufficiency following quadrivalent
human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination presented
to a general practitioner in rural New South Wales,
Australia. The potential significance of a case series
of adolescents with idiopathic premature ovarian
insufficiency following HPV vaccination presenting
to a general practice warrants further research.
This matter needs to be resolved for the purposes
of population health and public vaccine confidence.”

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Comparison of adaptive and innate immune responses
induced by licensed vaccines for Human Papillomavirus
Author information
Herrin DM1, Coates EE, Costner PJ, Kemp TJ, Nason MC,
Saharia KK, Pan Y, Sarwar UN, Holman L, Yamshchikov G,
Koup RA, Pang YY, Seder RA, Schiller JT,
Graham BS, Pinto LA, Ledgerwood JE.
1. Vaccine Research Center
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease
National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD USA
Abstract
Two HPV virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines, HPV-16/18 (GlaxoSmithKline, Cervarix®) and HPV-6/11/16/18 (Merck, Gardasil®), are currently licensed in the United
States. Given the similar antigenic content but different adjuvant formulations in the 2
vaccines, they provide an efficient method for evaluating adjuvants and comparing the
kinetics of the innate and adaptive immune responses. We randomized women to receive either Cervarix® or Gardasil®, followed 6 month vaccination delivery schedules
per manufacturer’s recommendations, and analyzed the humoral immune response, T
cell response, and circulating plasma cytokine levels in response to vaccination. Cervarix® recipients had higher anti-HPV-16 antibody and neutralization titers at month
7, and elevated anti-HPV-18 antibody and neutralization titers at months 7 and 12.
Antibody avidity was similar for the 2 vaccines. HPV-31 was the only phylogenetically
related non-vaccine HPV type, for which there is evidence of cross-protection, to be
cross-neutralized and only in response to Cervarix®. Comparing CD4+ T cell cytokine
responses at month 12, there was a trend of increased levels of IL-2 and TNF-∼ in the
Cervarix® groups versus the Gardasil® groups that was consistent across all 4 tested
HPV types (16/18/33/45). Elevated levels of circulating plasma cytokine/chemokines
were observed post first vaccination in Gardasil® recipients and proinflammatory cytokines were elevated following 1st and 3rd Cervarix® vaccinations. Cervarix® and
Gardasil® are both highly immunogenic vaccines. Higher antibody levels and CD4 T
cell responses were achieved with Cervarix® after 3 doses, although similar affinity
maturation was measured for the 2 vaccines. The clinical implications of the differences in immune responses are unknown.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483691

[proving vaccines are
continuous, long-term
human experiments]

HPV vaccine is neither safe nor effective

References

The following letter to the editor of the Baltimore Sun, with references,
was written by Emily Tarsell, LCPC, and Dr. William Reichel on August 9, 2015

1. Tomljenovic L, Shaw CA, Spinosa JP: Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccines as an option for preventing cervical malignancies:
(How) effective and safe? Curr Pharm Des 2012, :CPD-EPUB-20120924-13.Epub ahead of print.
2. Tomljenovic L, Shaw CA: Who profits from uncritical acceptance of biased estimates of vaccine efficacy and safety? Am J Public
Health 2012, 102(9):e13–e14.
3. Tomljenovic L, Shaw CA: Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine policy and evidence-based medicine: are they at odds? Ann Med
2011, doi:10.3109/07853890.2 011.645353
4. Slade BA, Leidel L, Vellozzi C, et al. Postlicensure safety surveillance for quadrivalent human papillomavirus recombinant vaccine.
JAMA. 2009; 302 (7): 750- 757.
5. Tomljenovic L, Wilyman J, Vanamee E, Bark T,Shaw CA. HPV vaccines
and cancer prevention, science versus activism. Infectious Agents and Cancer 2013,8:6. http://www.infectagentscancer.com/content/8/1/6.
6. Vactruth. French Medical Doctors Say, “Delist & Suspend HPV Vaccines. December 28, 2011 http://www.medocean.re/2011/09/legardasil-a-l%E2%80%99as- semblee-nationale/.Accessed January 2012.
7. Sarojini N B, Sandhya Srinivasan, Madhavi Y, Srinivasan S, Anjali Shenoifie HPV Vaccine: Science, Ethics and Regulation. Economic & Political Weekly EPW november 27, 2010 vol xlv no 48.
8. Erickson N. Japan and the hpv vaccine controversy. www.sanevax.org. Accessed 4/29/2014.
9. Kyodo. Cervarix vaccine issues trigger health notice. Japan Times. June 15,2013. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/06/15/national/cervix-vaccine-issues-trigger-health-notice/#.VMfXlWjF8fX. Accessed 4/29/2014.
10. Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. Shimbun A. Analysis: Experts at loss over pain from cervical cancer vaccination. Asia and
Japan Watch. June 18, 2013. http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_a airs/AJ201306180057. Ac- cessed 1/27/15
11. Archive of proceedings and events regarding an investigation into hpv vaccines safety and efficacy by the Japanese Ministry of
Health, Labor and Welfare. Medwatcher Japan. http://www.yakugai.gr.jp/en/activity/index.php?year=2014. Accessed 1/26/15.
12. Chustecka Z. Safety Profile of HPV Vaccines Under Review in Europe. Med- scape.July 13. 2015. http://www.medscape.com/
viewarticle/847841src=wnl_edit_ newsal&uac=148182AN&impID=759675&faf=1 Accessed July 20, 2015.
13. Lee, SH. Detection of human papillomavirus (HPV) L1gene DNA possibly bound to particulate aluminum adjuvant in the HPVvaccine Gardasil. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry.117 (2012) 85-92. www.elsevier.com/locate/jinorgbio.
14. Shoenfeld Y, Agmon-Levin N. ‘ASIA’ – Autoimmune/in ammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants. Journal of Autoimmunity
(2010), 2010; XXX: 1-5.
15. Tomljenovic L, Shaw CA. Mechanisms of Aluminum adjuvant toxicity
and autoimmunity in pediatric populations. Lupus 2012; 21:223-230.
16. Shaw CA, Petrik MS. Aluminum hydroxide injections lead to motor de cits and motor neuron degeneration. J Inorg Biochem
2009; 103: 1555-1562.

Dear Editor:
Your recent article in The Baltimore Sun, Medicine Briefs for August 2, 2015, states that “not
enough pediatricians are strongly recommending HPV vaccine.” It appears there are excellent medical and scientific reasons why many doctors do not.
Since hpv vaccines were introduced seven years ago, it has been assumed that this vaccine
will prevent cervical cancer. Yet it has never been demonstrated to prevent any cancer, cervical or otherwise (1, 2, 3).
It has also been assumed for 7 years that this vaccine is safe. Yet there have been thousands
of adverse event reports. The CDC itself admits there are 3x as many adverse events for the
hpv vaccine Gardasil as there are for all other vaccines combined.(4) Compared to all other
vaccines in the US schedule, Gardasil alone is associated with 61% of all serious adverse
events including 63.8% of all deaths and 81.2% of all permanent disabilities in females under
30 years of age. (5)
In fact, Japan, India and France have removed hpv vaccines from their recommended list due
to safety and ef cacy concerns.(6, 7, 8, 11) Unethical practices and serious post hpv vaccination injuries and deaths prompted the Supreme Court of India to initiate an ongoing investigation of the Bill and Melin- da Gates Foundation. (7) The Health Welfare and Labor Ministry
of Japan conducted a national inves- tigation regarding post hpv vaccine injuries in their
country. The outcome was the removal of funding and removal of recommendations regarding hpv vaccines. (8, 9, 10, 11) They concluded that the harm experienced is overwhelmingly
greater than the bene t expected.
Prompted by medical reports of post hpv vaccination arrhythmia and motor neuron disabilities in children in Denmark, the European Medicines Agency is conducting an investigation
of hpv injection adverse events. (12) Law suits for hpv injuries and deaths have also been led
in Spain, France and Columbia.
Some studies have linked serious hpv vaccine adverse events to the aluminum adjuvant which
is a known neurotoxin. (13, 14, 15, 16) Yet the latest version of hpv vaccine, Gardasil 9, contains double the amount of aluminum adjuvant than its predecessor.
We already have proven, safe and effective ways to prevent cervical cancer with pap screening which carries no serious health risk. So the doctors who do not recommend hpv vaccination are the ones who have done their research. The public should be grateful to those who
have taken their oath seriously.
Sincerely,

“Since hpv vaccines were introduced seven years ago, it has
been assumed that this vaccine will prevent cervical cancer.
Yet it has never been demonstrated to prevent any cancer,
cervical or otherwise. It has also been assumed for 7 years that
this vaccine is safe. Yet there have been thousands of adverse
event reports. The CDC itself admits there are 3x as many
adverse events for the hpv vaccine Gardasil as there are for all

William Reichel, MD Emily Tarsell, LCPC

other vaccines combined.”

Danish Medical Journal • April 2015

Suspected side effects
to the quadrivalent human papilloma vaccine
Author information
Brinth L1, Theibel AC, Pors K, Mehlsen J.
Koordinerende Forskningsenhed/Synkopecenteret
Vej 3, Indgang 4, Frederiksberg Hospital, Nordre Fasanvej 57
2000 Frederiksberg, Denmark
louise.schouborg.brinth@regionh.dk
Abstract
Introduction
The quadrivalent vaccine that protects against human papilloma virus types 6, 11, 16 and 18 (Q-HPV vaccine,
Gardasil) was included into the Danish childhood vaccination programme in 2009. During the past years, a collection of symptoms primarily consistent with sympathetic nervous system dysfunction have been described as
suspected side effects to the Q-HPV vaccine.
Methods
We present a description of suspected side effects to the Q-HPV vaccine in 53 patients referred to our Syncope
Unit for tilt table test and evaluation of autonomic nervous system function.
Results
All patients had symptoms consistent with pronounced autonomic dysfunction including different degrees of
orthostatic intolerance, severe non-migraine-like headache, excessive fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, gastrointestinal discomfort and widespread pain of a neuropathic character.
Conclusion
We found consistency in the reported symptoms as well as between our findings and those described by others.
Our findings neither confirm nor dismiss a causal link to the Q-HPV vaccine, but they suggest that further research
is urgently warranted to clarify the pathophysiology behind the symptoms experienced in these patients and to
evaluate the possibility and the nature of any causal link and hopefully establish targeted treatment options.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25872549

“During the past years,
a collection of symptoms primarily consistent with
sympathetic nervous system dysfunction have been
described as suspected side effects to the Q-HPV vaccine.
All patients had symptoms consistent with pronounced
autonomic dysfunction including different degrees of
orthostatic intolerance, severe non-migraine-like headache,
excessive fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, gastrointestinal
discomfort and widespread pain of a neuropathic character.”

Brain And Nerve • July 2015

Neurologic Complications
in HPV Vaccination
Author information
Ikeda S.
Department of Medicine (Neurology and Rheumatology)
Shinshu University School of Medicine
Japan
Abstract
A relatively high incidence of chronic limb pain, frequently
complicated by violent, tremulous involuntary movements,
has been noted in Japanese girls following human papillomavirus vaccination. The average incubation period after the
first dose of the vaccine was 5.47 ± 5.00 months. Frequent
manifestations included headaches, general fatigue, coldness
of the feet, limb pain, and weakness. The skin temperature of
the girls with limb symptoms was slightly lower in the fingers
and moderately lower in the toes. Digital plethysmograms revealed a reduced peak of the waves, especially in the toes.
Limb symptoms of the affected girls were compatible with the
diagnostic criteria for complex regional pain syndrome. The
Schellong test identified a significant number of patients with
orthostatic hypotension and a few with postural orthostatic
tachycardia syndrome. Electron-microscopic examinations
of the intradermal nerves showed an abnormal pathology in
the unmyelinated fibers in two of the three girls examined.
The symptoms observed in this study can be explained by abnormal peripheral sympathetic responses. The most common
previous diagnosis in the patients was psychosomatic disease.
Recently, delayed manifestation of cognitive dysfunction in
the post-vaccinated girls has attracted attention. The symptoms include memory loss and difficulty in reading textbooks
and/or calculation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26160812

“A relatively high incidence
of chronic limb pain,
frequently complicated by violent,
tremulous involuntary movements,
has been noted in Japanese girls following
human papillomavirus vaccination.”

Expert Opinion On Drug Safety • July 2015

The safety of human papilloma virus-blockers
and the risk of triggering autoimmune diseases
Author information
Baker B1, Eça Guimarães L, Tomljenovic L,
Agmon-Levin N, Shoenfeld Y.
The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
+972 3 5302652; +972 3 5352855
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
With the safety of human papilloma virus vaccine (HPVv) being questioned, this article aims to assess the risks and benefits of the commercially available HPVv. Within the last decade, two vaccines (Gardasil
and Cervarix) have been put on the market to prevent infection with
the most oncogenic HPV subtypes. Both vaccines contain aluminum
adjuvants that are meant to cause a hyper stimulated immune response
to prevent HPV infection.
AREAS COVERED
The purpose of this paper is to consider the safety of these two vaccines
based on the data from the U.S. Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) and case reports.
EXPERT OPINION
The current HPVv are both effective and generally safe. However, it
should be noted that autoimmune side effects have been reported in
several studies. Further research should be done to understand the relationship between HPVv and autoimmunity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216756

“However, it should be noted that
autoimmune side effects have been reported
in several studies. Further research should
be done to understand the relationship
between HPVv and autoimmunity.”

Human Vaccines & Immunotherapy • October 2015

Compensation programs
after withdrawal of the recommendation
for HPV vaccine in Japan
Author information
Yuji K1, Nakada H2.
1. Project Division of International Advanced Medical Research
The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo
4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minatoku, Tokyo, Japan, 1088639
2. Research and Development Initiative Center
National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute
Suita City, Osaka, Japan
nakad@ncvc.go.jp
Abstract
HPV vaccinations were recommended with the backing of a Japanese government subsidy
program in 2010, and were included in the National Immunization Program in April 2013.
However, the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare withdrew the recommendation for
the HPV vaccination in June 2013. We investigated HPV vaccine injury compensation programs for both the national and local governments. Approximately 3.38 million girls were
vaccinated, and 2,584 complained of health problems. The majority of these received the
vaccine shot as a non-routine vaccination. In total, 98 people developed health problems and
applied for assistance from 2011 to 2014, but no cases have been processed since October
2014. Several local governments are providing their own compensation program for cases
of vaccine adverse reactions, but the number is extremely low (16 of 1,741 municipalities
and 1 of 47 prefectures). The local governments that are providing compensation are largely
those where HPV vaccine victim support groups are prominent. The confusion regarding
the national program for HPV vaccine injury was caused by the discrepancy between the
compensation programs for those vaccinated under the immunization law and for those who
received voluntary vaccinations. The establishment of a new compensation program might
be key to finding a lasting resolution.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26513303
HPV Vaccination Crisis In Japan link:
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/279181953_HPV_vaccination_crisis_in_Japan

“the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare
withdrew the recommendation for the HPV vaccination
in June 2013.”

Clinical Rheumatology • November 2015

HPV vaccination syndrome
A questionnaire-based study
Author information
Martínez-Lavín M1, Martínez-Martínez LA2, Reyes-Loyola P2.
1. Departamento de Reumatología
Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez
Juan Badiano 1, 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
drmartinezlavin@gmail.com.
2. Departamento de Reumatología
Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez
Juan Badiano 1, 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
Abstract
Isolated cases and small series have described the development of complex regional pain syndrome, postural orthostatic tachycardia, and fibromyalgia after human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination. These illnesses
are difficult to diagnose and have overlapping clinical features. Small fiber
neuropathy and dysautonomia may play a major role in the pathogenesis of
these entities. We used the following validated questionnaires to appraise
the chronic illness that might appear after HPV vaccination: The 2010
American College of Rheumatology Fibromyalgia Diagnostic Criteria,
COMPASS 31 dysautonomia questionnaire, and S-LANSS neuropathic
pain form. These questionnaires and a “present illness” survey were emailed to persons who had the onset of a chronic ailment soon after HPV
vaccination. Forty-five filled questionnaires from individuals living in 13
different countries were collected in a month’s period. Mean (±SD) age at
vaccination time was 14 ± 5 years. Twenty-nine percent of the cases had
immediate (within 24 h) post-vaccination illness onset. The most common
presenting complaints were musculoskeletal pain (66 %), fatigue (57 %),
headache (57 %), dizziness/vertigo (43 %), and paresthesias/allodynia
(36 %). Fifty-three percent of affected individuals fulfill the fibromyalgia
criteria. COMPASS-31 score was 43 ± 21, implying advanced autonomic
dysfunction. Eighty-three percent of the patients who had ongoing pain
displayed S-LANSS values >12, suggesting a neuropathic component in
their pain experience. After a mean period of 4.2 ± 2.5 years post-vaccination, 93 % of patients continue to have incapacitating symptoms and
remain unable to attend school or work. In conclusion, a disabling syndrome of chronic neuropathic pain, fatigue, and autonomic dysfunction
may appear after HPV vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26354426

“Isolated cases and small series
have described the development of
complex regional pain syndrome,
postural orthostatic tachycardia, and
fibromyalgia after human papillomavirus
(HPV) vaccination. In conclusion, a disabling
syndrome of chronic neuropathic pain, fatigue,
and autonomic dysfunction may appear
after HPV vaccination.”

Chapter Five
75 Years Of Vaccine Science
1939 - 2016
Both common observation and official statistics confirm that there have
been dramatic increases in chronic physical and mental illnesses in American children, such as autism, asthma, and allergies since the introduction of
the MMR vaccine in 1978. Government health officials have denied a relationship with vaccines, but U.S. Congressional hearings on vaccine safety
(1999 to Dec. 2004) revealed a total absence of vaccine safety tests that
would meet current scientific standards, so that it can be assumed that many
vaccine reactions are taking place unrecognized. Prior to the introduction
of vaccines, the Th1 cellular immune system of the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems served as the primary defense systems with the Th2 humoral immune system in the bone marrow, serving a secondary role. There
is a school of thought that the “minor childhood diseases” of earlier times,

including measles, mumps, chicken pox, and rubella, which involved the
epithelial tissues of skin, respiratory, and/or gastrointestinal tracts, served a
necessary purpose in challenging, strengthening, and establishing the dominance of the Th1 cellular immune system during early childhood. Current
vaccines against these diseases, in contrast, being directed at stimulating
antibody production in the bone marrow, are bypassing the cellular immune
system and thereby tending to reverse the roles of the cellular and humoral
systems, with the former suffering from a lack of challenge. In addition, the
cellular immune system is being further compromised by the powerfully immunosuppressive effects of the MMR vaccine. The time is overdue to totally
rethink and redirect our current childhood vaccine program.
~ Dr. Harold Buttram

JAMA • Vol 112, No. 19 • May 13, 1939

Diphtheria immunity in Chicago
by Herman N. Bundesen, MD., Sc.D.,
William I. Fishbein, MD., John L. White, MD
Abstract
Although diphtheria mortality and morbidity have been gradually decreasing in
most parts of the United States for the past twenty-five years, they have not been
reduced to the level which it was hoped would be attained. Antitoxin, control of
carriers and the Schick test were important. The discovery of toxoid added new
impetus to the efforts to control this disease. It was believed that the inoculation
of a large proportion of the child population would result in almost complete
eradication of diphtheria. The results obtained with the use of toxoid did not,
however, approximate expectations. The present study explains to some extent
this failure.
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=288193&resultClick=3

“It was believed that the inoculation of a large
proportion of the child population would result
in almost complete eradication of diphtheria. The
results obtained with the use of toxoid did not,
however, approximate expectations. The present
study explains to some extent this failure.”

JAMA • Vol 114, No. 19 • May 11, 1940

Allergy induced by immunization
with Tetanus Toxoid
by Robert A. Cooke, MD., Stanley Hampton, MD.,
William B. Sherman, MD., Arthur Stull. Ph.D.
Abstract
A toxoid for the active immunization of human beings against tetanus infection has
been developed within the past few years and its efficiency as a producer of tetanus antitoxin has been well established. It has followed directly in the wake of the
development of diphtheria toxoid, and today a refined alum precipitated formaldehyde detoxified tetanus toxoid standardized under rules of the National Institute of
Health is commercially available. It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss
the aspects of its development or its antitoxin producing capacity, all of which may
be found in such recent papers, with references, as those of Bergey and Etris,1
Jones and Moss,2 Hall,3 Gold4 and Cowles.5
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1160278&resultClick=3

“It has followed directly in the wake of the
development of diphtheria toxoid, and today
a refined alum precipitated formaldehyde
detoxified tetanus toxoid standardized under
rules of the National Institute of Health is
commercially available.”

Pediatrics • April 1948

Encephalopathies Following
Prophylactic Pertussis Vaccine
Randolph K. Byers, Frederic C. Moll
Abstract
Inspection of the records of the Children’s Hospital for the past ten years has disclosed 15
instances in which children developed acute cerebral symptoms within a period of hours
after the administration of pertussis vaccine. The children varied between 5 and 18 months
in age and, in so far as it is possible to judge children of this age range, were developing normally according to histories supplied by their parents. None had had convulsions previously.
Many different lots of vaccine, made by eight different manufacturers over a period of eight
years, were implicated. The inoculations were given throughout the usual geographic range
of children coming to this hospital. All but one, at the time of follow-up or death, showed
evidence of impairment of the nervous system, which might still have been in the healing
stage in three or four.
During the same period about half as many children were seen in the hospital suffering from
the encephalopathy secondary to smallpox vaccination, and about twice as many from the
encephalopathy complicating pertussis itself.
A variety of etiologic considerations were suggested by consideration of the reported cases
and references to the literature. That constitutional factors may have been involved was
suggested by both the preponderance of males as opposed to females, and by the high incidence of abnormalities of the nervous system in the family histories. The clinical course and
cytologic abnormalities of spinal fluids found in acute cases indicated an encephalopathy.
The literature suggested that this process might have resulted from either the activity of a
specific toxin or from an antigen-antibody response. Against the former of these hypotheses
was the unstable nature of the heretofore recognized toxins which could hardly survive in
properly aged vaccines. The rapid onset of symptoms, occasionally within minutes of the
first injection, seemed strong evidence against the second. The present study has left these
etiologic considerations unanswered, but it has called attention to a risk of the prophylactic
use of pertussis vaccine not hitherto recognized.
In view of the impressive evidence of the effectiveness of prophylactic pertussis vaccine
now accumulating, it seems likely that babies are safer vaccinated than not. Further studies
should be made to prove this point definitely, for the encephalopathy following pertussis
vaccine seems more devastating than the vast majority of the nervous lesions following the
use of smallpox vaccine.
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/1/4/437?sid=0d16c0ef-0e60-4827-883e-d8993
3f51dfc&variant=abstract&sso=1&sso_redirect_count=5&nfstatus=401&nftoken=000000
00-0000-0000-0000-000000000000&nfstatusdescription=ERROR%3A%20No%20local%
20token&nfstatus=401&nftoken=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000&nfstatusdesc
ription=ERROR%3a+No+local+token

“In view of the impressive
evidence of the effectiveness
of prophylactic pertussis vaccine
now accumulating, it seems likely
that babies are safer vaccinated
than not. Further studies should be
made to prove this point definitely,
for the encephalopathy following pertussis
vaccine seems more devastating than the
vast majority of the nervous lesions following
the use of smallpox vaccine.”

JAMA • Vol 152, No. 14 • August 1, 1953

Precautions In Pediatric Immunization Procedures
by Louis W. Sauer, M.D., Ph.D.
Abstract
During the past decade, the simultaneous immunization against diphtheria,
tetanus, and pertussis has become quite well established on laboratory and
clinical evidence. To retard the elimination of antigen (DTP) from the body
and to enhance antitoxin and antibody development, various forms of aluminum have been used as adjuvant. Most private patients are now adequately
protected by the customary primary series of three or four monthly doses, and
subsequent recall (stimulating or booster) doses. Needless deaths due to pertussis are still occurring, however, in infants and children from families with
low incomes and orphanages in congested cities and in rural areas. To reach
these children, mass immunization clinics should function at well baby clinics, primary schools, and mobile units. The diverse difficulties encountered in
the execution of these immunization procedures are problems due to earlier
immunization, febrile reactions, alum cyst, postinoculation encephalopathy,
paralytic poliomyelitis of the injected limb, and unfavorable results.
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=287046&resultClick=3

“The diverse difficulties encountered
in the execution of these immunization procedures
are problems due to earlier immunization, febrile
reactions, alum cyst, postinoculation encephalopathy,
paralytic poliomyelitis of the injected limb,
and unfavorable results.”

“A cell line (MDCK) of dog kidney origin grows
on a glass surface as a mosaic of epithelium
with many multicellular hemispherical vesicles.
Science • January 1969

Secretory activity and oncogenicity
of a cell line (MDCK) derived from canine kidneyand
A cell line (MDCK) of dog kidney origin grows on a glass surface as a mosaic of epithelium with many multicellular hemispherical vesicles. The cells lining the blisters actively
secrete into the cyst cavities. Suspensions of these cells injected intravenously in the
chick embryo produce brain metastases resembling adenocarcinoma.

The cells lining the blisters actively secrete into
the cyst cavities. Suspensions of these cells injected
intravenously in the chick embryo produce
brain metastases resembling adenocarcinoma.”

[Editors Note: The MDCK (NBL-2) (ATCC® CCL-34™) cell line has been used since
1958 to produce influenza and other vaccines]
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/163/3866/472.long
Information on the MDCK cell line
http://www.atcc.org/products/all/CCL-34.aspx

[In a departure from the use of traditional egg-based
vaccines the FDA approved Flucelvax for Novartis on
November 20th, 2012. Flucelvax was the first mammalian
cell-based influenza vaccine in the US. The Madin-Darby
canine kidney cell line is cultured to produce the vaccine.
The primary advantage of MDCK over traditional egg-based
manufacturing is rapid growth.]

“The observations of this study as well as those of similar studies
suggest that vaccine failures contributed to the genesis of the epidemic.”
Canadian Medical Association Journal • November 1975

Analysis of a measles epidemic:
possible role of vaccine failures
W. E. Rawls, M. L. Rawls, and M. A. Chernesky
Abstract
A measles epidemic occurred in the Greensville (Ont.) Unit schools during January and February 1975. There were 47 cases of measles in 403
students: 26 (55%) of the children had a history of being vaccinated
and 18 (38%) had not been vaccinated. Among children known to have
been vaccinated at less than 1 year of age 7 of 13 contracted measles,
while among the 48 children who had not been vaccinated 18 contracted measles. The attack rate among vaccinees increased with increasing
time since vaccination. The observations of this study as well as those
of similar studies suggest that vaccine failures contributed to the genesis
of the epidemic. It is recommended that all children initially vaccinated
at less than 1 year of age should be revaccinated with live attenuated
measles virus vaccine.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1956577/

Journal Of Experimental Medicine • September 1977

Autoimmunity to type II collagen
an experimental model of arthritis
Trentham DE, Townes AS, Kang AH.
Abstract
We have found that intradermal injection of native type II collagen extracted
from human, chick or rat cartilage induces an inflammatory arthritis in approximately 40% of rats of several strains whether complete Freund’s adjuvant or
incomplete Freund’s adjuvant is used. Type I or III collagen extracted from
skin, cartilage proteoglycans and alpha1(II) chains were incapable of eliciting
arthritis, as was type II collagen injected without adjuvant. The disease is a
chronic proliferative synovitis, resembling adjuvant arthritis in rats and rheumatoid arthritis in humans. Native type II co-lagen modified by limited pepsin
digestion still produces arthritis, suggesting that type-specific determinants residing in the helical region of the molecule are responsible for the induction of
disease. Since homologous type II collagen emulsified in oil without bacterial
preparations regularly causes the disease, this new animal model of arthritis
represents a unique example of experimentally-inducible autoimmunity to a tissue component.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2180804/pdf/je1463857.pdf

“this new animal model of arthritis represents
a unique example of experimentally-inducible
autoimmunity to a tissue component.”

Gastroenterology • February 1980

HBe-Antigen in the course and prognosis
of hepatitis B infection: a prospective study
Schulman AN, Fagen ND, Brezina M,
Silver H, Nitzze A, Morton D, Gitnick GL.
Abstract
The prognostic significance of the HBe-antigen (HBeAg) in the course and outcome of type B hepatitis was studied prospectively in 71 susceptible oncology
patients. The patients had been exposed to tumor cell vaccines inadvertently contaminated with hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)-containing plasma. Fortyfive patients (63%) were infected. These 45 showed three types of acute seroresponse: HBsAg and HBeAg, 28 patients (62%); HBsAg alone, 8 patients (18%);
and a primary antibody to HBsAg (anti-HBs) response, 9 patients (20%). There
was no significant difference in acute course and outcome between the two HBsantigenemic groups. All primary anti-HBs responders had asymptomatic infections. Seventeen patients receiving chemotherapy during the period of hepatitis
B exposure were significantly more prone to symptomatic infection with acute
HBs-antigenemia, and 2 of these patients developed chronic active hepatitis. The
HBeAg is common early in acute hepatitis B among solid tumor patients and at
this stage in disease has no prognostic significance independent of HBsAg.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=7350048

“The patients had been exposed
to tumor cell vaccines inadvertently
contaminated with hepatitis B
surface antigen-containing plasma.
Forty-five patients (63%) were infected.”

Reviews Of Infectious Diseases • May 1980

Vaccine adjuvants
Edelman R.
Abstract
Nonreplicating, purified subunit or synthetic viral vaccines of the future are
likely to be weak immunogens that will require immunopotentiation if they
are to be effective. These marginal vaccines could be improved by combination with potent and safe immunologic adjuvants. The use of adjuvants
should also reduce the amount of purified antigen required for successful
immunization, thus making vaccine production more economical and more
feasible. It may be possible to combine the recently developed relatively
nontoxic synthetic immunoregulators of low molecular weight with antigens
in order to modulate preselected compartments of the immune system. To
date, the question of adjuvant safety has not been resolved and represents
the major obstacle to the orderly development of adjuvanted vaccines. The
fear of inducing cancer and other immediate or long-term perturbations of
the immune system must be patently and rationally overcome by basic and
applied experimentation and by the development of appropriate guidelines
for studies in humans.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=6997966

“Nonreplicating, purified subunit or
synthetic viral vaccines of the future
are likely to be weak immunogens that
will require immunopotentiation if
they are to be effective.”

“These data suggest that Tween 80 has an effect on the Central Nervous System
which could lead to misinterpretation of results in toxicology studies
that use this compound as a dosage vehicle.”
Life Sciences • June 1982

Effect of Tween 80
on exploratory behavior and locomotor activity in rats
Brubaker CM, Taylor DH, Bull RJ.
Abstract
Exploratory behavior and locomotor activity is enhanced in male rat pups (aged 10
to 20 days) whose dams received a chronic dose (1.25 ml/l) of Tween 80 via their
drinking water. This enhancement manifests itself during the diurnal period of the
day. These data suggest that Tween 80 has an effect on the CNS which could lead
to misinterpretation of results in toxicology studies that use this compound as a
dosage vehicle.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7202094

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta • October 1983

Effect of pertussis toxin
on the hormonal regulation of cyclic AMP levels
in hamster fat cells
by Martínez-Olmedo MA, García-Sáinz JA.
Abstract
Pertussis toxin was purified approx. 1800-fold from pertussis vaccine. Administration of as little as 1 microgram of toxin/100 g body weight to hamsters
markedly decreased the sensitivity of their adipocytes to agents that inhibit adenylate cyclase through receptor-mediated, GTP-dependent mechanisms such
as alpha 2-adrenergic amines, prostaglandins, phenylisopropyladenosine and
nicotinic acid. On the contrary, the inhibitory effect of 2’,5’-dideoxyadenosine
on cyclic AMP accumulation was not affected by the toxin. Activation of adenylate cyclase by isoproterenol, ACTH or forskolin was not diminished by the
toxin but the maximum cyclic AMP accumulation was consistently increased.
Furthermore, the dose-response curves for ACTH and forskolin were clearly
shifted to the left in adipocytes from toxin-treated hamsters as compared to
control adipocytes. It is concluded that pertussis toxin blocks the transfer of
inhibitory information from the receptors to adenylate cyclase.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6313062

“It is concluded that pertussis toxin
blocks the transfer of inhibitory information
from the receptors to adenylate cyclase.”

New England Journal Of Medicine • January 1984

Abnormal T-lymphocyte subpopulations
in healthy subjects after tetanus booster immunization
Eibl MM, Mannhalter JW, Zlabinger G.
“By way of explanation, a vaccine safety test is one in which before-and-after vaccine
tests are performed, specifically designed to test for possible adverse effects on the
neurological, immunological, hematologic, genetic, and other systems of the body,
in sufficient numbers of test subjects and controls to be statistically significant. As an
example, in a little noted study from Germany by Eibl et al. [11], a significant, though
temporary, drop of T-Helper lymphocytes was found in 11 healthy adults following
routine tetanus booster vaccinations. Special concern rests in the fact that, in four of
the subjects, T-helper lymphocytes fell to levels seen in active AIDS patients.”
Report available for purchase:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=6228737

“As an example, in a little noted study
from Germany by Eibl et al. [11], a significant,
though temporary, drop of T-Helper lymphocytes
was found in 11 healthy adults following routine
tetanus booster vaccinations. Special concern rests
in the fact that, in four of the subjects, T-helper
lymphocytes fell to levels seen in active AIDS patients.”

“This outbreak demonstrates that transmission of measles can occur within a school population with a
documented immunization level of 100%. This level was validated during the outbreak investigation.”
CDC • June 22, 1984

MMWR Weekly
From December 9, 1983, to January 13, 1984, 21 cases of measles occurred in Sangamon
County, Illinois.* Nine of the cases were confirmed serologically. The outbreak involved
16 high school students, all of whom had histories of measles vaccination after 15 months
of age documented in their school health records. Of the five remaining cases, four occurred in unvaccinated preschool children, two of whom were under 15 months of age, and
one case occurred in a previously vaccinated college student (Figure 5).
The affected high school had 276 students and was in the same building as a junior high
school with 135 students. A review of health records in the high school showed that all 411
students had documentation of measles vaccination on or after the first birthday, in accordance with Illinois law.
Measles vaccination histories were obtained from the school health records of all 276 senior high school students. Risk of infection was not significantly associated with type of
vaccine, medical provider, age at most recent vaccination, or revaccination. All the students
with measles had received their most recent vaccinations after 15 months of age. However,
the measles attack rate increased with increasing years since most recent vaccination (p =
0.024) (Table 3). The attack rate was four times greater for students vaccinated 10 or more
years before the outbreak than for students vaccinated more recently (p 0.05). When these
data are corrected for the number of vaccinations, the trend was still observed and achieved
a borderline level of statistical significance (p = 0.07). Age at first or last vaccination was
not a confounding variable.
The index patient, Student A, was a 17-year-old male in the 11th grade; he was present in
school with a productive cough for 3 consecutive days before his onset of rash. The source
of his infection was not identified. Nine students with first-generation cases developed
onset of rash 10-14 days after exposure to Student A (Figure 5). The attack rate was 6%
(16/276) for senior high school students and 0% (0/135) for junior high school students.
The highest attack rate was 12% (9/74) for the 11th grade students (p 0.02).

Repeated and close exposure to Student A was associated with a greater risk of illness
(Table 4). The eight patients with first-generation cases who attended the high school were
used to analyze the degree of exposure to Student A. The measles attack rate was 3% for
students who did have classroom exposure to Student A versus 2% for those who did
not. Moreover, the attack rate was 21% for students whom Student A identified as “close
friends” from the school enrollment roster, compared with 2% for students not so identified
(p 0.001).
Editorial Note
This outbreak demonstrates that transmission of measles can occur within a school population with a documented immunization level of 100%. This level was validated during the
outbreak investigation. Previous investigations of measles outbreaks among highly immunized populations have revealed risk factors such as improper storage or handling of
vaccine, vaccine administered to children under 1 year of age, use of globulin with vaccine,
and use of killed virus vaccine (1-5). However, these risk factors did not adequately explain
the occurrence of this outbreak.
If waning immunity is not a problem, this outbreak suggests that measles transmission
can occur within the 2%-10% of expected vaccine failures (5,7). However, transmission
was not sustained beyond 36 days in this outbreak, and community spread was principally among unvaccinated preschool children. The infrequent occurrence of measles among
highly vaccinated persons suggests that this outbreak may have resulted from chance clustering of otherwise randomly distributed vaccine failures in the community. That measles
transmission can occur among vaccine failures makes it even more important to ensure
persons are adequately vaccinated. Had there been a substantial number of unvaccinated
or inadequately vaccinated students in the high school and the community, transmission in
Sangamon County probably would have been sustained.

http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000359.htm

Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica • July 1984

Bordetella pertussis whole cell vaccines
efficacy and toxicity
Trollfors B.

“The pertussis-associated mortality is currently
very low in the industrialised countries and no

Abstract
The literature concerning efficacy and side effects of pertussis
vaccines is reviewed. With few exceptions, most vaccines induce
a protective immunity lasting for 2 to 5 years. The large-scale use
of pertussis vaccines has markedly contributed to the decrease in
pertussis morbidity in small children but in some countries the
incidence has increased in older children. Not even countries with
immunisation rates of 90-95% have managed to eradicate pertussis or prevent disease in infants below the age of immunisation.
The pertussis-associated mortality is currently very low in the industrialised countries and no differences can be discerned when
countries with high, low and zero immunisation rates are compared. Local and benign systemic reactions are commonly seen after immunisation. The vaccines also sometimes cause convulsions,
a shock-like state and, rarely, serious neurological reactions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6380211

differences can be discerned when countries with high,
low and zero immunisation rates are compared.
Local and benign systemic reactions are commonly
seen after immunisation. The vaccines also sometimes
cause convulsions, a shock-like state and, rarely,
serious neurological reactions.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health • 1984

Formaldehyde and hepatotoxicity: a review
Beall JR, Ulsamer AG.
Abstract
Exposure to formaldehyde appears to be associated with hepatoxicity
in many species, including humans, following injection, ingestion, or
inhalation. Macroscopic, microscopic, and biochemical manifestations
in the liver include alterations in weight, centrilobular vacuolization,
focal cellular necrosis, and increased alkaline phosphatase concentrations. Time-related changes in the pattern of the effects are suggested
as one goes from acute exposure by inhalation at greater concentrations
to repeated exposure at lesser concentrations. Although the hepatic
changes are generally not extensive and can be reversible following
acute exposure, the potential exists for them to progressively become
more serious with repeated exposures. There are several possible
mechanisms for the toxicity. Depending on the route of exposure could
include direct effects on hepatocytes and/or indirect effects through the
circulatory and immune systems. The catabolism of formaldehyde includes conversion to CO2 by reactions involving glutathione. Many
hepatotoxic chemicals require glutathione for detoxification. Formaldehyde may then have the potential to cause additive toxicity with such
chemicals in some circumstances.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=6389892

“Exposure to formaldehyde
appears to be associated with hepatoxicity
in many species, including humans,
following injection, ingestion, or inhalation.”

“The results of the present study indicate that polysorbate 80 can neither be used as a solvent
for isolated tissue experiments nor when considered for intravenous administration.”
Arzneimittelforschung • 1985

Polysorbate 80: a pharmacological study
Varma RK, Kaushal R, Junnarkar AY, Thomas GP,
Naidu MU, Singh PP, Tripathi RM, Shridhar DR.
Abstract
Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate (polysorbate 80, Tween 80), a surfactant, has been widely used as a
solvent for pharmacological experiments. In the present study, polysorbate 80 was found to have toxicity of a low
order in both the mice and rats when given by i.p. and p.o. routes. It produced mild to moderate depression of the
central nervous system with a marked reduction in locomotor activity and rectal temperature, exhibited ataxia
and paralytic activity and potentiated the pentobarbital sleeping time. On intravenous administration in dogs, it
had a dose-dependent hypotensive effect. Polysorbate 80 did not have a direct stimulant or relaxant effect on either guinea pig ileum or rat uterus, however, it antagonised the contractions induced by acetylcholine, histamine,
barium, 5-hydroxytryptamine and carbachol in a dose-dependent manner. A direct relaxant effect was observed
on rabbit jejunum. A dose-dependent myocardial depressant effect was observed on guinea pig and rabbit paired
atrial preparations. On the electrically-driven guinea pig left atrial preparation, polysorbate 80 exhibited a dosedependent negative inotropic action. Polysorbate 80 did not induce diuresis in rats upto a dose of 2.5 ml/kg. The
results of the present study indicate that polysorbate 80 can neither be used as a solvent for isolated tissue experiments nor when considered for intravenous administration. However, polysorbate 80 can be employed safely as a
vehicle for neuropsychopharmacological experiments in doses not exceeding 1 ml/kg.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4026903

Pediatrics • April 1986

Polysorbate 80 and E-Ferol toxicity
Alade SL, Brown RE, Paquet A Jr.
Abstract
The relatively recent introduction and use of an intravenous
form of a vitamin E preparation (E-Ferol) has been associated
with the development of an unusual syndrome and fatalities
among low birth weight (less than 1,500 g), premature infants
in neonatal intensive care units. We have observed an inhibitory effect by this vitamin E preparation on the in vitro response
of human lymphocytes to phytohemagglutinin (PHA). E-Ferol
suppressed the expected response to low doses of PHA. However, this suppression was not due to the alpha-tocopherol acetate (vitamin E) component, because alpha-tocopherol acetate
by itself was not inhibitory; in fact, it often enhanced the PHA
response. Because a mixture of polysorbate 80 and polysorbate
20 is used as a carrier in E-Ferol, these components were also
tested and were found to be responsible for the suppression, especially the polysorbate 80. Concurrent with this suppression of
PHA-induced mitogenesis was a decrease in the percentage of
T11 lymphocytes.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3960626

“The relatively recent introduction
and use of an intravenous form of a vitamin
E preparation has been associated with the
development of an unusual syndrome and
fatalities among low birth weight (less than 1,500 g),
premature infants in neonatal intensive care units ...
polysorbate 80 and polysorbate 20 ... were found
to be responsible for the suppression,
especially the polysorbate 80.”

Laboratory Animal Science • March 1989

An evaluation of distress
following intraperitoneal immunization
with Freund’s adjuvant in mice
Author information
Toth LA1, Dunlap AW, Olson GA, Hessler JR.
Department of Comparative Medicine
University of Tennessee
Memphis 38163
Abstract
Intraperitoneal immunization with Freund’s adjuvant is frequently used to stimulate
antibody production in mice. To evaluate the clinical and pathological effects of this
technique, mice were immunized intraperitoneally with complete Freund’s adjuvant
and albumin, and the injection repeated 3-4 weeks later using incomplete Freund’s
adjuvant. This regimen induced a mean antibody titer against albumin of 1:280 within
7 days after booster immunization and increased the abdominal width, abdominal circumference and spleen weights of immunized animals. Food intake and body weight
decreased after immunization, but returned to control levels within 1-2 weeks. Openfield activity was not affected. Neutrophilia, eosinophilia and monocytosis were present 7 days after immunization and persisted for the duration of the study. Gross and
histopathological lesions included multiple granulomatous abdominal adhesions and
lymphoid hyperplasia. Thus, intraperitoneal immunization with Freund’s adjuvant
and albumin produced some adverse effects in the animal (weight loss, neutrophilia
and granulomatous peritonitis). However, the animals did not appear to be severely
or chronically impaired, since food intake, body weight and locomotor activity were
within normal limits for most of the post-immunization period.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=2709800

“intraperitoneal immunization
with Freund’s adjuvant and albumin
produced some adverse effects in the
animal (weight loss, neutrophilia and
granulomatous peritonitis).”

American Journal Of Public Health • April 1989

The role of secondary vaccine failures
in measles outbreaks
Author information
Mathias RG1, Meekison WG, Arcand TA, Schechter MT.
Department of Health Care and Epidemiology
University of British Columbia, Vancouver
Abstract
An outbreak of measles in 1985-86 in a community where measles vaccine trials had been carried out from 1974-76 allowed the assessment of
the role of secondary vaccine failures in previously immunized children.
A total of 188 children from the vaccine trial were followed. Of these, 175
seroconverted initially while 13 (6 per cent) required re-immunization (primary failure). A total of 13 cases of measles, eight of which were laboratory
and/or physician-confirmed, were reported in this cohort. Of these, nine
cases occurred in the 175 subjects who had hemagglutination inhibition test
(HI) and neutralizing antibody responses following the initial immunization. These nine cases represent secondary vaccine failures. An additional
four cases occurred in the 13 subjects with primary vaccine failure. We conclude that secondary vaccine failures occur and that while primary failures
account for most cases, secondary vaccine failures contribute to the occurrence of measles cases in an epidemic. A booster dose of measles vaccine
may be necessary to reduce susceptibility to a sufficiently low level to allow
the goal of measles elimination to be achieved.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2929807

“These nine cases represent
secondary vaccine failures.
An additional four cases occurred
in the 13 subjects with primary
vaccine failure. We conclude that
secondary vaccine failures occur
and that while primary failures account
for most cases, secondary vaccine failures
contribute to the occurrence of measles
cases in an epidemic.”

Scope • 1990

Short-term Toxicity Tests for Non-genotoxic Effects
Toxicity Tests with Mammalian Cell Cultures
B. Ekwall, V. Silano, A. Paganuzzi-Stammati, F. Zucco
Introduction
Cell culture can be used to screen for toxicity both by estimation of the basal functions
of the cell (i.e. those processes common to all types of cells) or by tests on specialized
cell functions (Ekwall, 1983b). General toxicity tests, aimed mainly at detection of
the biological activity of test substances, can be carried out on many cell types (e.g.
fibroblasts, HeLa and hepatoma cells). A number of parameters including vital staining,
cytosolic enzyme release, cell growth and cloning efficien- cy are used as end-points
to measure toxicity. Organ-specific toxic effects are tested using specialized cells by
measuring alterations in membrane and metabolism integ- rity and/or in specific cell
functions (e.g. glycogen metabolism in primary hepatocyte cultures, beating rate in
mixed myocardial cells or myocytes, and phagocytosis in macrophages).
http://dge.stanford.edu/SCOPE/SCOPE_41/SCOPE_41_2.02_Chapter_7_75-98.pdf

[shows that as far back as 1990
we could test for non-genotoxic cellular toxicity]

Neuropediatrics • November 1990

Workshop on neurologic complications
of pertussis and pertussis vaccination
Author information
Menkes JH1, Kinsbourne M.
University of California, Los Angeles

“1. Vaccines are not
standardized between manufacturers.

Abstract
A multidisciplinary workshop held from September 29 to October 1, 1989, at Airlie
House, Warrenton, Virginia, considered the neurologic complications of whooping cough
and pertussis vaccine. Pertussis mortality in the U.S. in 2-3/1000 cases. Seizures occur
in 1.9% of cases, and encephalopathy in 0.3%. Reviewing all data, it appears likely that
a combination of one or more bacterial toxins, asphyxia, CO2 retention and loss of cerebral vascular autoregulation is responsible for neurologic symptoms. The timing of the
encephalopathy suggests that it results from increased lysis of bacteria, and release of
endotoxin. The encephalopathy is not confined to the paroxysmal phase. In evaluating
side-reactions to the vaccine, the following must be kept in mind: 1. Vaccines are not standardized between manufacturers. 2. For a given manufacturer, vaccines are not standard
from one batch to the next. 3. Unless the vaccine is properly prepared and refrigerated,
its potency and reactivity varies with shelf life. In fact, the whole question of vaccine
detoxification has never been systematically investigated. Listed in order of increasing
severity, observed adverse reactions include irritability, persistent, unusually high pitched
crying, somnolence, seizures, a shock-like “hypotensive, hyporesponsive” state, and an
encephalopathy. Since the neurologic picture is not specific for pertussis vaccination, its
temporal relationship to the vaccination is the critical variable for determining causation.
Although the majority of seizures following pertussis vaccination are associated with
fever, it was the consensus of the neurologists attending the workshop, that these do not
represent febrile convulsions, but are non-benign convulsions. The incidence of post-vaccine encephalopathy is difficult to ascertain.
(Abstract truncated at 250 words)
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1981251
Full Report
https://www.thieme-connect.com/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2008-1071488

2. For a given manufacturer, vaccines are
not standard from one batch to the next.

3. Unless the vaccine is properly prepared
and refrigerated, its potency and reactivity
varies with shelf life. In fact, the whole question
of vaccine detoxification has never been
systematically investigated.”

Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal • March 1991

Aseptic meningitis
as a complication of mumps vaccination
Author information
Sugiura A1, Yamada A.
Department of Measles Virus
National Institute of Health
Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
In 1989 a nationwide surveillance of neurologic complications after
the administration of mumps vaccine was conducted in Japan, based
on the notification of cases and the testing of mumps viruses isolated from cerebrospinal fluid for their relatedness to the vaccine by
nucleotide sequence analysis. Among 630,157 recipients of measlesmumps-rubella trivalent (MMR) vaccine containing the Urabe Am9
mumps vaccine, there were at least 311 meningitis cases suspected to
be vaccine-related. In 96 of these 311 cases, mumps virus related to
the vaccine was isolated from cerebrospinal fluid. The unusually high
incidence may have been partly a result of the adverse media publicity of the problem at the time of surveillance. We analyzed clinical
features of 165 and 27 laboratory-confirmed mumps vaccine-related
meningitis cases that occurred among the recipients of MMR and
monovalent mumps vaccines, respectively, during a 1-year period
after the introduction of MMR vaccine. The incidence of vaccinerelated meningitis was similar among the recipients of MMR and
monovalent Urabe Am9 mumps vaccines. Meningitis was generally
mild and there were no sequelae from the illness. The complication
was more frequent among male than among female children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2041668

“Among 630,157 recipients of
measles-mumps-rubella trivalent (MMR)
vaccine containing the Urabe Am9
mumps vaccine, there were at least
311 meningitis cases suspected to be
vaccine-related. In 96 of these 311 cases,
mumps virus related to the vaccine
was isolated from cerebrospinal fluid.”

Lancet • September 1991

Chronic fatigue syndrome:
clinical condition associated with immune activation
Author information
Landay AL1, Jessop C, Lennette ET, Levy JA.
Department of Immunology/Microbiology
Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke’s Medical Center
Chicago, Illinois
Abstract
There is much conflicting immunological and viral data about the causes of chronic
fatigue syndrome (CFS); some findings support the notion that CFS may be due to one
or more immune disorders that have resulted from exposure to an infectious agent. In
the present study, flow cytometry and several different monoclonal antibodies recognising T, B, and natural killer (NK) cell populations as well as activation and cell adhesion antigens were used to study 147 individuals with CFS. Compared with healthy
controls, a reduced CD8 suppressor cell population and increased activation markers
(CD38, HLA-DR) on CD8 cells were found. The differences were significant (p =
0.01) in patient with major symptoms of the disease. These immunological indices
were not observed in 80 healthy individuals, in 22 contacts of CFS patients, or in 43
patients with other diseases. No correlation of these findings in CFS patients with any
known human viruses could be detected by serology. The findings suggest that immune activation is associated with many cases of CFS.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1679864

“No correlation of these findings
in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients with
any known human viruses could be detected by serology.
The findings suggest that immune activation
is associated with many cases of CFS.”

Vaccine • October 1991

Adverse reactions after injection of
adsorbed diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus (DPT) vaccine
are not due only to pertussis organisms
or pertussis components in the vaccine
Author information
Gupta RK1, Relyveld EH.
National Institutes of Health
Bethesda, MD 20892
Abstract
Reactions to adsorbed diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus (DPT) vaccine have mostly been attributed to the pertussis organisms or pertussis components in the vaccine. Nevertheless
reactions may also be due to other factors such as sensitization induced by aluminium
adjuvants and impurities present in crude toxoids that cannot be removed by purification of toxoids after formalinization. Aluminium compounds such as aluminium phosphate and aluminium hydroxide are the most commonly used adjuvants with vaccines
for human use. Due to the increasing concern about the toxicity of aluminium, other
adjuvants like calcium phosphate may be evaluated as an alternative to aluminium adjuvants. To minimize reactions after immunization with DPT vaccine due to impurities
in the toxoids, the use of toxoided purified toxins is suggested.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1759487

“... reactions may also be due to other factors
such as sensitization induced by aluminium adjuvants
and impurities present in crude toxoids that cannot be
removed by purification of toxoids after formalinization.”

Journal Of Autoimmunity • December 1991

Adjuvant oils induce arthritis in the DA rat. I.
Characterization of the disease and
evidence for an immunological involvement
Author information
Kleinau S1, Erlandsson H, Holmdahl R, Klareskog L.
Department of Medical and Physiological Chemistry
Uppsala University, Sweden
Abstract
An intradermal injection of Freund’s incomplete adjuvant oil (FIA) without further
additives was shown to induce erosive polyarthritis in dark Agouti (DA) rats, but
not in Lewis rats. Histological examination revealed joint inflammation, first with
polymorphonuclear cells and synovial hyperplasia, and subsequently, with multinucleated giant cells. Both constituents of FIA, mineral oil and Arlacel A, as well as
Pristane oil were arthritogenic, whereas vegetable oil were not. Re-administration of
adjuvant oil after recovery failed to induce arthritis, thus making possible a role of
specific immunity in this new form of arthritis in rats.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1812893

“Freund’s incomplete adjuvant oil (FIA)
was shown to induce erosive polyarthritis in ... rats ...”

Washington DC National Academies Press (US) 1991
The National Academies Collection
Reports funded by National Institutes of Health
Howson CP, Howe CJ, Fineberg HV, editors

Adverse Effects of Pertussis and Rubella Vaccines:
A Report of the Committee to Review the Adverse Consequences
of Pertussis and Rubella Vaccines
Excerpt
Parents have come to depend on vaccines to protect their children from a variety of diseases. Some evidence suggests, however, that vaccination against pertussis (whooping cough) and rubella (German measles) is, in a small
number of cases, associated with increased risk of serious illness. This book examines the controversy over the
evidence and offers a comprehensively documented assessment of the risk of illness following immunization with
vaccines against pertussis and rubella. Based on extensive review of the evidence from epidemiologic studies,
case histories, studies in animals, and other sources of information, the book examines: The relation of pertussis
vaccines to a number of serious adverse events, including encephalopathy and other central nervous system disorders, sudden infant death syndrome, autism, Guillain-Barre syndrome, learning disabilities, and Reye syndrome.
The relation of rubella vaccines to arthritis, various neuropathies, and thrombocytopenic purpura. The volume,
which includes a description of the committee’s methods for evaluating evidence and directions for future research, will be important reading for public health officials, pediatricians, researchers, and concerned parents.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25121241

“that the evidence is consistent with
a causal relation between DPT vaccine
and acute encephalopathy, shock and “unusual shock-like
state,” and between RA 27/3 rubella vaccine and
chronic arthritis; and that the evidence indicates a causal
relation between DPT vaccine and anaphylaxis, between
the pertussis component of DPT vaccine and protracted,
inconsolable crying, and between RA 27/3 rubella
vaccine and acute arthritis.”

[RA 27/3 rubella is still in use today]

JAMA • January 1992

Adverse events following pertussis and rubella vaccines
Summary of a report of the Institute of Medicine
Author information
Howson CP1, Fineberg HV.
Institute of Medicine
National Academy of Sciences
Washington, DC 20418
Abstract
In August 1991, the Institute of Medicine released a report entitled Adverse Effects of Pertussis and Rubella Vaccines, which examined 18 adverse events in relation to diphtheriatetanus-pertussis (DTP) vaccine and four adverse events in relation to the currently used
rubella vaccine strain, RA 27/3. The committee spent 20 months reviewing a wide range of
information sources, including case series and individual case reports, both published and
unpublished, epidemiologic studies, studies in animals, and other laboratory studies. The
committee found that the evidence indicates a causal relation between DTP vaccine and
anaphylaxis and between the pertussis component of DTP vaccine and extended periods of
inconsolable crying or screaming. The committee also reported that the evidence indicates
a causal relation between the rubella vaccine and acute arthritis in adult women. The committee found the available evidence weaker but still consistent with a causal relation between DTP vaccine and two conditions--acute encephalopathy and hypotonic, hyporesponsive episodes--and between rubella vaccine and chronic arthritis in adult women. Estimated
incidence rates of these adverse events following vaccination are provided, where possible.
The committee found that the evidence does not indicate a causal relation between the DTP
vaccine and infantile spasms, hypsarrhythmia, Reye’s syndrome, and sudden infant death
syndrome. The committee found insufficient evidence to indicate either the presence or
absence of a causal relation between DTP vaccine and chronic neurologic damage, aseptic
meningitis, erythema multiforme or other rash, Guillain-Barré syndrome, hemolytic anemia, juvenile diabetes, learning disabilities and attention-deficit disorder, peripheral mononeuropathy, or thrombocytopenia, and between rubella vaccine and radiculoneuritis and
other neuropathies or thrombocytopenic purpura. The committee’s evaluative methods are
briefly described and a summary of research needs is provided.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1727962

“The committee found that the evidence indicates
a causal relation between DTP vaccine and anaphylaxis
and between the pertussis component of DTP vaccine
and extended periods of inconsolable crying or screaming.

The committee also reported that the evidence indicates
a causal relation between the rubella vaccine and acute
arthritis in adult women.

The committee found the available evidence weaker but still
consistent with a causal relation between DTP vaccine and
two conditions—acute encephalopathy and hypotonic, hyporesponsive episodes—and between rubella vaccine and
chronic arthritis in adult women.”

National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series • January 1992

NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Polysorbate 80
(CAS No. 9005-65-6) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Feed Studies)
Abstract
Polysorbate 80 is a nonionic surfactant used widely as an additive in foods, pharmaceutical preparations, and cosmetics as an emulsifier, dispersant, or stabilizer. Toxicity and carcinogenicity studies were conducted by administering polysorbate 80 (which met all compendial specifications) in feed to groups of F344/N rats and B6C3F1
mice of each sex for 14 days, 13 weeks, and 2 years. Genetic toxicology studies were conducted in Salmonella
typhimurium. 14-Day Studies: Groups of five rats and five mice of each sex received diets containing 0, 3,000,
6,000, 12,500, 25,000, or 50,000 ppm polysorbate 80. All animals survived to the end of the studies. The mean
body weight change of male rats that received 50,000 ppm was significantly lower than that of the controls. The
mean body weight changes in all other groups of dosed rats and in all groups of dosed mice were similar to those
of the respective controls. No clinical findings or changes in absolute or relative organ weights in rats or mice
were related to polysorbate 80 administration. 13-Week Studies: Groups of 10 rats and 10 mice of each sex received diets containing 0, 3,100, 6,200, 12,500, 25,000, or 50,000 ppm polysorbate 80. All animals survived to
the end of the studies. The final mean body weights of dosed rats and mice were similar to those of the controls.
No clinical findings, changes in absolute or relative organ weights, or gross or microscopic lesions in rats or mice
were related to polysorbate 80 administration. 2-Year Studies: Doses for the 2-year studies were selected based
on the lack of observed compound-related effects at the dose levels used in the 13-week studies. Groups of 60 rats
and 60 mice of each sex received diets containing 0, 25,000, or 50,000 ppm polysorbate 80 for up to 103 weeks.
15-Month Interim Evaluations: Interim evaluations were performed on 7 to 10 rats and mice from each dose
group at 15 months. There were no significant changes in absolute or relative organ weights. Incidences of hyperplasia and inflammation of the forestomach were increased in female mice that received 50,000 ppm. No other
chemical-related lesions occurred in rats or male mice evaluated at 15 months. Body Weights, Clinical Findings,
and Survival in the 2-Year Studies: The mean body weights in male and female rats and male mice administered
polysorbate 80 were similar to those of the controls throughout the studies. The final mean body weight of female
mice receiving 50,000 ppm was 11%lower than that of the controls. No clinical findings were associated with administration of polysorbate 80. The survival of dosed male rats was lower than that of the controls (0 ppm, 29/50;
25,000 ppm, 18/50; 50,000 ppm, 18/50); the survival of dosed female rats and male and female mice was similar
to that of the respective controls (female rats: 23/50, 25/50, 25/50; male mice: 33/49, 34/50, 32/50; female mice:
30/50, 28/50, 26/50). Neoplasms and Nonneoplastic Lesions in the 2-Year Studies: The incidence of adrenal medulla pheochromocytoma was marginally increased in high-dose male rats (21/50, 19/50, 29/50). The incidence
of hyperplasia of the adrenal medulla was increased in low-dose male rats but not in high-dose male rats (11/50,
22/50, 12/50). No chemical-related increases in the incidences of neoplasms occurred in male or female mice.
The incidences of squamous hyperplasia and inflammation of the forestomach were significantly increased in
high-dose male and female mice; forestomach ulcers were significantly increased in high-dose females. Genetic
Toxicology: Polysorbate 80 was not mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA100, TA1535, TA1537, and
TA98 with or without exogenous metabolic activation (S9). Conclusions: Under the conditions of these 2-year
feed studies, there was equivocal evidence of carcinogenic activity for polysorbate 80 in male F344/N rats based
on an increased incidence of pheochromocytomas of the adrenal medulla. There was no evidence of carcinogenic
activity for polysorbate 80 in female F344/N rats or in male or female B6C3F1 mice given 25,000 or 50, or 50,000
ppm. Administration of polysorbate 80 was associated with inflammation and squamous hyperplasia of the forestomach in male and female mice, and with ulcers of the forestomach in female mice.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12616296

“Administration of polysorbate 80
was associated with inflammation and
squamous hyperplasia of the forestomach
in male and female mice, and with ulcers
of the forestomach in female mice.”

American Journal Of Diseases Of Children • February 1992

Vitamin A levels
and severity of measles
New York City
Author information
Frieden TR1, Sowell AL, Henning KJ, Huff DL, Gunn RA.
Division of Field Epidemiology
Centers for Disease Control
Abstract
Recent studies show that vitamin A levels decrease during measles and that
vitamin A therapy can improve measles outcome in children in the developing world. Vitamin A levels of children with measles have not been studied
in developed countries. We therefore measured vitamin A levels in 89 children with measles younger than 2 years and in a reference group in New
York City, NY. Vitamin A levels in children with measles ranged from 0.42
to 3.0 mumol/L; 20 (22%) were low. Children with low levels were more
likely to have fever at a temperature of 40 degrees C or higher (68% vs
44%), to have fever for 7 days or more (54% vs 23%), and to be hospitalized (55% vs 30%). Children with low vitamin A levels had lower measlesspecific antibody levels. No child in the reference group had a low vitamin
A level. Our data show that many children younger than 2 years in New
York City have low vitamin A levels when ill with measles, and that such
children seem to have lower measles-specific antibody levels and increased
morbidity. Clinicians may wish to consider vitamin A therapy for children
younger than 2 years with severe measles. Additional studies of vitamin
A in measles and other infectious diseases, and in vaccine efficacy trials,
should be done.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=1285727

“Recent studies show that vitamin A levels
decrease during measles and that vitamin
A therapy can improve measles outcome in
children in the developing world. Vitamin A
levels of children with measles have not been
studied in developed countries.”

[vitamin A and vaccination will be
studied in Africa 20 years from now
and those reports are included herein]

Clinical Infectious Disease • August 1992

Chronic arthritis
after rubella vaccination
Author information
Howson CP1, Katz M,
Johnston RB Jr, Fineberg HV.
Division of International Health
Institute of Medicine
Washington, D.C. 20418
Abstract
In August 1991 the Institute of Medicine released a report entitled “Adverse Effects of Pertussis and Rubella Vaccines” that
examined, among other relations, the relation between immunization with the RA 27/3 rubella vaccine strain and chronic arthritis. The committee spent 20 months reviewing a wide range
of information sources including case series and individual
case reports published in peer-reviewed journals and reported
by vaccine manufacturers; unpublished case reports from physicians, parents, and other concerned persons; epidemiological
studies; and laboratory studies. There were no animal studies
available. The committee found that the evidence is consistent
with a causal relation between the RA 27/3 rubella vaccine
strain and chronic arthritis in adult women, although the evidence is limited in scope. Proving that rubella vaccination can
cause chronic arthritis will require a better understanding of
pathogenetic mechanisms and additional well-designed studies. We briefly describe the committee’s evaluative methods
and present the evidence underlying its conclusion.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1520764

“The committee found
that the evidence is consistent
with a causal relation between the RA 27/3 rubella
vaccine strain and chronic arthritis in adult women ...”

“Tween 80 accelerated maturation, prolonged the oestrus cycle, and induced persistent vaginal oestrus.”
Food And Chemical Toxicology • March 1993

Delayed effects of neonatal exposure to Tween 80
on female reproductive organs in rats
Author information
Gajdová M1, Jakubovsky J, Války J.
Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine
Limbová, Bratislava
Abstract
Neonatal female rats were injected ip (0.1 ml/rat) with Tween 80 in 1, 5 or 10% aqueous solution on days 4-7
after birth. Treatment with Tween 80 accelerated maturation, prolonged the oestrus cycle, and induced persistent
vaginal oestrus. The relative weight of the uterus and ovaries was decreased relative to the untreated controls.
Squamous cell metaplasia of the epithelial lining of the uterus and cytological changes in the uterus were indicative of chronic oestrogenic stimulation. Ovaries were without corpora lutea, and had degenerative follicles.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8473002

Archives of Disease in Childhood • 1994

Ocular contamination with BCG vaccine
A j Pollard
Department of Paediatrics
R H George
Department ofMicrobiology
Children’s Hospital
Ladywood Middleway
Ladywood, Birmingham B16 8ET
Abstract
The complications of BCG vaccination in both the immunocompetent, with local and lymph node ulceration, and in the immunocompromised, with disseminated infection, are familiar to most paediatricians. Moreover, the risks to the doctor from needlestick injury
are well known. There are probably few other risks for the vaccinator but we describe a case of ocular contamination with BCG
vaccine. During attempted intradermal injection of BCG vaccine
into a struggling neonate’s upper arm, the syringe slipped out of the
infant’s skin discharging its contents into the attending doctor’s eye.
The doctor had received BCG vaccine in childhood. Despite lavage
of the eye with water, a painful follicular conjunctivitis developed
24 hours later. There was a rapid response to topical steroids, and
the inflammatory response settled completely over the subsequent
week. Although it was assumed that this was a delayed-type hypersensitivity response, anti-BCG cover was given with a one month
course of oral isoniazid.
Full Report:
https://app.box.com/s/ev8bhi6vb3rofhrkavum3v3hpt2xlil9

“During attempted
intradermal injection of BCG vaccine
into a struggling neonate’s upper arm,
the syringe slipped out of the infant’s skin
discharging its contents into the attending doctor’s eye.”

National Academies Press US • 1994

DPT Vaccine and Chronic Nervous System Dysfunction: A New Analysis
Institute of Medicine US Committee to Study New Research on Vaccines
Editors
Kathleen R. Stratton, Cynthia J. Howe, and Richard B. Johnston, Jr.
Washington, DC
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

An Institute of Medicine (IOM) committee recently concluded that the evidence is consistent with a causal relation between vaccination with DPT
and acute encephalopathy (IOM, 1991), and the excess risk was estimated
to range from 0 to 10.5 per million DPT immunizations. However, the same
IOM committee also concluded that the evidence was insufficient to indicate a causal relation between DPT and permanent neurologic damage
(IOM, 1991). In fact, the relation between DPT and chronic nervous system
dysfunction had not been studied in a rigorous scientific manner until recently. Because the evidence has been so limited, the appearance of a single
new report, a 10-year follow-up to the National Childhood Encephalopathy
Study (NCES; Miller et al., 1993), prompted the U.S. Public Health Service
to ask IOM to convene the Committee to Study New Research on Vaccines
with the charge of studying the new data and, if warranted, reevaluating the
causal relation between DPT and chronic nervous system dysfunction.

serious acute neurologic illness that occurs within 7 days after receiving
DPT. The NCES provides data only on the limited case of a possible relation between DPT and chronic nervous system dysfunction in those children in whom a serious acute neurologic illness followed DPT vaccination
within 7 days.

The NCES reported that the occurrence of hospitalization for serious neurologic disorders among 2- to 35-month-old children is very strongly related to the occurrence of death or nervous system dysfunction (neurologic,
behavioral, educational, motor, sensory, or self-care impairment) up to age
10 years (Madge et al., 1993; Miller et al., 1993). Children who experienced the rare but serious acute neurologic disorder within 7 days after receiving DPT were no more or less likely to experience documented chronic
nervous system dysfunction or to have died within 10 years of the acute
disorder than children who had not received DPT within 7 days prior to the
onset of the disorder. There were no special characteristics associated with
the acute or chronic nervous system illnesses linked to DPT exposure.

2. DPT might trigger (and thereby be an immediate or proximate cause)
an acute neurologic illness and subsequent chronic dysfunction in children
with underlying brain or metabolic abnormalities. Such children might experience acute neurologic illness and subsequent chronic dysfunction in
association with some trigger other than DPT.

The NCES did not investigate the possibility of a direct relation between
DPT and chronic nervous system dysfunction, that is, in the absence of a

The committee posits three plausible scenarios whereby the acute neurologic illnesses that follow DPT might be related to chronic nervous system
dysfunction.
1. DPT administration might cause serious acute neurologic illness and
subsequent chronic dysfunction in children who otherwise might not have
experienced either an acute neurologic illness or chronic dysfunction in the
absence of DPT.

3. DPT might cause an acute neurologic illness in children with underlying
brain or metabolic abnormalities that would themselves eventually have led
to chronic dysfunction even in the absence of an acute neurologic illness.
The committee believes its conclusions take into account the fact that the
data do not support any one of these scenarios over the others. Because the
NCES did not (and probably could not) rule out the possibility that onlychildren with underlying brain or metabolic abnormalities react to stimuli

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225452/

such as DPT with acute neurologic illness, and no other studies establish
or rule out such a possibility, the committee concludes that the evidence
is insufficient to indicate whether or not DPT increases the overall risk in
children of chronic nervous system dysfunction.
The National Childhood Encephalopathy Study data are consistent with the
possibility that some children without underlying brain or metabolic abnormalities might experience serious acute neurologic illness within 7 days
after receiving DPT and that acute neurologic illness will have chronic nervous system sequelae. The NCES data also are consistent with the possibility that some children with underlying brain or metabolic abnormalities
(which foster a “triggering” by DPT of an acute neurologic illness) might
go on to develop chronic nervous system dysfunction due to a DPT-triggered acute illness. Therefore, the committee concludes that the balance of
evidence is consistent with a causal relation between DPT and the forms of
chronic nervous system dysfunction described in the NCES in those children who experience a serious acute neurologic illness within 7 days after
receiving DPT vaccine. This serious acute neurologic response to DPT is a
rare event. The excess risk has been estimated to range from 0 to 10.5 per
million immunizations (IOM, 1991). The evidence does not “establish” or
“prove” a causal relation. The evidence remains insufficient to indicate the
presence or absence of a causal relation between DPT and chronic nervous
system dysfunction under any other circumstances. That is, because the
NCES is the only systematic study of long-term dysfunctions after DPT,
the committee can only comment on the causal relation between DPT and
those long-term dysfunctions under the conditions studied by the NCES.
In particular, it should be noted that the long-term dysfunctions associated
with DPT followed a serious acute neurologic illness that occurred in children within 7 days after receiving DPT.

Acta Paediatrica • February 1994

Immunosuppression after measles vaccination
Author information
Smedman L1, Joki A, da Silva AP,
Troye-Blomberg M, Aronsson B, Perlmann P.
Department of Immunology
Stockholm University, Sweden
Abstract
The influence of conventional live attenuated measles vaccine on cellular
immune responsiveness was investigated in Sweden and Guinea-Bissau.
Sixteen children in a residential area in Bissau and 16 living in southern
Stockholm were examined before and 8-10 days after vaccination. Lymphoproliferation was measured to concanavalin A (con-A), PPD and tetanus toxoid (TT) using a whole-blood 3H-thymidine incorporation assay. Stimulation indices were significantly lower after vaccination than
before, in the case of con-A (p = 0.03) and TT (p = 0.01) in the Guinean
children and in the case of PPD (p = 0.009) and TT (p = 0.03) in the
Swedish children. Stimulation of lymphocytes from measles-immune
children with measles antigens resulted in weak lymphoproliferative responses. These observations may be relevant to the increased mortality
found in children immunized with high-titre measles vaccines, as compared to controls, in recent studies. The study confirms the applicability
and usefulness under field conditions of the whole blood version of the
thymidine incorporation assay.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8193495

“These observations may be relevant
to the increased mortality found in
children immunized with high-titre
measles vaccines, as compared to
controls, in recent studies.”

Journal Of Clinical Pharmacology • February 1994

Adverse drug reactions in neonates
Author information
Knight M.
Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine
University of Florida Health Science Center, Gainesville 32610
Abstract
Adverse drug reactions (ADR) are uncommon causes of admission of neonates to the neonatal intensive care unit. The neonate, however, is potentially at significant risk for adverse drug reactions because of underdeveloped
mechanisms and systems for handling drugs (the Gray Baby Syndrome with
chloramphenicol as a classic example), the fact that infants in neonatal intensive care units are often critically ill with multiple organ system dysfunction,
that they may be on multiple drugs, and that they may present with an adverse
drug reaction as a result of exposure while still a fetus. There is also a history
of misadventures in the neonatal intensive care unit and newborn nurseries
due to exposure to antibacterial agents that produced systemic effects from
percutaneous absorption. In this review, an overview of the mechanisms of
adverse drug reactions will be presented, followed by a general review of the
experience of adverse drug reactions in neonates and some specific examples
of current adverse drug reactions and a suggested approach for the prevention
and evaluation of adverse drug reactions in neonates.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8163712

“The neonate, however,
is potentially at significant risk
for adverse drug reactions because
of underdeveloped mechanisms and
systems for handling drugs ...”

“Eighty-seven previously vaccinated school-aged children with measles
that met the Advisory Committee on Epidemiology’s clinical case definition for measles.”
Canadian Medical Association Journal • April 1994

Measles outbreak in 31 schools:
risk factors for vaccine failure
and evaluation of a selective revaccination strategy
Author information
Yuan L.
Department of Preventive Medicine and Biostatistics
University of Toronto, Ontario, CA
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To examine the risk factors for measles vaccine failure and to evaluate the effectiveness of a selective revaccination strategy during a measles outbreak.
DESIGN
Matched case-control study.
SETTING
Thirty-one schools in Mississauga, Ont.
SUBJECTS
Eighty-seven previously vaccinated school-aged children with measles that met
the Advisory Committee on Epidemiology’s clinical case definition for measles.
Two previously vaccinated control subjects were randomly selected for each
case subject from the same homeroom class.

INTERVENTIONS
All susceptible contacts were vaccinated, and contacts who had been vaccinated
before Jan. 1, 1980, were revaccinated. When two or more cases occurred in a
school all children vaccinated before 1980 were revaccinated.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES
Risk of measles associated with age at vaccination, time since vaccination, vaccination before 1980 and revaccination.
RESULTS
Subjects vaccinated before 12 months of age were at greater risk of measles than
those vaccinated later (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 7.7, 95% confidence interval
[CI] 1.6 to 38.3; p = 0.01). Those vaccinated between 12 and 14 months of age
were at no greater risk than those vaccinated at 15 months or over. Subjects vaccinated before 1980 were at greater risk than those vaccinated after 1980 (adjusted OR 14.5, 95% CI 1.5 to 135.6). Time since vaccination was not a risk factor. Revaccination was effective in reducing the risk of measles in both subjects
vaccinated before 1980 and those vaccinated after 1980 (adjusted OR reduced
to 0.6 [95% CI 0.1 to 5.3] and 0.3 [95% CI 0.13 to 2.6] respectively). However,
only 18 cases were estimated to have been prevented by this strategy.
CONCLUSIONS
Adherence to routine measles vaccination for all eligible children is important
in ensuring appropriate coverage with a single dose. The selective revaccination
strategy’s high labour intensiveness and low measles prevention rate during the
outbreak bring into question the effectiveness of such a strategy.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8137189

Vaccine • April 1994

Adverse reactions after diphtheria-tetanus booster
in 10-year-old schoolchildren in relation to the
type of vaccine given for the primary vaccination
Author information
Blennow M1, Granström M, Strandell A.
1Department of Pediatrics
Sachs’ Children’s Hospital
Stockholm, Sweden
Abstract
This prospective open study investigated adverse reactions in 527 schoolchildren to
a diphtheria-tetanus (DT) booster given within a national vaccination programme
at 10 years of age. Evaluation was based on those whose immunization records
showed that they had received either three doses of an adsorbed DT vaccine (n =
388) or a non-adsorbed DT-pertussis vaccine (DTP) (n = 69) for primary series
vaccination. No differences in systemic reactions to the booster between the two
groups were observed. Local reactions were significantly (p < 0.001) more common 1 day after vaccination in children who had received DT for primary series
vaccination: redness, 73% compared with 23%; swelling, 56% versus 15%; and
itching, 47% versus 21%. One and 2 weeks after the booster, itching was still more
pronounced in the group who had received DT for primary series vaccination (p
< 0.001 and 0.014, respectively). The study indicates that there was a real basis
for the increase in spontaneous notifications of local side-effects to the school DT
booster in Sweden. The most likely cause for the increase seems to be the aluminium adjuvant in the vaccine given for primary vaccination, a late and unexpected
consequence of a change in the infant immunization programme.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8023551

“This prospective open study
investigated adverse reactions in 527 schoolchildren
to a diphtheria-tetanus (DT) booster ... The most likely
cause for the increase seems to be the aluminium
adjuvant in the vaccine given for primary vaccination,
a late and unexpected consequence of a change
in the infant immunization programme.”

JAMA • May 1994

Adverse events associated with childhood vaccines
other than pertussis and rubella.
Summary of a report from the Institute of Medicine
Author information
Stratton KR1, Howe CJ, Johnston RB Jr.
Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences
Washington, DC
Abstract
In September 1993, the Institute of Medicine released a report entitled Adverse
Events Associated With Childhood Vaccines: Evidence Bearing on Causality. The
report examined putative serious adverse consequences associated with administration of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids; measles, mumps, and measles-mumps-rubella
vaccines; oral polio vaccine and inactivated polio vaccine; hepatitis B vaccines; and
Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccines. The committee spent 18 months reviewing all available scientific and medical data, from individual case reports (published and unpublished) to controlled clinical trials. The committee found that the
evidence favored the rejection of a causal relation between diphtheria and tetanus
toxoids and encephalopathy, infantile spasms, and sudden infant death syndrome,
and between conjugate Hib vaccines and susceptibility to Hib disease. The committee found that the evidence favored acceptance of a causal relation between diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and Guillain-Barré syndrome and brachial neuritis, between
measles vaccine and anaphylaxis, between oral polio vaccine and Guillain-Barré
syndrome, and between unconjugated Hib vaccine and susceptibility to Hib disease. The committee found that the evidence established causality between diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and anaphylaxis, between measles vaccine and death from
measles vaccine-strain viral infection, between measles-mumps-rubella vaccine and
thrombocytopenia and anaphylaxis, between oral polio vaccine and poliomyelitis
and death from polio vaccine-strain viral infection, and between hepatitis B vaccine and anaphylaxis. For five vaccine-related adverse events, there was no evidence
identified. For the remaining 33 vaccine-related adverse events, the evidence was
inadequate to accept or reject a causal relation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8182813

“The committee found that the evidence favored
acceptance of a causal relation between diphtheria
and tetanus toxoids and Guillain-Barré syndrome
and brachial neuritis, between measles vaccine and
anaphylaxis, between oral polio vaccine and Guillain-Barré
syndrome, and between unconjugated Hib vaccine and
susceptibility to Hib disease.
The committee found that the evidence established
causality between diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and
anaphylaxis, between measles vaccine and death from
measles vaccine-strain viral infection, between measles-mumpsrubella vaccine and thrombocytopenia and anaphylaxis,
between oral polio vaccine and poliomyelitis and death
from polio vaccine-strain viral infection, and between
hepatitis B vaccine and anaphylaxis.”

“In 1993 we found 17 cases of Adverse Events Following Immunization (AEFI)
out of 1440 children between 0 and 2 years of age ...”
Przeglad Epidemiologiczny • 1994

Adverse events following immunization:
AEFI in 17 children between 0 and 2 years of age
Author information
Taraszkiewicz F1, Bogus-Parafieniuk W, Oldak E, Sulik A.
Klinika Chorób Zakaznych Dzieci Akademii Medycznej w Bialymstoku
Abstract
Adverse Events Following Immunization (AEFI) are disadvantageous side effects of preventive vaccination. In
1993 we found 17 cases of AEFI out of 1440 children between 0 and 2 years of age who had received BCG, diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis, measles or poliomyelitis vaccine. They were classified as reactions in 14 children (0.9%)
or complications in 3 children (0.2%). Twelve adverse reactions followed DTP vaccination (0.8%), two followed
BCG vaccination (0.14%), another two measles vaccination (0.14%) and one followed poliomyelitis vaccination
(0.07%). Both generalized and local symptoms were present and they regressed with no further complications.
Two children who had received BCG were noted to have a deeply placed abscess at the injection site remaining
scar as well as axillary, submandibular and cervical lymph nodes enlargement within 6 months. In a 3 months old
child, after the first injection of DTP vaccine, convulsions and consciousness disorder occurred. Transfontanel ultrasonography revealed intraventricular haemorrhage. After one year of intensive neurological care child’s health
state was improved. In spite of using still more and more safe vaccines none of them is the ideal one—the one
with no adverse events following vaccination. Vaccination technics, distribution and storage of vaccines are to be
improved which may result in decrease number of AEFI.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7597191

CDC • MMWR • 1996

Update:
Vaccine Side Effects, Adverse Reactions, Contraindications,
and Precautions Recommendations of the
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)
Summary
This report provides updated information concerning the potential adverse events associated with vaccination
for hepatitis B, poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. This information incorporates
findings from a series of recent literature reviews, conducted by an expert committee at the Institute of Medicine
(IOM), of all evidence regarding the possible adverse consequences of vaccines administered to children. This report contains modifications to the previously published recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) and is based on an ACIP review of the IOM findings and new research on vaccine safety.
In addition, this report incorporates information contained in the “Recommendations of the Advisory Committee
on Immunization Practices: Use of Vaccines and Immune Globulins in Persons with Altered Immunocompetence”
(MMWR 1993;42{No. RR-4}) and the “General Recommendations on Immunization: Recommendations of the
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)” (MMWR 1994;43{No. RR-1}). Major changes to the
previous recommendations are highlighted within the text, and specific information concerning the following vaccines and the possible adverse events associated with their administration are included: hepatitis B vaccine and
anaphylaxis; measles vaccine and a) thrombocytopenia and b) possible risk for death resulting from anaphylaxis
or disseminated disease in immunocompromised persons; diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis vaccine
(DTP) and chronic encephalopathy; and tetanus-toxoid-containing vaccines and a) Guillain-Barre syndrome, b)
brachial neuritis, and c) possible risk for death resulting from anaphylaxis. These modifications will be incorporated into more comprehensive ACIP recommendations for each vaccine when such statements are revised. Also
included in this report are interim recommendations concerning the use of measles and mumps vaccines in:
a. persons who are infected with human immunodeficiency virus and
b. persons who are allergic to eggs; ACIP is still evaluating these recommendations.

http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00046738.htm

Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal • January 1996

Measles outbreaks in the United States,
1987 through 1990
Author information
Hutchins S1, Markowitz L, Atkinson W, Swint E, Hadler S.
National Immunization Program
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Atlanta, GA, USA
Abstract

“There were 815 outbreaks,
accounting for 94% of the 52,846 cases reported.
3 patterns of measles transmission during

BACKGROUND
During 1989 and 1990 reported measles cases in the United States increased 6- to 9-fold
over the annual mean of 3000 between 1985 and 1988. To evaluate recent epidemiology
we summarized measles outbreaks.

outbreaks were identified:

METHODS
Confirmed measles cases reported to the National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System during 1987 through 1990 were analyzed. An outbreak was defined as > or = 5
epidemiologically linked cases.

(1) predominantly among unvaccinated

RESULTS
There were 815 outbreaks, accounting for 94% of the 52,846 cases reported. Similar
to 1985 and 1986, 3 patterns of measles transmission during outbreaks were identified:
(1) predominantly among unvaccinated pre-school age children < 5 years of age (38%
of outbreaks); (2) predominantly among vaccinated school age children 5 to 17 years
of age (40%); and (3) predominantly among unvaccinated and vaccinated post-school
age persons > or = 18 years of age (22%). Most outbreaks were small (median, 12
cases), but very large outbreaks occurred (maximum size, 10,670). Although school age
outbreaks (58%) predominated during 1987 and 1988, preschool age (40%) and postschool age (23%) outbreaks were more important during 1989 and 1990.
CONCLUSIONS
Recent epidemiology suggests that to achieve elimination of measles, ACIP recommendations must be fully implemented, including (1) routine administration of the first
dose of measles vaccine from 12 to 15 months of age and (2) use of a routine two-dose
schedule to prevent school age and post-school age outbreaks.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8684873

pre-school age children (38% of outbreaks)

(2) predominantly among vaccinated
school age children 5 to 17 years of age (40%)

(3) predominantly among unvaccinated
and vaccinated post-school age persons (22%) ...”

Carcinogenesis • January 1996

DNA—
protein crosslinks, a biomarker of exposure to formaldehyde—
in vitro and in vivo studies
Author information
Shaham J1, Bomstein Y,
Meltzer A, Kaufman Z, Palma E, Ribak J.
Occupational Cancer Unit
Occupational Health and Rehabilitation Institute
Raanana, Israel
Abstract
Formaldehyde (FA) is a widely produced industrial chemical. Sufficient evidence exists to consider
FA as an animal carcinogen. In humans the evidence is not conclusive. DNA-protein crosslinks
(DPC) may be one of the early lesions in the carcinogenesis process in cells following exposures
to carcinogens. It has been shown in in vitro tests that FA can form DPC. We examined the amount
of DPC formation in human white blood cells exposed to FA in vitro and in white blood cells taken
from 12 workers exposed to FA and eight controls. We found a significant difference (P = 0.03) in
the amount of DPC among exposed (mean +/- SD 28 +/- 5%, minimum 21%, maximum 38%) than
among the unexposed controls (mean +/- SD 22 +/- 6%, minimum 16%, maximum 32%). Of the
12 exposed workers, four (33%) showed crosslink values above the upper range of controls. We
also found a linear relationship between years of exposure and the amount of DPC. We conclude
that our data indicate a possible mechanism of FA carcinogenicity in humans and that DPC can be
used as a method for biological monitoring of exposure to FA.
Full Report
http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/1/121.long

“We conclude that our data indicate a possible
mechanism of Formaldehyde carcinogenicity in humans ...”

Acta Paediatrica Japan • June 1996

Adverse events
associated with MMR vaccines in Japan
Author information
Kimura M1, Kuno-Sakai H, Yamazaki S,
Yamada A, Hishiyama M, Kamiya H, Ueda K,
Murase T, Hirayama M, Oya A, Nozaki S, Murata R.
School of Medicine
Tokai University, Isehara, Japan
Abstract
The largest nationwide active surveillance of four Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccines was conducted in Japan. A total of 1255 pediatricians
actively participated in the study, which comprised 8.6% of all members of
the Japanese Pediatric Society. The total number of registered recipients of
MMR vaccines was 38 203. They were arbitrarily given one of the MMR
vaccines produced by three makers (Takeda, Osaka city, Kitasato Minatoku. Tokyo and Biken Suita city, Japan) or the standard MMR vaccine made
of designated strains (Kitasato’s measles-AIK-C, Biken’s mumps-Urabe
Am9 and Takeda’s rubella-To336) produced by Takeda, Kitasato and Biken and were observed for 35 days. The rates of virologically confirmed
aseptic meningitis per 10,000 recipients were 16.6, 11.6, 3.2 and 0 for the
standard MMR, Takeda MMR, Kitasato MMR and Biken MMR vaccines,
respectively. The incidence of convulsions between 15 and 35 days was the
highest with the standard MMR vaccine and the incidence of fever associated with vomiting occurring between 15 and 35 days (symptoms relevant
to aseptic meningitis) were also the highest with the standard MMR vaccine. The incidence of parotid swelling was the lowest with Takeda MMR
vaccine. This surveillance revealed that incidences of aseptic meningitis
after administration of the standard MMR vaccine and of Biken MMR vaccine were different. This posed questions about the manufacturing consistency of the Urabe Am9 mumps virus vaccines. On the other hand, the
National Institute of Health found that the biological characteristics of the
Urabe Am9 mumps virus contained in the standard MMR vaccine and in
the Biken MMR vaccine were different. The Biken Company reported that
the mumps vaccine in the standard MMR vaccine was a mixture of two
Urabe Am9 mumps vaccine bulks; one identical to that contained in the
Biken MMR vaccine and the other produced by a different manufacturing
process.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8741307

“The incidence of convulsions
between 15 and 35 days was the highest
with the standard MMR vaccine and the
incidence of fever associated with vomiting
occurring between 15 and 35 days
(symptoms relevant to aseptic meningitis)
were also the highest with the standard MMR
vaccine. The incidence of parotid swelling
was the lowest with Takeda MMR vaccine.
This surveillance revealed that incidences of
aseptic meningitis after administration of the
standard MMR vaccine and of Biken MMR
vaccine were different. This posed questions
about the manufacturing consistency of the
Urabe Am9 mumps virus vaccines.”

Lancet • June 1996

Measles and atopy in Guinea-Bissau
Author information
Shaheen SO1, Aaby P, Hall AJ, Barker DJ, Heyes CB, Shiell AW, Goudiaby A.
1Medical Research Council Environmental Epidemiology Unit
University of Southampton, Southhampton General Hospital, UK
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Epidemiological studies have led to speculation that infections in early childhood may
prevent allergic sensitisation but evidence to support this hypothesis is lacking. We
investigated whether measles infection protects against the development of atopy in
children of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa.
METHODS
We conducted a historical cohort study in Bandim, a semi-rural district of Bissau, the
capital of Guinea-Bissau. 395 young adults, first surveyed in 1978-80 aged 0-6 years,
were followed up in 1994. Our analyses were restricted to 262 individuals still living in
Bandim for whom a measles history, documented in childhood, was judged to be reliable. We defined atopy as skin-prick test positivity (> or = 3 mm weal) to one or more
of seven allergens.
FINDINGS
17 (12.8 percent) of 133 participants who had had measles infection were atopic compared with 33 (25.6 percent) of 129 of those who had been vaccinated and not had
measles (odds ratio, adjusted for potential confounding variables 0.36 [95 percent CI
0.17-0.78], p=O.O1). Participants who had been breastfed for more than a year were
less likely to have a positive skin test to housedust mite. After adjustment for breastfeeding and other variables, measles infection was associated with a large reduction in
the risk of skin-prick test positivity to housedust mite (odds ratio for Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus 0.20 [0.05-0.81], p=0.02; D farinae 0.20 [0.06-0.71], p=0.01).
INTERPRETATION
Measles infection may prevent the development of atopy in African children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8667923

“Measles infection may prevent
the development of atopy [allergies] in African children.”
[as Dr. Buttram stated, challenge viruses like measles and
chicken pox strengthen the child’s immune system]

“Triton X-100 efficiently induces the apoptotic cell death ...”
Yonsei Medical Journal • February 1997

Triton X-100 induces apoptosis in human hepatoma cell lines
Author information
Ahn JM1, Kim SJ, Kim H, Park C, Kim WH, Park JH.
Department of Microbiology
Yonsei University College of Medicine
Seoul, Korea
Abstract
The detergent Triton X-100 was used to establish a model for apoptosis in hepatoma cell lines. The electrophoresis of DNA extracted from 0.01% Triton X-100 treated hepatoma cell lines showed DNA ladder formation, a
hallmark of apoptosis. The DNA fragmentation appeared within less than 60 min of the Triton X-100 treatment.
Chromatin condensation and apoptotic bodies were observed by hematoxylin and eosin (H & E) stain, and fragmented nucleosome was detected by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labelling (TUNEL) test. Apoptosis was semi-quantitated by measuring the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level for cytotoxity. It was found that apoptosis had been induced in more than 90% of the cells treated with Triton X-100 for
150 min. These data show that Triton X-100 efficiently induces the apoptotic cell death in hepatoma cell lines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9100483

Epidemiology • November 1997

Is infant immunization a risk factor
for childhood asthma or allergy?
Author information
Kemp T1, Pearce N, Fitzharris P, Crane J,
Fergusson D, St George I, Wickens K, Beasley R.
1Department of Medicine
Wellington School of Medicine
New Zealand
Abstract
The Christchurch Health and Development Study comprises
1,265 children born in 1977. The 23 children who received no
diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus (DPT) and polio immunizations
had no recorded asthma episodes or consultations for asthma
or other allergic illness before age 10 years; in the immunized
children, 23.1% had asthma episodes, 22.5% asthma consultations, and 30.0% consultations for other allergic illness. Similar differences were observed at ages 5 and 16 years. These
findings do not appear to be due to differential use of health
services (although this possibility cannot be excluded) or confounding by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, parental atopy, or
parental smoking.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9345669

“The 23 children who received no
diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus (DPT) and
polio immunizations had no recorded asthma
episodes or consultations for asthma or other allergic
illness before age 10 years; in the immunized children,
23.1% had asthma episodes, 22.5% asthma
consultations, and 30.0% consultations for other
allergic illness. Similar differences were observed
at ages 5 and 16 years.”

Lancet • June 1996

Measles and atopy in Guinea-Bissau
Author information
Shaheen SO1, Aaby P, Hall AJ,
Barker DJ, Heyes CB, Shiell AW, Goudiaby A.
Medical Research Council Environmental Epidemiology Unit
University of Southampton, Southhampton General Hospital, UK
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Epidemiological studies have led to speculation that infections in early childhood may
prevent allergic sensitisation but evidence to support this hypothesis is lacking. We investigated whether measles infection protects against the development of atopy in children of
Guinea-Bissau, West Africa.
METHODS
We conducted a historical cohort study in Bandim, a semi-rural district of Bissau, the capital of Guinea-Bissau. 395 young adults, first surveyed in 1978-80 aged 0-6 years, were followed up in 1994. Our analyses were restricted to 262 individuals still living in Bandim for
whom a measles history, documented in childhood, was judged to be reliable. We defined
atopy as skin-prick test positivity (> or = 3 mm weal) to one or more of seven allergens.
FINDINGS
17 (12.8 percent) of 133 participants who had had measles infection were atopic compared
with 33 (25.6 percent) of 129 of those who had been vaccinated and not had measles (odds
ratio, adjusted for potential confounding variables 0.36 [95 percent CI 0.17-0.78], p=O.
O1). Participants who had been breastfed for more than a year were less likely to have a
positive skin test to housedust mite. After adjustment for breastfeeding and other variables,
measles infection was associated with a large reduction in the risk of skin-prick test positivity to housedust mite (odds ratio for Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus 0.20 [0.05-0.81],
p=0.02; D farinae 0.20 [0.06-0.71], p=0.01).
INTERPRETATION
Measles infection may prevent the development of atopy in African children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=8667923

“Measles infection may
prevent the development of atopy
[allergies] in African children.”

Lancet • June 1997

Gulf War syndrome:
is it due to a systemic shift
in cytokine balance towards a Th2 profile
Author information
Rook GA1, Zumla A.
Department of Bacteriology
University College London Medical School, UK
Abstract
The symptoms of Gulf War syndrome are compatible with the hypothesis
that the immune system of affected individuals is biased towards a Th2cytokine pattern. Factors that could lead to a Th2 shift among Gulf War
veterans include exposure to multiple Th2-inducing vaccinations under
stressful circumstances and the way in which such vaccinations were administered, which would be expected to maximise Th2 immunogenicity.
These factors may have led to a long-term systemic shift towards a Th2cytokine balance and to mood changes related to the immunoendocrine
state. Other vaccines that lead to similar long-term, non-specific shifts in
cytokine balance are well-established. If our hypothesis is proven, treatment may be possible with regimens that induce a systemic Th1 bias.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9269228

“The symptoms of Gulf War syndrome are compatible with
the hypothesis that the immune system of affected individuals is biased towards a
Th2-cytokine pattern. Factors that could lead to a Th2 shift among Gulf War
veterans include exposure to multiple Th2-inducing vaccinations under stressful
circumstances and the way in which such vaccinations were administered,
which would be expected to maximise Th2 immunogenicity.”

“Although the use of adjuvants in veterinary vaccines enhances the immunogenicity of vaccines,
they have been responsible for a number of side effects.”
Seminars In Veterinary Medicine And Surgery (Small Animal) • August 1997

Vaccine adjuvants
Author information
Macy DW.
Department of Clinical Sciences
Colorado State University
College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
Fort Collins 80523, USA
Abstract
Vaccine adjuvants provide enhanced immune responses to a variety of antigens. Unlike human vaccines that are
limited to aluminum-based adjuvants, veterinary vaccines may contain a large number of substances either alone
or in combination that act as vaccine adjuvants. Although the use of adjuvants in veterinary vaccines enhances
the immunogenicity of vaccines, they have been responsible for a number of side effects. This article explores the
rationale of currently used vaccine adjuvants and some of the adverse events associated with their use in veterinary medicine.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9283246

Journal Of Paediatric Child Health • October 1997

Incidence of apnoea and bradycardia
in preterm infants following DTPw and Hib immunization:
a prospective study
Author information
Botham SJ1, Isaacs D, Henderson-Smart DJ.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the incidence and severity of apnoea and bradycardia in hospitalized preterm
infants following immunization at 2 months of age, and identify risk factors.
METHODOLOGY
A prospective study of 98 preterm infants, of gestational age 24-31 weeks, immunized
at approximately 2 months post natal age with diphtheria-tetanus-whole cell pertussis
vaccine (DTPw) in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) at King George V Hospital
Sydney. Half the infants also received Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine
(Hib) simultaneously. All infants were monitored for apnoea and bradycardia in the 24 h
periods pre- and post immunization.
RESULTS
Only one infant had apnoea and/or bradycardia pre-immunization compared with 17 post
immunization. For 12 infants these events were brief, self-limiting and not associated with
desaturations (oxygen saturation < 90%). However, for five infants (30%) these events
were associated with oxygen desaturation and two of these infants required supplemental
oxygen. The group that had apnoea and/or bradycardia and the group that did not were not
significantly different in terms of gestational age, birth weight and other variables. Infants
who received Hib together with DTPw were less likely to have apnoea and/or bradycardia
than those given DTPw alone.
CONCLUSION
When considering immunization for preterm infants, the benefits of early immunization
must be balanced against the risk of apnoea and bradycardia. We recommend that the
cardio-respiratory function of hospitalized infants born at less than 31 weeks gestation be
monitored for 48 h post immunization.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9401886

“Only one infant had apnoea and/or bradycardia
pre-immunization compared with 17 post immunization.
For 12 infants these events were brief, self-limiting and
not associated with desaturations (oxygen saturation < 90%).
However, for five infants (30%) these events were
associated with oxygen desaturation and two
of these infants required supplemental oxygen.”

Epidemiology • November 1997

Is infant immunization a risk factor
for childhood asthma or allergy?
Author information
Kemp T1, Pearce N, Fitzharris P, Crane J,
Fergusson D, St George I, Wickens K, Beasley R.
Department of Medicine
Wellington School of Medicine
New Zealand
Abstract
The Christchurch Health and Development Study comprises 1,265 children
born in 1977. The 23 children who received no diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus
(DPT) and polio immunizations had no recorded asthma episodes or consultations for asthma or other allergic illness before age 10 years; in the
immunized children, 23.1% had asthma episodes, 22.5% asthma consultations, and 30.0% consultations for other allergic illness. Similar differences
were observed at ages 5 and 16 years. These findings do not appear to be
due to differential use of health services (although this possibility cannot
be excluded) or con-founding by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, parental
atopy, or parental smoking.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9345669

“The 23 children who received no
diphtheria/pertussis/tetanus (DPT) and
polio immunizations had no recorded asthma episodes
or consultations for asthma or other allergic illness before
age 10 years; in the immunized children, 23.1% had asthma
episodes, 22.5% asthma consultations, and 30.0%
consultations for other allergic illness.”

American Journal Of Human Genetics • 1998
Ecogenetics ’98

Variability in Immune Response to Pathogens:
Using Measles Vaccine to Probe
Immunogenetic Determinants of Response
Gregory A. Poland
Mayo Vaccine Research Group
Clinical Pharmacology Unit
Mayo Clinic and Foundation
Rochester, MN
Abstract
“The measles had not prevailed on the Faroes since 1781; they broke out early in April, 1846. Of the 7,782
inhabitants, about 6,000 were taken with measles ) 225 persons in all died. Of the many old people still living
on the Faroes who had had the measles in 1781, not one was attacked the second time.”
Quote from P. L. Panum in the report titled
“Observations Made during the Epidemic of Measles
on the Faroe Islands in the Year 1846”
The Faroe Islands measles outbreak described above is of interest to geneticists in several regards: Why did some
people survive and some die? Why was the case fatality rate so high? Why was the protective effect of prior exposure so high? Understanding the genetic influences on the phenotypes of protective and nonprotective an- tibody
responses provides a unique window to under- stand the variability in host response to pathogens.
Vaccine Response as a Marker of Disease Susceptibility
Postimmunization antibody response can be used as a marker of disease susceptibility. For example, the level of
antibody response after hepatitis B immunization predicts susceptibility to disease on exposure (Ellis 1993). In
studies of measles, postimmunization measles antibody in the “low positive” range did not protect against clinical
measles when subjects were exposed to the wild measles virus, whereas high levels were protective (Chen et al.
1990). Furthermore, nonresponders to a single dose of measles vaccine who demonstrated an antibody response
only after a second immunization were still six times more likely than were responders to a single dose of measles
vaccine to develop measles on exposure to wild virus (Mathias et al. 1989). Others examined “poor responders,”
who were reimmunized and developed poor or low-level antibody responses only to lose detectable antibody
and develop measles on exposure 2–5 years later. They concluded that there is a strong correlation between low
antibody levels after a single dose of vaccine and high susceptibility to infection with exposure (Deseda-Tous et
al. 1978).
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1376909/pdf/9463343.pdf

Vaccine
Non-Responders
And
Low Responders

“... nonresponders to a single dose of measles
vaccine who demonstrated an antibody response only
after a second immunization were still six times more
likely than were responders to a single dose of measles
vaccine to develop measles on exposure to wild virus
(Mathias et al. 1989). Others examined “poor responders,”
who were reimmunized and developed poor or
low-level antibody responses only to lose detectable
antibody and develop measles on exposure 2–5 years later.
They concluded that there is a strong correlation between
low antibody levels after a single dose of vaccine and high
susceptibility to infection with exposure.”
(Deseda-Tous et al. 1978)

Pediatrics Volume 101 • Issue 3 • March 1998

Acute Encephalopathy
Followed by Permanent Brain Injury or Death
Associated With Further Attenuated Measles Vaccines:
A Review of Claims Submitted to the
National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program
by Robert E. Weibel, Vito Caserta, David E. Benor, Geoffrey Evans
Abstract
Objective
To determine if there is evidence for a causal relationship between acute encephalopathy followed
by permanent brain injury or death associated with the administration of further attenuated measles vaccines (Attenuvax or Lirugen, Hoechst Marion Roussel, Kansas City, MO), mumps vaccine
(Mumpsvax, Merck and Co, Inc, West Point, PA), or rubella vaccines (Meruvax or Meruvax II,
Merck and Co, Inc, West Point, PA), combined measles and rubella vaccine (M-R-Vax or M-R-Vax
II, Merck and Co, Inc, West Point, PA), or combined measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine (M-M-R
or M-M-R II, Merck and Co, Inc, West Point, PA), the lead author reviewed claims submitted to the
National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program.
Methods
The medical records of children who met the inclusion criteria of receiving the first dose of these
vaccines between 1970 and 1993 and who developed such an encephalopathy with no determined
cause within 15 days were identified and analyzed.
Results
A total of 48 children, ages 10 to 49 months, met the inclusion criteria after receiving measles vaccine, alone or in combination. Eight children died, and the remainder had mental regression and
retardation, chronic seizures, motor and sensory deficits, and movement disorders. The onset of
neurologic signs or symptoms occurred with a nonrandom, statistically significant distribution of
cases on days 8 and 9. No cases were identified after the administration of monovalent mumps or
rubella vaccine.
Conclusions
This clustering suggests that a causal relationship between measles vaccine and encephalopathy
may exist as a rare complication of measles immunization.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9481001

“A total of 48 children, ages 10 to 49 months, met the
inclusion criteria after receiving measles vaccine,
alone or in combination. Eight children died, and
the remainder had mental regression and retardation, chronic seizures, motor and sensory deficits,
and movement disorders. This clustering suggests
that a causal relationship between measles vaccine
and encephalopathy may exist as a rare complication of measles immunization.”

Biomedical And Environmental Science • March 1998

Detection of cytogenetic effects
in peripheral lymphocytes
of students exposed to formaldehyde
with cytokinesis-blocked micronucleus assay
Author information
He JL1, Jin LF, Jin HY.
School of Public Health
Zhejiang Medical University
Hangzhou, China
Abstract
Cytokinesis-blocked micronucleus assay was applied as a biological dosimeter to detect abnormalities in human peripheral lymphocytes of thirteen students exposed to formaldehyde (FA) during a 12-week (10 h per week) anatomy class. Breathing-zone air samples collected during dissection procedures
showed a mean concentration of 2.37 ppm (3.17 mg/m3). Ten students from
the same school but without FA exposure served as controls. Chromosome
aberrations (CA) and sister chromatid exchanges (SCE) were detected in both
groups. The micronuclei (MN) rate (6.38 +/- 2.50 /1000) and CA rate (5.92
+/- 2.40%) in the FA-exposed group showed a significant increase (P < 0.01)
when compared with those of the controls (3.15 +/- 1.46 /1000 and 3.40 +/1.57% respectively). A correlation between MN and CA in individuals was
observed. SCE in the exposed group were also increased (P < 0.05), but not so
greatly as MN or CA. The results indicated that FA might damage the chromosomes of human lymphocytes.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9559107

“The results indicated that FA might damage
the chromosomes of human lymphocytes.”

“The reader will notice an emerging clear picture that the majority (if not all) of these advances
have been achieved from studies funded by independent or charity organizations rather than by the responsible authorities
who are supposed and are duty bound to take on this task.”
Adverse Drug Reactions And Toxicological Reviews • March 1998

Gulf War syndrome—
a model for the complexity of biological and environmental
interaction with human health
Author information
Jamal GA.
University Department of Neurology
Southern General Hospital NHS Trust, Glasgow
Abstract
Since the end of the Gulf War, tens of thousands of American, Canadian and British soldiers who participated in that war have claimed to be suffering from a variety of incapacitating symptoms which are generally termed as Gulf War Syndrome (GWS). The symptoms are multiple but mainly
consist of excessive tiredness, muscle and joint pain, loss of balance, sensory symptoms, neurobehavioural manifestations, diarrhoea, bladder dysfunction, sweating disturbances, and respiratory, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal and skin manifestations. These veterans have been exposed to a
variety of damaging or potentially damaging risk factors including environmental adversities, pesticides such as organophosphate chemicals, skin
insect repellents, medical agents such as pyridostigmine bromide (NAPS), possible low-levels of chemical warfare agents, multiple vaccinations
in combinations, depleted uranium, and other factors. A large number of basic research findings, clinical epidemiological studies, and case control
studies are reviewed to try and link them together to produce a coherent picture and to demonstrate the complexity of the interaction of biological
systems, environmental and genetic factors, combinations of drugs and toxins with human health. The findings of these studies so far have demonstrated that many of the previous assumptions made about the ‘safety’ of certain drugs and toxic substances or vaccines must be radically reviewed.
Many of the findings have far reaching implications not only in terms of explanation of what might have gone wrong during the Gulf War, but
also have wider implications for many occupational groups who are exposed daily to some of these risk factors. More open-mindedness and much
less prejudice are required concerning the basic biology of interactions of the above factors and their effects on cell functions and wider intelligent
research is urgently required with high priority. This review highlights the importance of intelligent research for answers for a new phenomenon,
and demonstrates the necessity for a combination of this approach with high quality epidemiological research. The reader will notice an emerging
clear picture that the majority (if not all) of these advances have been achieved from studies funded by independent or charity organizations rather
than by the responsible authorities who are supposed and are duty bound to take on this task.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9638279

Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Science USA • May 1998

Identification of rat susceptibility loci
for adjuvant-oil-induced arthritis
Author information
Lorentzen JC1, Glaser A, Jacobsson L, Galli J,
Fakhrai-rad H, Klareskog L, Luthman H.
Department of Medicine, Rheumatology Unit
CMM L8:04, Karolinska Hospital, S-171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
johnny.lorentzen@cmm.ki.se
Abstract
One intradermal injection of incomplete Freund’s adjuvant-oil induces a T
cell-mediated inflammatory joint disease in DA rats. Susceptibility genes for
oil-induced arthritis (OIA) are located both within and outside the major histocompatibility complex (MHC, Oia1). We have searched for disease-linked
non-MHC loci in an F2 intercross between DA rats and MHC-identical but arthritis-resistant LEW.1AV1 rats. A genome-wide scan with microsatellite markers revealed two major chromosome regions that control disease incidence and
severity: Oia2 on chromosome 4 (P = 4 x 10(-13)) and Oia3 on chromosome 10
(P = 1 x 10(-6)). All animals homozygous for DA alleles at both loci developed
severe arthritis, whereas all those homozygous for LEW.1AV1 alleles were resistant. These results have general implications for situations where nonspecific activation of the immune system (e.g., incomplete Freund’s adjuvant-oil)
causes inflammation and disease, either alone or in conjunction with specific
antigens. They may also provide clues to the etiology of inflammatory diseases
in humans, including rheumatoid arthritis.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC27729/

“These results have general implications
for situations where nonspecific activation of the immune system
(e.g., incomplete Freund’s adjuvant-oil) causes inflammation and disease,
either alone or in conjunction with specific antigens. They may
also provide clues to the etiology of inflammatory diseases
in humans, including rheumatoid arthritis.”

Acta Virologica • June 1998

Neurologic complications
associated with oral poliovirus vaccine
and genomic variability of the vaccine strains
after multiplication in humans
Author information
Friedrich F.
Departamento de Virologia
Instituto Oswaldo Cruz/FIOCRUZ
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
Abstract
The oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) has been effectively used in the reduction and control of poliomyelitis cases on the planet. Despite several advantages of using the attenuated OPV strains, the rare occurrence of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) cases in vaccine recipients
and their susceptible contacts is a disadvantage. Molecular biology studies
of polioviruses isolated from stool and central nervous system (CNS) of
patients with VAPP have confirmed the vaccine origin of the isolates and
demonstrated genomic modifications known or suspected to increase the
neurovirulence. Similar genomic modifications have also been identified in
OPV-derived strains isolated from healthy vaccinees and healthy contacts,
suggesting that host factors are also involved in the establishment of poliomyelitis. Other neurologic complications such as meningitis, encephalitis,
convulsions, transverse myelitis and Guillain-Barré syndrome have also
been rarely associated with the use of this vaccine. The characterization of
polioviruses isolated from such cases has demonstrated their OPV origin.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9842449

“Molecular biology studies of polioviruses isolated from
stool and central nervous system (CNS) of patients with
VAPP have confirmed the vaccine origin of the isolates and
demonstrated genomic modifications known or suspected
to increase the neurovirulence. Similar genomic modifications
have also been identified in OPV-derived strains isolated from
healthy vaccinees and healthy contacts, suggesting that host
factors are also involved in the establishment of poliomyelitis.
Other neurologic complications such as meningitis,
encephalitis, convulsions, transverse myelitis and
Guillain-Barré syndrome have also been rarely associated
with the use of this vaccine.”

Lancet • August 1998

Macrophagic myofasciitis:
an emerging entity
Groupe d’Etudes et Recherche sur les Maladies Musculaires Acquises et Dysimmunitaires (GERMMAD)
de l’Association Française contre les Myopathies (AFM)
Author information
Gherardi RK1, Coquet M, Chérin P, Authier FJ,
Laforêt P, Bélec L, Figarella-Branger D, Mussini JM, Pellissier JF, Fardeau M.
Université Paris XII-Val de Marne
Département de Pathologie, Hôpital Henri Mondor
Créteil, France
gherardi@univ-paris12.fr
Abstract
BACKGROUND
An unusual inflammatory myopathy characterised by an infiltration of non-epithelioid histiocytic cells has been
recorded with increasing frequency in the past 5 years in France. We reassessed some of these cases.
METHODS
We did a retrospective analysis of 18 such cases seen in five myopathology centres between May, 1993, and December, 1997. The myopathological changes were reassessed at a clinopathology seminar.
FINDINGS
Detailed clinical information was available for 14 patients. The main presumptive diagnoses were polymyositis
and polymyalgia rheumatica. Symptoms included myalgias in 12 patients, arthralgias in nine, muscle weakness
in six, pronounced asthenia in five, and fever in four. Abnormal laboratory findings were occasionally observed,
and included raised creatine kinase concentrations, increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and myopathic electromyography. Muscle biopsy showed infiltration of the subcutaneous tissue, epimysium, perimysium, and perifascicular endomysium by sheets of large macrophages, with a finely granular PAS-positive content. Also present
were occasional CD8 T cells, and inconspicuous muscle-fibre damage. Epithelioid and giant cells, necrosis, and
mitotic figures were not seen. The images were easily distinguishable from sarcoid myopathy and fasciitis-panniculitis syndromes. Whipple’s disease, Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infection, and malakoplakia could
not be confirmed. Ten patients were treated with various combinations of steroids and antibiotics; symptoms improved in eight patients, and stabilised in two.
INTERPRETATION
A new inflammatory muscle disorder of unknown cause, characterized by a distinctive pathological pattern of
macrophagic myofasciitis, is emerging in France.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9717921

“A new inflammatory muscle disorder
of unknown cause, characterised by a
distinctive pathological pattern of
macrophagic myofasciitis, is emerging in France.”

Clinical Immunology And Immunopathology • October 1998

Serological association of measles virus
and human herpesvirus-6
with brain autoantibodies in autism
Author information
Singh VK1, Lin SX, Yang VC.
College of Pharmacy
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109-1065, USA
Abstract
Considering an autoimmunity and autism connection, brain autoantibodies to myelin basic protein (anti-MBP) and neuron-axon
filament protein (anti-NAFP) have been found in autistic children.
In this current study, we examined associations between virus
serology and autoantibody by simultaneous analysis of measles
virus antibody (measles-IgG), human herpesvirus-6 antibody
(HHV-6-IgG), anti-MBP, and anti-NAFP. We found that measlesIgG and HHV-6-IgG titers were moderately higher in autistic children but they did not significantly differ from normal controls.
Moreover, we found that a vast majority of virus serology-positive
autistic sera was also positive for brain autoantibody: (i) 90% of
measles-IgG-positive autistic sera was also positive for anti-MBP;
(ii) 73% of measles-IgG-positive autistic sera was also positive
for anti-NAFP; (iii) 84% of HHV-6-IgG-positive autistic sera was
also positive for anti-MBP; and (iv) 72% of HHV-6-IgG-positive
autistic sera was also positive for anti-NAFP. This study is the first
to report an association between virus serology and brain autoantibody in autism; it supports the hypothesis that a virus-induced
autoimmune response may play a causal role in autism.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9756729

“This study is the first to report an
association between virus serology
and brain autoantibody in autism;
it supports the hypothesis that a
virus-induced autoimmune response
may play a causal role in autism.”

Pediatrics • November 1998

Report of a US public health service workshop on hypotonic-hyporesponsive episode (HHE)
after pertussis immunization
Author information
Braun MM1, Terracciano G, Salive ME, Blumberg DA, Vermeer-de Bondt PE, Heijbel H, Evans G, Patriarca PA, Ellenberg SS.
Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration
Rockville, MD 20852, USA
Abstract
Hypotonic-hyporesponsive episode (HHE) is a term used to describe a somewhat
heterogenous group of clinical disorders that have been reported primarily in association with whole-cell pertussis vaccination. A 1991 review by the Institute
of Medicine determined that the evidence available was indeed consistent with
a causal relation between whole-cell pertussis-diphtheria-tetanus immunization
and HHE, but that the evidence was insufficient to indicate a causal relationship
between HHE and the subsequent development of permanent neurologic damage.
More recent data from clinical trials conducted in Europe suggest that HHE also
occurs after vaccination with acellular pertussis vaccines. The US Food and Drug
Administration, in collaboration with the US Public Health Service, sponsored a
workshop on HHE in Rockville, Maryland, on June 19, 1997. The primary goals
of the workshop were to develop a case definition of HHE and to evaluate the general design and feasibility of possible studies of HHE using the federal Vaccine
Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a national passive surveillance system. The goals of such studies would be to understand better the acute HHE event
and to evaluate the possibility of long-term sequelae. Case Definition. There has
been no generally accepted definition of HHE, and a standard definition would be
useful for vaccine safety work and would potentially facilitate interstudy comparisons of the growing number of licensed vaccines containing acellular pertussis
components. The workshop defined HHE as an event of sudden onset occurring
within 48 hours of immunization, with duration of the episode ranging from 1
minute to 48 hours, in children younger than 10 years of age. All of the following
must be present: 1) limpness or hypotonia, 2) reduced responsiveness or hyporesponsiveness, and 3) pallor or cyanosis or failure to observe or to recall skin
coloration. HHE is not considered to have occurred if there is a known cause for

these signs (eg, postictal), if urticaria is present during the event, if normal skin
coloration is observed throughout the episode, or if the child is simply sleeping.
This inclusive (sensitive) case definition will allow investigators, through the technique of stratification according to certain characteristics (eg, time from vaccination to onset of HHE), to attempt to hone the definition and make it more specific.
Refinement of the definition of HHE has been hindered by the lack of information on its pathophysiology and by the lack of pathognomonic signs, symptoms,
and diagnostic tests. Another hindrance is that by the time the child presents for
medical evaluation, the signs of HHE often have normalized. Moreover, different mechanisms may be involved in different individuals whose events meet this
workshop’s HHE definition. Probably the most important question about HHE is
whether it has any permanent sequelae. The workshop assessed the possible contribution VAERS-based studies could make to answering this question and found
substantial methodologic problems; however, ongoing studies in Sweden and The
Netherlands have the potential to provide useful information on this question.
The most useful contribution of VAERS data would be in a descriptive study
of HHE, with a possible case-control study of factors that may affect the risk of
HHE after vaccination, rather than a study of possible permanent sequelae. The
workshop participants felt that a detailed descriptive study of approximately 100
HHE events reported during a 1- to 2-year period could provide a more in-depth
description of HHE cases in greater numbers than has been published previously,
but the study would not address the issue of long-term sequelae of HHE. Better
descriptive data may lead to new hypotheses concerning risk factors, etiology, and
pathophysiology of HHE that might be evaluated further by studying subsequent
cases and controls from VAERS or from other sources.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9794982

Journal Of Dental Research • November 1998

Toxicity of formaldehyde
to human oral fibroblasts and epithelial cells:
influences of culture conditions and role of thiol status
Author information
Nilsson JA1, Zheng X, Sundqvist K, Liu Y,
Atzori L, Elfwing A, Arvidson K, Grafström RC.
Division of Experimental Carcinogenesis
Institute of Environmental Medicine
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Abstract
The toxicity of formaldehyde, a monomer released from certain polymeric dental materials, was studied in cultured human oral fibroblasts and epithelial cells. The influences
of growth conditions were evaluated for both cell types, as well as the role of the internal
and external thiol states. A one-hour exposure to formaldehyde decreased the colonyforming efficiency (CFE) of both cell types in a concentration-dependent manner, although the toxicity varied up to 100-fold with the conditions. Clearly, the presence of
serum and the thiol cysteine counteracted the toxicity in fibroblasts. Similarly, pituitary
extract and cysteine, or a mixture of amino acids and ethanolamines, counteracted the
formaldehyde toxicity in serum-free cultures of epithelial cells. In contrast, a growthpromoting surface matrix of fibronectin and collagen did not influence the formaldehyde
toxicity, as shown by both the CFE assay and a dye reduction assay. Further, a shortterm change to the various growth media per se with or without the supplements serum
or cysteine did not significantly alter the CFE. Analysis of the thiol state demonstrated
significant differences between epithelial cells and fibroblasts, i.e., comparatively lower
cellular levels of the free low-molecular-weight thiols glutathione and cysteine in fibroblasts. This result correlated to significantly higher formaldehyde toxicity in the fibroblasts than in the epithelial cells. Taken together, the results indicated the cytoprotective
function of both intracellular and extracellular thiols toward formaldehyde, as well as
the usefulness of thiol-free and chemically defined conditions for toxicity assessments
in oral epithelial cells and fibroblasts. We conclude that the combined use of a controlled
external milieu and the presumed target cell type may be advantageous in evaluations
of oral toxicity mechanisms or the toxic potency of dental materials, particularly those
which, like formaldehyde, may react with thiols or amines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9823728

“A one-hour exposure to formaldehyde
decreased the colony-forming efficiency
of both cell types in a concentration-dependent
manner, although the toxicity varied up
to 100-fold with the conditions.”

Scandinavian Journal Of Immunology • January 1999

Identification of arthritogenic adjuvants
of self and foreign origin
Author information
Lorentzen JC.
Department of Medicine, Karolinska Hospital
Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
Abstract
The lack of defined triggers for human inflammatory joint diseases warrants
efforts to identify candidate molecules. For this task, it may be an important
lead that nonspecific activation of the immune system can precipitate arthritis in rats. Consequently, arthritis-prone rat strains were used to search for
disease-triggering factors among molecules which initially induce innate
defence reactions rather than specific immune responses. A variety of immunological adjuvants were investigated by intradermal injection into DA
and LEW.1AV1 rats and monitoring of clinical signs for 30 days. Several
arthritogenic cell-wall structures from yeast and bacteria were identified,
such as beta-glucan, lipopolysaccharide and trehalosedimycolate. The test
procedures also revealed arthritogens of chemical origin, such as dioctadecyldiammoniumbromide (DDA = C38H80NBr) and heptadecane (C17H36).
Furthermore, it allowed the precise definition of arthritogenic determinants
of lipids, since C16H34 induced arthritis, whereas the closely related linear hydrocarbons C16H32, C16H33Br and C15H32 did not. The observed
pathogenicity of organic lipids raised the question of whether endogenous
lipids can also precipitate arthritis. Indeed, this was true for the cholesterol
precursor squalene (C30H50). In conclusion, this article describes the rational use of arthritis-prone rat strains to identify arthritogenic factors of
both foreign and self origin. Although structurally unrelated, the pathogenic
molecules defined here share the feature of being nonspecific triggers of the
immune system. This consolidates a general principle for the induction of
adjuvant arthritis which may provide clues to the aetiology of human arthritides, including rheumatoid arthritis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10023856

“The observed pathogenicity
of organic lipids raised the question of whether
endogenous lipids can also precipitate arthritis.
Indeed, this was true for the
cholesterol precursor squalene ...”

Archives Of Toxicology • February 1999

Effects of 2-phenoxyethanol
on N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)
receptor-mediated ion currents
Author information
Musshoff U1, Madeja M, Binding N, Witting U, Speckmann EJ.
Institut für Physiologie
Universität Münster, Germany
mushoff@uni-muenster.de
Abstract
The actions were examined of 17 frequently used glycol ether compounds on the glutamate receptor-mediated ion currents. The receptors
were expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injection of rat brain mRNA.
Most of the 17 glycol ethers exerted no effects on the glutamate subreceptors activated by kainate and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA),
whereas 2-phenoxyethanol (ethylene glycol monophenyl ether) caused
a considerable reduction of NMDA-induced membrane currents in a reversible and concentration-dependent manner. The threshold concentration of the ethylene glycol monophenyl ether effect was < 10 mumol/l.
The concentration for a 50% inhibition (IC50) was approximately 360
mumol/l. The results indicate a neurotoxic potential for 2-phenoxyethanol.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10207615

“The results indicate
a neurotoxic potential for 2-phenoxyethanol.”
[2-phenoxyethanol is a vaccine ingredient]

Epidemiology • May 1999

Hepatitis B vaccine and liver problems
in U.S. children less than 6 years old
1993 and 1994
Author information
Fisher MA1, Eklund SA.
Department of Epidemiology
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor 48109, USA
Abstract
Data to assess the benefits and risks of hepatitis B vaccine for the general population of U.S. children are sparse. This study addressed the problem of external validity found in previous studies of high risk populations by evaluating
the benefit of hepatitis B vaccination for the general population of American
children. We calculated the risk of liver problems among hepatitis B vaccinated and non-hepatitis B vaccinated children using logistic regression. Hepatitis
B vaccinated children had an unadjusted odds ratio of 2.94 and age-adjusted
odds ratio of 2.35 for liver problems compared with non-hepatitis B vaccinated children in the 1993 National Health Interview Survey. Hepatitis B vaccinated children had an unadjusted odds ratio of 2.57 and age-adjusted odds
ratio of 1.53 for liver problems compared with non-hepatitis B vaccinated
children in the 1994 National Health Interview Survey dataset.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10230847

“Hepatitis B vaccinated children
had an unadjusted odds ratio of 2.94
and age-adjusted odds ratio of 2.35 for
liver problems compared with non-hepatitis B
vaccinated children in the 1993 National
Health Interview Survey.”

Vaccine • July 1999

An overview
of the vaccine adverse event reporting system
(VAERS)
as a surveillance system
VAERS Working Group
Author information
Singleton JA1, Lloyd JC, Mootrey GT, Salive ME, Chen RT.
Vaccine Safety and Development Activity
National Immunization Program
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
Abstract
We evaluated the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), the spontaneous reporting system for vaccine-associated adverse events in the United States,
as a public health surveillance system, using evaluation guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. We found that VAERS is simple for reporters to use, flexible by design and its data are available in a timely fashion. The
predictive value positive for one severe event is known to be high, but for most
events is unknown. The acceptability, sensitivity and representativeness of VAERS
are unknown. The study of vaccine safety is complicated by underreporting, erroneous reporting, frequent multiple exposures and multiple outcomes.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10438063

“The acceptability, sensitivity
and representativeness of VAERS
are unknown. The study of vaccine
safety is complicated by underreporting,
erroneous reporting, frequent multiple
exposures and multiple outcomes.”

“... A non specific permeabilization of the Blood Brain Barrier ...”
Pharmaceutical Research • December 1999

Indirect evidence
that drug brain targeting using polysorbate 80-coated
polybutylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles is related to toxicity
Author information
Olivier JC1, Fenart L, Chauvet R, Pariat C, Cecchelli R, Couet W.
Laboratoire de Pharmacie Galénique et Biopharmacie UPRES EA 1223 34, Poitiers, France
jc.olivier@campus.univ-poitiers.fr
Abstract
PURPOSE
To investigate the mechanism underlying the entry of the analgesic peptide dalargin into brain
using biodegradable polybutylcyanoacrylate (PBCA) nanoparticles (NP) overcoated with
polysorbate 80.
METHODS
The investigations were carried out with PBCA NP and with non biodegradable polystyrene
(PS) NP (200 nm diameter). Dalargin adsorption was assessed by HPLC. Its entry into the CNS
in mice was evaluated using the tail-flick procedure. Locomotor activity measurements were
performed to compare NP toxicities. BBB permeabilization by PBCA NP was studied in vitro
using a coculture of bovine brain capillary endothelial cells and rat astrocytes.
RESULTS
Dalargin loading was 11.7 microg/mg on PBCA NP and 16.5 microg/ mg on PS NP. Adding
polysorbate 80 to NP led to a complete desorption. Nevertheless, dalargin associated with
PBCA NP and polysorbate 80 induced a potent and prolonged analgesia, which could not be
obtained using PS NP in place of PBCA NP. Locomotor activity dramatically decreased in
mice dosed with PBCA NP, but not with PS NP. PBCA NP also caused occasional mortality. In
vitro, PBCA NP (10 microg/ml) induced a permeabilization of the BBB model.
CONCLUSIONS
A non specific permeabilization of the BBB, probably related to the toxicity of the carrier, may
account for the CNS penetration of dalargin associated with PBCA NP and polysorbate 80.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10644071

Acta Paediatrica • January 2000

Gait disturbance
interpreted as cerebellar ataxia
after MMR vaccination at 15 months of age:
a follow-up study
Author information
Plesner AM1, Hansen FJ, Taudorf K,
Nielsen LH, Larsen CB, Pedersen E.
Department of Epidemiology
Statens Serum Institute
Copenhagen, Denmark
Abstract
Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccination was included in the
Danish childhood vaccination programme in 1987. During the following
10-y period, 550 notification records of adverse events after MMR vaccination at 15 mo of age have been registered, and a total of 41 notifications
have included “gait disturbance”. This corresponds to a frequency of 8 per
100,000 doses of MMR vaccine used for 15-mo-old children. The symptoms and signs are characteristic of cerebellar ataxia. In 28 notifications,
the descriptions by the doctors included only “gait disturbance”, while in
13 an additional interpretation was included. Thirty-two parents (78%)
filled in a questionnaire and 26 (63%) agreed to participate in a clinical
follow-up study. The gait disturbance symptoms mainly occurred 7-14 d
after the vaccination, and the duration was median 1-2 wk (range 1 d to
more than 4 mo). One-third of the children had symptoms lasting more
than 2 wk. Significantly more children with long duration of symptoms
had some kind of complaint or clinical signs at the follow-up in 1997. Gait
disturbance registered after MMR vaccination seems to be more frequent
than hitherto reported. Most cases are mild and short-lasting and a longer
duration of symptoms seems to be predictive of late sequelae. A clinical
diagnosis of cerebellar ataxia after MMR and the exact frequency of this
adverse event remains to be tested in prospective studies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10677059

“Gait disturbance registered
after MMR vaccination seems
to be more frequent than
hitherto reported. Most cases
are mild and short-lasting and
a longer duration of symptoms
seems to be predictive of
late sequelae.”

Clinical And Experimental Rheumatology • January 2000

Immune-mediated pathology
following hepatitis B vaccination.
Two cases of polyarteritis nodosa and
one case of pityriasis rosea-like drug eruption
Author information
De Keyser F1, Naeyaert JM, Hindryckx P, Elewaut D,
Verplancke P, Peene I, Praet M, Veys E.
Department of Rheumatology
University Hospital Gent, Belgium
Filip.Dekeyser@rug.ac.be
Abstract
The association of hepatitis B virus infection and vasculitis or other immunemediated manifestations is well documented. Reports on such manifestations
in relation to hepatitis B vaccination are scarce, however. We report 2 patients
who developed polyarteritis nodosa following vaccination against hepatitis B.
In one patient this resulted in an ischemic and necrotic digital ulcus, necessitating surgical amputation. The other patient presented with typical cutaneous
polyarteritis nodosa which responded well to corticosteroid treatment. A third
patient developed a severe pityrias rosea-like eruption. He was treated with
topical steroids with healing of the lesions, leaving only post-inflammatory
hyperpigmentation. The literature on these associations is reviewed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10728450

“We report 2 patients who developed polyarteritis nodosa
following vaccination against hepatitis B. In one patient this
resulted in an ischemic and necrotic digital ulcus, necessitating
surgical amputation. The other patient presented with typical
cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa which responded well to
corticosteroid treatment. A third patient developed a severe
pityrias rosea-like eruption. He was treated with topical steroids
with healing of the lesions, leaving only post-inflammatory
hyperpigmentation.”

Journal Of Autoimmunity • February 2000

Vaccination and autoimmunity’vaccinosis’: a dangerous liaison?
Author information
Shoenfeld Y1, Aron-Maor A.
Department of Internal Medicine B,
Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
shoefel@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
The question of a connection between vaccination and autoimmune illness
(or phenomena) is surrounded by controversy. A heated debate is going on
regarding the causality between vaccines, such as measles and anti-hepatitis
B virus (HBV), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Brain antibodies as well as
clinical symptoms have been found in patients vaccinated against those diseases. Other autoimmune illnesses have been associated with vaccinations.
Tetanus toxoid, influenza vaccines, polio vaccine, and others, have been
related to phenomena ranging from autoantibodies production to full-blown
illness (such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA)). Conflicting data exists regarding
also the connection between autism and vaccination with measles vaccine.
So far only one controlled study of an experimental animal model has been
published, in which the possible causal relation between vaccines and autoimmune findings has been examined: in healthy puppies immunized with
a variety of commonly given vaccines, a variety of autoantibodies have
been documented but no frank autoimmune illness was recorded. The findings could also represent a polyclonal activation (adjuvant reaction). The
mechanism (or mechanisms) of autoimmune reactions following immunization has not yet been elucidated. One of the possibilities is molecular
mimicry; when a structural similarity exists between some viral antigen
(or other component of the vaccine) and a self-antigen. This similarity may
be the trigger to the autoimmune reaction. Other possible mechanisms are
discussed. Even though the data regarding the relation between vaccination
and autoimmune disease is conflicting, it seems that some autoimmune phenomena are clearly related to immunization (e.g. Guillain-Barre syndrome).
The issue of the risk of vaccination remains a philosophical one, since to
date the advantages of this policy have not been refuted, while the risk for
autoimmune disease has not been irrevocably proved. We discuss the pros
and cons of this issue (although the temporal relationship (i.e. always 2-3
months following immunization) is impressive).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10648110

“Even though the data regarding
the relation between vaccination
and autoimmune disease is conflicting,
it seems that some autoimmune
phenomena are clearly related to
immunization (e.g. Guillain-Barre syndrome).”

Journal Of Manipulative And Physiological Therapeutics • February 2000

Effects of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis
or tetanus vaccination on allergies and allergy-related
respiratory symptoms among children and adolescents
in the United States
Author information
Hurwitz EL1, Morgenstern H.
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Findings from animal and human studies confirm that diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis (DTP) and tetanus vaccinations induce allergic responses; associations between childhood vaccinations and subsequent allergies have been reported recently.

“DTP or tetanus vaccination

OBJECTIVE
The association of DTP or tetanus vaccination with allergies and allergy-related respiratory
symptoms among children and adolescents in the United States was assessed.

and related respiratory symptoms

METHODS
Data were used from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey on infants
aged 2 months through adolescents aged 16 years. DTP or tetanus vaccination, lifetime allergy history, and allergy symptoms in the past 12 months were based on parental or guardian
recall. Logistic regression modeling was performed to estimate the effects of DTP or tetanus
vaccination on each allergy.
RESULTS
The odds of having a history of asthma was twice as great among vaccinated subjects than
among unvaccinated subjects (adjusted odds ratio, 2.00; 95% confidence interval, 0.59 to
6.74). The odds of having had any allergy-related respiratory symptom in the past 12 months
was 63% greater among vaccinated subjects than unvaccinated subjects (adjusted odds ratio,
1.63; 95% confidence interval, 1.05 to 2.54). The associations between vaccination and subsequent allergies and symptoms were greatest among children aged 5 through 10 years.
CONCLUSIONS
DTP or tetanus vaccination appears to increase the risk of allergies and related respiratory
symptoms in children and adolescents. Although it is unlikely that these results are entirely
because of any sources of bias, the small number of unvaccinated subjects and the study design limit our ability to make firm causal inferences about the true magnitude of effect.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10714532

appears to increase the risk of allergies

in children and adolescents.”

American Journal Of Epidemiology • March 2000

Outbreak of aseptic meningitis
associated with mass vaccination
with a urabe-containing measles-mumps-rubella vaccine:
implications for immunization programs
Author information
Dourado I1, Cunha S, Teixeira MG,
Farrington CP, Melo A, Lucena R, Barreto ML.
Instituto de Saúde Coletiva
Universidade Federal da Bahia
Salvador, Brazil
Abstract
A mass immunization campaign with a Urabe-containing measles-mumps-rubella vaccine
was carried out in 1997 in the city of Salvador, northeastern Brazil, with a target population of children aged 1-11 years. There was an outbreak of aseptic meningitis following the
mass campaign. Cases of aseptic meningitis were ascertained through data collected from
the records of children admitted to the local referral hospital for infectious diseases between March and October of 1997, using previously defined eligibility criteria. Vaccination
histories were obtained through home visits or telephone calls. Eighty-seven cases fulfilled
the study criteria. Of those, 58 cases were diagnosed after the vaccination campaign. An
elevated risk of aseptic meningitis was observed 3 weeks after Brazil’s national vaccination
day compared with the risk in the prevaccination period (relative risk = 14.3; 95% confidence interval: 7.9, 25.7). This result was confirmed by a case series analysis (relative risk
= 30.4; 95% confidence interval: 11.5, 80.8). The estimated risk of aseptic meningitis was
1 in 14,000 doses. This study confirms a link between measles-mumps-rubella vaccination
and aseptic meningitis. The authors discuss the implications of this for the organization and
planning of mass immunization campaigns.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10707922
Full Report: http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/151/5/524.long

“An elevated risk of aseptic meningitis was observed 3
weeks after Brazil’s national vaccination day compared
with the risk in the prevaccination period (relative risk =
14.3; 95% confidence interval: 7.9, 25.7). This result was
confirmed by a case series analysis (relative risk = 30.4;
95% confidence interval: 11.5, 80.8). The estimated risk
of aseptic meningitis was 1 in 14,000 doses. This study
confirms a link between measles-mumps-rubella
vaccination and aseptic meningitis.”

The Israel Medical Association Journal • March 2000

Gender differences in the reactogenicity
of measles-mumps-rubella vaccine
Author information
Shohat T1, Green MS, Nakar O, Ballin A,
Duvdevani P, Cohen A, Shohat M.
Israel Center for Disease Control
Gertner Institute for Policy Research
Tel-Hashomer, Israel
shohat@trendline.co.il
Abstract
BACKGROUND
In trials comparing different formulations of measles vaccine, excess non-specific mortality
occurred in female children who received high titer vaccine. These findings suggest a genderspecific effect of measles vaccine.
OBJECTIVES
To determine whether gender differences exist in the rates of adverse reactions and morbidity
in the month following immunization with measles-containing vaccine, and to evaluate whether there is a gender-specific association between the humoral immune response to measles
vaccination and post-vaccination morbidity.
METHODS
Parents completed questionnaires on the health status of 755 infants aged 15-20 months, during the month preceding and the month following the measles-mumps-rubella vaccination.
Blood samples were tested for measles antibody titers in a subsample of 237 infants.

“Our findings demonstrate
higher rates of adverse effects
in females following vaccination
with MMR vaccine, irrespective
of the humoral response. This study

RESULTS
After controlling background morbidity in the infants, the relative risk of fever and rash following vaccination was 2.35 in females and 1.36 in males. The geometric mean antibody titers
against measles were similar in both sexes and there was no significant association between
antibody titer and post-vaccination morbidity in either sex.

emphasizes the need to consider

CONCLUSIONS
Our findings demonstrate higher rates of adverse effects in females following vaccination with
MMR vaccine, irrespective of the humoral response. This study emphasizes the need to consider possible gender differences when evaluating new vaccines.

evaluating new vaccines.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10774264
Full Report: http://www.ima.org.il/FilesUpload/IMAJ/0/61/30887.pdf

possible gender differences when

Digestive Diseases And Science • April 2000

Detection and sequencing of measles virus
from peripheral mononuclear cells from
patients with inflammatory bowel disease and autism
Author information
Kawashima H1, Mori T, Kashiwagi Y,
Takekuma K, Hoshika A, Wakefield A.
Department of Paediatrics
Tokyo Medical University, Japan
Abstract
It has been reported that measles virus may be present in the intestine of patients
with Crohn’s disease. Additionally, a new syndrome has been reported in children
with autism who exhibited developmental regression and gastrointestinal symptoms (autistic enterocolitis), in some cases soon after MMR vaccine. It is not known
whether the virus, if confirmed to be present in these patients, derives from either wild strains or vaccine strains. In order to characterize the strains that may be
present, we have carried out the detection of measles genomic RNA in peripheral
mononuclear cells (PBMC) in eight patients with Crohn’s disease, three patients
with ulcerative colitis, and nine children with autistic enterocolitis. As controls, we
examined healthy children and patients with SSPE, SLE, HIV-1 (a total of eight
cases). RNA was purified from PBMC by Ficoll-paque, followed by reverse transcription using AMV; cDNAs were subjected to nested PCR for detection of specific regions of the hemagglutinin (H) and fusion (F) gene regions. Positive samples
were sequenced directly, in nucleotides 8393-8676 (H region) or 5325-5465 (from
noncoding F to coding F region). One of eight patients with Crohn disease, one of
three patients with ulcerative colitis, and three of nine children with autism, were
positive. Controls were all negative. The sequences obtained from the patients with
Crohn’s disease shared the characteristics with wild-strain virus. The sequences
obtained from the patients with ulcerative colitis and children with autism were
consistent with being vaccine strains. The results were concordant with the exposure history of the patients. Persistence of measles virus was confirmed in PBMC in
some patients with chronic intestinal inflammation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10759242

“The sequences obtained
from the patients with ulcerative colitis
and children with autism were consistent with
being vaccine strains. The results were concordant
with the exposure history of the patients.
Persistence of measles virus was confirmed
in PBMC in some patients with
chronic intestinal inflammation.”

BMJ • May 2000

Role of vaccinations
as risk factors for ill health in veterans of the Gulf war:
cross sectional study
Author information
Hotopf M1, David A, Hull L, Ismail K, Unwin C, Wessely S.
Gulf War Research Unit
King’s College and St Thomas’s School of Medicine
King’s College London, London SE5 8AZ
m.hotopf@iop.kcl.ac.uk
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
To explore the relation between ill health after the Gulf war and vaccines received before or during the conflict. To test
the hypothesis that such ill health is limited to military personnel who received multiple vaccines during deployment and
that pesticide use modifies any effect.
DESIGN
Cross sectional study of Gulf war veterans followed for six to eight years after deployment.
SETTING
UK armed forces.
PARTICIPANTS
Military personnel who served in the Gulf and who still had their vaccine records.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES
Multisymptom illness as classified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; fatigue; psychological distress;
post-traumatic stress reaction; health perception; and physical functioning.
RESULTS
The response rate for the original survey was 70.4% (n=3284). Of these, 28% (923) had vaccine records. Receipt of
multiple vaccines before deployment was associated with only one of the six health outcomes (post-traumatic stress reaction). By contrast five of the six outcomes (all but post-traumatic stress reaction) were associated with multiple vaccines
received during deployment. The strongest association was for the multisymptom illness (odds ratio 5.0; 95% confidence
interval 2.5 to 9.8).
CONCLUSION
Among veterans of the Gulf war there is a specific relation between multiple vaccinations given during deployment and
later ill health. Multiple vaccinations in themselves do not seem to be harmful but combined with the “stress” of deployment they may be associated with adverse health outcomes. These results imply that every effort should be made to
maintain routine vaccines during peacetime.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC27378/

“Among veterans of the Gulf war
there is a specific relation between
multiple vaccinations given during
deployment and later ill health.”

American Journal Of Pathology • June 2000

The Endogenous Adjuvant Squalene
Can Induce a Chronic T-Cell-Mediated Arthritis in Rats
Barbro C. Carlson,* Åsa M. Jansson,*
Anders Larsson,† Anders Bucht,‡* and Johnny C. Lorentzen*
From the Department of Medicine,*
Unit of Rheumatology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm
the Department of Medical Sciences,†
University Hospital, Uppsala
and the Department of Biomedicine,‡
Division of NBC Defense, Defense Research Establishment
Umeå, Sweden
Abstract
Squalene is a cholesterol precursor, which stimulates the immune system nonspecifically. We demonstrate that one intradermal injection of this adjuvant lipid can induce
joint-specific inflammation in arthritis-prone DA rats. Histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses revealed erosion of bone and cartilage, and that development
of polyarthritis coincided with infiltration of ∼∼+ T cells. Depletion of these cells with
anti-∼∼ TcR monoclonal antibody (R73) resulted in complete recovery, whereas antiCD8 and anti-∼∼ TcR injections were ineffective. The apparent dependence on CD4+
T cells suggested a role for genes within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC),
and this was concluded from comparative studies of MHC congenic rat strains, in which
DA.1H rats were less susceptible than DA rats. Furthermore, LEW.1AV1 and PVG.1AV1
rats with MHC identical to DA rats were arthritis-resistant, demonstrating that non-MHC
genes also determine susceptibility. Some of these genetic influences could be linked
to previously described arthritis susceptibility loci in an F2 intercross between DA and
LEW.1AV1 rats (ie, Cia3, Oia2 and Cia5). Interestingly, some F2 hybrid rats developed
chronic arthritis, a phenotype not apparent in the parental inbred strains. Our demonstration that an autoadjuvant can trigger chronic, immune-mediated joint-specific inflammation may give clues to the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis, and it raises new questions concerning the role of endogenous molecules with adjuvant properties in chronic
inflammatory diseases.
In conclusion, arthritis induced with the cholesterol precursor squalene shares notable
similarities with rheumatoid arthritis, and raises interesting questions concerning the role
of endogenous molecules with adjuvant properties in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1850095/

“arthritis induced with the
cholesterol precursor squalene shares
notable similarities with rheumatoid arthritis,
and raises interesting questions concerning the role
of endogenous molecules with adjuvant properties in
chronic inflammatory diseases.”

First International Conference on Metals & The Brain
September 20-23, 2000
From Neurochemistry to Neurodegeneration
University of Padova, Italy

Aluminum And Health
Recommendations
Aluminum is an environmentally abundant element to which we are all
exposed. The neurotoxicity of this metal has been known for more than
a century. More recently, it has been implicated as an etiological factor
in some pathologies (including encephalopathy, bone disease, anemia)
related to dialysis treatment . In addition, it has been hypothesized to be
a cofactor in the etiopathogenesis of some neurodegenerative diseases,
including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), although, despite many studies
in several laboratories in different countries, direct evidence is still, so
far controversial. Thus, examples of aluminum neurotoxicity are well
recognized-in experimental animals and in individuals with renal failure (consequent upon aging, intoxication or renal disease) - and there
are grounds to link neurodegenerative disorders to aluminum exposure.
Furthermore, an increased concentration of Al in infant formulas and in
solutions for home parenteral nutrition has been associated with neurological consequences and metabolic bone disease, characterized by
low-bone formation rate, respectively.
For all these reasons and on the basis of our many years of scientific
experience in this field, we propose the following recommendations as
guidelines to avoid risks due to aluminum accumulation and potential
intoxication. These recommendations are not rigid and will be updated
when relevant new scientific data is available.
General Recommendations
1. It would be valuable to define as completely as possible which patient
groups are at risk for iatrogenic aluminum loading, and under which
conditions aluminum represents a health hazard. The more complete
knowledge we have for the clinical, iatrogenic setting, the better basis
we will have to judge whether different types of aluminum exposure
are hazardous to the general population or to susceptible subgroups.
2. A provisional list of patients groups at risk of iatrogenic aluminum
loading should include, at least, people with impaired renal function,

infants, old people and patients on total home parenteral nutrition.
Where such exposure occurs, serum aluminum concentrations should
be less than 30 μg/l and possibly lower. However, further studies are
necessary.

8. It is recommended that acidic food, e.g., acid cabbage, tomato, etc.
should not be cooked or stored in aluminum ware. In this connection,
it has been demonstrated that in the juice of acidic cabbage, cooked in
aluminum, the metal ion content is up to 20 mg/ L.

3. Urinary aluminum is also an indicator of aluminum absorption, the
excreted Al/retained Al ratio depends on the integrity of the renal function.

9. Individual susceptibility to aluminum has been reported by the scientific literature. Thus, special efforts should be taken to prevent contamination of food and beverages etc. with aluminum either directly or during preparation, with special regard to infants, old people or individuals
with suboptimal renal functionality.

4. Al may enter human body by mouth, intravenous infusions and by
environment. Specific controls have to be adopted in order to reduce
each risk of exposure.
Oral Exposure
5. Aluminum in drinking water should be less than 50 μg L-1. Silicon
is relevant to aluminum toxicity and, therefore, the water silicon concentrations should be monitored in parallel.
6. The aluminum content should be declared in all food preparations
and pharmacological products.
7. Citrate-containing compounds appear to increase the bioavailability
of ingested aluminum. Therefore, particular care should be taken to
avoid these compounds in combination with Al-containing drugs. With
citric acid, the enhanced gastrointestinal absorption may by compensated for by a parallel increase in urinary Al excretion, where there
is good renal function. However, it is strongly suspected from recent
simulation studies that other dietary acids (e.g., succinic and tartaric acids) also increase Al-bioavailability but do not cause any compensatory
increase in urinary excretion. Ascorbate and lactate also significantly
enhance gastrointestinal absorption of Al, as was recently demonstrated in animal studies.
www.laleva.cc/environment/aluminum_health.html

10. Magnesium depletion is considered a high risk for aluminum accumulation especially during pregnancy and in the neonate with possible
consequent problems for normal development and growth. Magnesium
depletion is also common with aging.
11. Iron depletion is considered a high risk for aluminium accumulation, as iron and Al share common carriers.
Parenteral Exposure
12. Aluminum in all intravenous (i.v.) fluids should be controlled monitored and labeled. There is a general consensus that the aluminum content of i.v. fluids used in children and adults with renal failure or undergoing dialysis, should be as low as possible and in any case no higher
than 10 μg/L.
13. The use of parenteral nutrition fluids that are high in aluminum
should be eliminated or significantly reduced.
This document will be published in relevant scientific journals, and will
be sent to all Health Ministers of the European Community as well as
to other Public Health Authorities. (FDA, WHO etc.). For further information, please contact Prof. P. Zatta: zatta@civ.bio.unipd.it

BMJ • December 2000

Routine vaccinations
and child survival:
follow up study in
Guinea-Bissau, West Africa
Ines Kristensen, physician,a Peter Aaby, anthropologist,a and
Henrik Jensen, statisticianb
aBandim Health Project, Apartado 861, Bissau
Guinea-Bissau, bDanish Epidemiology Science Centre
Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
Contributors: IK supervised the last year of data
collection and wrote the first draft of the paper.
HJ supervised data control and carried out the statistical analyses. PA initiated the study, supervised data collection, carried
out the first analyses, and wrote the final version of the paper.
HJ and PA will act as guarantors.
Abstract

Main Outcome Measures
Infant mortality over six months (between age 0-6
months and 7-13 months for BCG, diphtheria, tetanus,
and pertussis, and polio vaccines and between 7-13
months and 14-20 months for measles vaccine).
Results
Mortality was lower in the group vaccinated with any vaccine compared with those not vaccinated, the mortality
ratio being 0.74 (95% confidence interval 0.53 to 1.03).
After cluster, age, and other vaccines were adjusted for,
BCG was associated with significantly lower mortality
(0.55 (0.36 to 0.85)). However, recipients of one dose of
diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis or polio vaccines had
higher mortality than children who had received none of
these vaccines (1.84 (1.10 to 3.10) for diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis). Recipients of measles vaccine had a
mortality ratio of 0.48 (0.27 to 0.87). When deaths from
measles were excluded from the analysis the mortality
ratio was 0.51 (0.28 to 0.95). Estimates were unchanged
by controls for background factors.

Design
Follow up study.

Conclusions
These trends are unlikely to be explained exclusively by
selection biases since different vaccines were associated
with opposite tendencies. Measles and BCG vaccines
may have beneficial effects in addition to protection
against measles and tuberculosis. Diphtheria, tetanus,
and pertussis and polio vaccines were associated with
higher infant mortality.

Participants
15 351 women and their children born during 1990 and 1996.

Full Report:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC27544/

Objective
To examine the association between routine childhood
vaccinations and survival among infants in Guinea-Bissau.

Setting
Rural Guinea-Bissau.

“Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis
and polio vaccines were associated
with higher infant mortality.”

“... in rats, the pertussis component of DTPoP
acts on the cardiovascular system and disturbs its circadian rhythm.”
Laboratory Animals • 2000

Disturbance of cardiovascular circadian rhythms
by pertussis vaccine in freely-moving rats
W. Vleeming, A. van de Kuil, J. D. te Biesebeek,
J. W. van der Laan, D. J. de Wildt & J. G. C. van Amsterdam
National Institute of Public Health and the Environment
Laboratory of Health Effects Research
PO Box 1, NL 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Summary
Vaccination of young children with diphtheria, tetanus, poliomyelitis and pertussis (DTPoP) vaccine is effective
in preventing outbreaks of whooping cough but adverse events sometimes occur. This pilot study shows that in
freely-moving rats, multiple treatment with DTPoP (at day 0 and day 5, 6 ml/kg i.v.) increased heart rate (HR)
for 5 days after the first treatment and decreased diastolic blood pressure (DBP)for at least 26 days after the first
treatment and inhibited the circadian rhythm of HR and DBP for at least 10 days. DTPo vaccine, containing no
pertussis vaccine, was free of such effects. Thus, in rats, the pertussis component of DTPoP acts on the cardiovascular system and disturbs its circadian rhythm. The contribution of these findings to clinical adverse effects is as
yet unknown and needs further research.
http://lan.sagepub.com/content/34/4/399.long

Veterinary Pathology • March 2001

Feline vaccine-associated fibrosarcoma:
an ultrastructural study of 20 tumors 1996-1999
Author information
Madewell BR1, Griffey SM, McEntee MC, Leppert VJ, Munn RJ.
Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California, Davis 95616 USA
brmadewell@ucdavis.edu
Abstract
Twenty feline vaccine-associated sarcomas were examined by transmission electron microscopy. Tumors contained pleomorphic spindle cells, histiocytoid cells, and giant cells. Most tumors contained myofibroblasts, which
had morphologic features similar to those of fibroblasts. These cells were further distinguished by subplasmalemmal dense plaques and thin cytoplasmic actin myofilaments organized as elongated bundles concentrated at
irregular intervals forming characteristic dense bodies. Intracellular crystalline particulate material was found in
5 of the 20 tumors. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy was used to identify the crystalline material within one
tumor as aluminum-based. One tumor from a feline leukemia virus-infected cat contained budding and immature
retroviral particles.
In one of the first reports of feline vaccine-associated sarcomas, dense crystalline material was recognized by
electron microscopy within macrophages surrounding tumor cells.9 Subsequent electron-probe microanalytical
studies demonstrated aluminum in the cytoplasm of the macrophages within these sarcomas, suggesting the role
of aluminum-containing adjuvant as irritant in the pathogenesis of vaccine-associated sarcomas.9 The role of
vaccine adjuvant in the etiopathogenesis of these tumors remains unclear. The most prevalent adjuvants used in
licensed veterinary vaccines are aluminum salts and oil emulsions; all of these formulations are considered to act
as depots for injected vaccines.1 Aluminum hydroxide adjuvants are used in many human and veterinary vaccines, presumably because of their safety and low cost. Aluminum has been detected at the site of subcutaneous
injections for up to 1 year in animals.3 That the tissues collected in this study represented tumors that developed
months to years after vaccination when the precise site of vaccination was unknown and that most tumors were
several centimeters in diameter or greater at the time of excision suggest that a large amount of aluminum, indeed,
was contained within these adjuvanted vaccines to allow its detection in randomly selected ultrathin (60–90 nm
thick) tissue sections examined in the electron microscope.
The results of this study support previous morphologic observations of feline vaccine-associated sarcomas. The
role of the myofibroblast in vaccine-associated sarcomas is unclear but perhaps reflects a continuum of the inflammatory response that characterizes, in part, these unique neoplasms. The role of adjuvant, similarly, in these
tumors is unknown.
Full Report: http://vet.sagepub.com/content/38/2/196.long

“The results of this study
support previous morphologic observations
of feline vaccine-associated sarcomas. The role
of the myofibroblast in vaccine-associated sarcomas is
unclear but perhaps reflects a continuum of the
inflammatory response that characterizes, in part,
these unique neoplasms. The role of adjuvant,
similarly, in these tumors is unknown.”

Brain • May 2001

Central nervous system disease
in patients with macrophagic myofasciitis
Author information
Authier FJ1, Cherin P, Creange A, Bonnotte B,
Ferrer X, Abdelmoumni A, Ranoux D, Pelletier J,
Figarella-Branger D, Granel B, Maisonobe T, Coquet M,
Degos JD, Gherardi RK.
Groupe d’Etudes et de Recherches sur le Muscle et le Nerf
(GERMEN, EA Université Paris XII-Val de Marne)
Faculté de Médecine de Créteil, Département de Pathologie
Hôpital Henri Mondor, AP-HP, Créteil, France
authier@univ-paris12.fr
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF), a condition newly recognized in France, is manifested by
diffuse myalgias and characterized by highly specific myopathological alterations which have recently been shown to represent an unusually persistent local reaction to intramuscular injections
of aluminium-containing vaccines. Among 92 MMF patients recognized so far, eight of them,
which included the seven patients reported here, had a symptomatic demyelinating CNS disorder.
CNS manifestations included hemisensory or sensorimotor symptoms (four out of seven), bilateral pyramidal signs (six out of seven), cerebellar signs (four out of seven), visual loss (two out
of seven), cognitive and behavioural disorders (one out of seven) and bladder dysfunction (one
out of seven). Brain T(2)-weighted MRI showed single (two out of seven) or multiple (four out
of seven) supratentorial white matter hyperintense signals and corpus callosum atrophy (one out
of seven). Evoked potentials were abnormal in four out of six patients and CSF in four out of
seven. According to Poser’s criteria for multiple sclerosis, the diagnosis was clinically definite
(five out of seven) or clinically probable multiple sclerosis (two out of seven). Six out of seven
patients had diffuse myalgias. Deltoid muscle biopsy showed stereotypical accumulations of PAS
(periodic acid-Schiff)-positive macrophages, sparse CD8+ T cells and minimal myofibre damage. Aluminium-containing vaccines had been administered 3-78 months (median = 33 months)
before muscle biopsy (hepatitis B virus: four out of seven, tetanus toxoid: one out of seven, both
hepatitis B virus and tetanus toxoid: two out of seven). The association between MMF and multiple sclerosis-like disorders may give new insights into the controversial issues surrounding vaccinations and demyelinating CNS disorders. Deltoid muscle biopsy searching for myopathological
alterations of MMF should be performed in multiple sclerosis patients with diffuse myalgias.
Full Report
http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/124/5/974

“Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF),
a condition newly recognized in France,
is manifested by diffuse myalgias and characterized by
highly specific myopathological alterations which have recently
been shown to represent an unusually persistent local reaction
to intramuscular injections of aluminium-containing vaccines.
Among 92 MMF patients recognized so far, eight of them, which
included the seven patients reported here, had a symptomatic
demyelinating Central Nervous System disorder.”

Current Atherosclerosis Reports • July 2001

Antiphospholipid syndrome,
antiphospholipid antibodies,
and atherosclerosis
Author information
Sherer Y1, Shoenfeld Y.
Department of Medicine ‘B’
Sheba Medical Center
Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
Abstract
The antiphospholipid syndrome is characterized by arterial and venous thrombosis, as well as pregnancy morbidity, in the presence of
elevated levels of antiphospholipid antibodies. These autoantibodies
have procoagulant activity, as they affect platelets, humoral coagulation factors, and endothelial cells. In addition, they are proatherogenic,
as demonstrated by animal models and by the increased prevalence of
cardiovascular diseases in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus
and antiphospholipid syndrome. Moreover, antiphospholipid antibodies, including anticardiolipin, anti-b2-glycoprotein-I, and anti-oxidized low-density lipoprotein, are associated with atherosclerosis and
its consequences in the general population as well. This autoimmune
aspect of atherosclerosis in the presence or absence of an autoimmune
disease suggests benefit from development of immunomodulating
therapies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11389799

“The antiphospholipid syndrome
is characterized by arterial and
venous thrombosis, as well as
pregnancy morbidity, in the presence
of elevated levels of antiphospholipid antibodies.”

“Vaccine-related cardiorespiratory events are relatively common in preterm babies.”
Acta Paediatrica • August 2001

Adverse events following vaccination in premature infants
S Sen1, Y Cloete2, K Hassan1 andP Buss1,
Department of Paediatrics and Neonatology, Royal Gwent Hospital, Newport, UK
Nevill Hall Hospital, Abergavenny, UK
Royal Gwent Hospital, Cardiff Road, Newport NP9 2UB, UK
Abstract
The aims of this study were to study the frequency, severity and types of adverse reactions following DPT/Hib
(diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussisHaemophilus influenzae type B conjugate) immunization in very
preterm infants and to identify possible risk factors. Case notes of 45 preterm babies vaccinated in the neonatal intensive care unit between January 1993 and December 1998 were studied retrospectively. Birthweight, gestational
age, duration of ventilation, oxygen dependency, timing of vaccination, weight, corrected gestation at vaccination and apparent adverse effects were noted. Apparent adverse events were noted in 17 of 45 (37.8%) babies: 9
(20%) had major events, i.e. apnoea, bradycardia or desaturations, and 8 (17.8%) had minor events, i.e. increased
oxygen requirements, temperature instability, poor handling and feed intolerance. Babies with major events were
significantly younger (p<0.05), had a lower postmenstrual age (p < 0.05) and weighed less (p< 0.05) at the time
of vaccination compared with babies without major events. No differences in the mean birthweight, gestational
age, duration of ventilation or oxygen dependency were found between the two groups. Age at vaccination of 70
days or less was significantly associated with increased risk (p < 0.01). Of 27 babies vaccinated at 70 days or less,
9 (33.3%) developed major events compared with none when vaccinated over 70d.
Conclusion
Vaccine-related cardiorespiratory events are relatively common in preterm babies. Problems were much more
common if vaccine is administered at or before 70 d. These babies should therefore be monitored postvaccination. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify whether delaying vaccination offers protection against these
adverse events.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2001.tb02457.x/abstract

Archives Of Virology • August 2001

Comparative analysis of host responses
related to immunosuppression between measles patients
and vaccine recipients with live
attenuated measles vaccines
Author information
Okada H1, Sato TA, Katayama A, Higuchi K, Shichijo K,
Tsuchiya T, Takayama N, Takeuchi Y, Abe T, Okabe N, Tashiro M.
Department of Viral Diseases and Vaccine Control
National Institute of Infectious Diseases
Musashi-Murayama, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
Measles virus infection induces a profound immunosuppression. We analyzed in a timedependent manner peripheral bloods of one to two-year-old children immunized with live
attenuated measles vaccines, compared with age-matched measles patients, for immunosuppression. In contrast to transient severe lymphopenia with measles patients, primarily
due to extensive apoptosis of a broad spectrum of uninfected lymphocytes, neither apoptosis nor lymphopenia occurred with measles vaccine recipients. Increase in number and
activation of NK cells, which might compensate for the lymphopenia in measles patients,
were not found with the vaccinees. While cell surface expression of apoptosis-related
molecules such as TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), TRAIL-receptors,
CD95(Fas) and Fas-ligand, and plasma interferon-gamma were increased for measles patients, they remained unchanged after vaccination. Plasma interleukin (IL)-18, which is
responsible for inducing apoptosis in several infectious diseases, was increased predominantly with measles patients, whereas the increase remained marginal with the vaccinees.
IL-10 was elevated transiently in both measles patients and vaccinees. Decrease in plasma
IL-12, which is often correlated with T cell suppression, was not found for both cases. Serum IgM and IgG antibodies to measles virus were induced at lower titers in the vaccinees
than measles patients. These results indicate that in contrast to wild-type measles virus,
live measles vaccines hardly provoked host cytokine responses that lead to apoptotic cytolysis of uninfected lymphocytes, lymphopenia and immunosuppression, and thereby
induced weaker immune responses to the virus.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11448026

“These results indicate
that in contrast to wild-type measles virus,
live measles vaccines hardly provoked host
cytokine responses that lead to apoptotic cytolysis
of uninfected lymphocytes, lymphopenia and
immunosuppression, and thereby induced
weaker immune responses to the virus.”

Acta Paediatrica • August 2001

Adverse events following vaccination in premature infants
Author information
Sen S1, Cloete Y, Hassan K, Buss P.
Department of Paediatrics and Neonatology
Royal Gwent Hospital, Newport, UK
Abstract
The aims of this study were to study the frequency, severity and types of adverse reactions following DPT/Hib (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis/Haemophilus influenzae type
B conjugate) immunization in very preterm infants and to identify possible risk factors. Case
notes of 45 preterm babies vaccinated in the neonatal intensive care unit between January
1993 and December 1998 were studied retrospectively. Birthweight, gestational age, duration of ventilation, oxygen dependency, timing of vaccination, weight, corrected gestation at
vaccination and apparent adverse effects were noted. Apparent adverse events were noted in
17 of 45 (37.8%) babies: 9 (20%) had major events, i.e. apnoea, bradycardia or desaturations,
and 8 (17.8%) had minor events, i.e. increased oxygen requirements, temperature instability,
poor handling and feed intolerance. Babies with major events were significantly younger (p <
0.05), had a lower postmenstrual age (p < 0.05) and weighed less (p < 0.05) at the time of vaccination compared with babies without major events. No differences in the mean birthweight,
gestational age, duration of ventilation or oxygen dependency were found between the two
groups. Age at vaccination of 70 days or less was significantly associated with increased risk
(p < 0.01). Of 27 babies vaccinated at 70 days or less, 9 (33.3%) developed major events compared with none when vaccinated over 70 days.
CONCLUSION:
Vaccine-related cardiorespiratory events are relatively common in preterm babies. Problems
were much more common if vaccine is administered at or before 70 d. These babies should
therefore be monitored postvaccination. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify
whether delaying vaccination offers protection against these adverse events.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11529542

“Vaccine-related cardiorespiratory events
are relatively common in preterm babies.
Problems were much more common if
vaccine is administered at or before 70 days.”

Clinical Immunology • September 2001

Infection of
human B lymphocytes
with MMR vaccine
induces IgE class switching
Author information

“Circulating immunoglobulin E (IgE) is one of the
characteristics of human allergic diseases including
allergic asthma. We recently showed that infection of

Imani F1, Kehoe KE.

human B cells with rhinovirus or measles virus could

Division of Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Asthma and Allergy Center, 5501 Hopkins Bayview Circle
Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
fimani@mail.jhmi.edu

lead to the initial steps of IgE class switching. Our data

Abstract
Circulating immunoglobulin E (IgE) is one of the characteristics of human allergic diseases including allergic asthma. We recently showed
that infection of human B cells with rhinovirus or measles virus could
lead to the initial steps of IgE class switching. Since many viral vaccines
are live viruses, we speculated that live virus vaccines may also induce
IgE class switching in human B cells. To examine this possibility, we
selected the commonly used live attenuated measles mumps rubella
(MMR) vaccine. Here, we show that infection of a human IgM(+) B
cell line with MMR resulted in the expression of germline epsilon transcript. In addition, infection of freshly prepared human PBLs with this
vaccine resulted in the expression of mature IgE mRNA transcript. Our
data suggest that a potential side effect of vaccination with live attenuated viruses may be an increase in the expression of IgE.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11513549

suggest that a potential side effect of vaccination with
live attenuated viruses may be an increase in the
expression of IgE.”

[Based on these findings, the authors concluded that
viral vaccines might be playing a role in the increasing
incidence of asthma and other allergic diseases]

“From October 1998 to December 1999, 112 cases of intussusception were reported.”
Vaccine • September 2001

Data mining in the US Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS):
early detection of intussusception and other events after rotavirus vaccination
Author Information
Manette T. Niu.a, Diane E. Erwin.c, M.Miles Braun.b
a. Vaccine Safety Branch, Division of Epidemiology,
Office of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Center for Biologic Evaluation and Research,
US Food and Drug Administration, 1401 Rockville Pike, HFM-210, Rockville, MD
b. Division of Epidemiology, Office of Biostatistics and Epidemiology
Center for Biologic Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD
c. Information Management Services, Inc., Rockville, MD, USA

Abstract
The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) is the US passive surveillance system monitoring vaccine safety. A
major limitation of VAERS is the lack of denominator data (number of doses of administered vaccine), an element necessary
for calculating reporting rates. Empirical Bayesian data mining, a data analysis method, utilizes the number of events reported
for each vaccine and statistically screens the database for higher than expected vaccine-event combinations signaling a potential
vaccine-associated event. This is the first study of data mining in VAERS designed to test the utility of this method to detect
retrospectively a known side effect of vaccination–intussusception following rotavirus (RV) vaccine. From October 1998 to
December 1999, 112 cases of intussusception were reported. The data mining method was able to detect a signal for RV-intussusception in February 1999 when only four cases were reported. These results demonstrate the utility of data mining to detect
significant vaccine-associated events at early date. Data mining appears to be an efficient and effective computer-based program
that may enhance early detection of adverse events in passive surveillance systems.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X01002377

Emerging Infectious Diseases • September 2001

Adaptation of Bordetella pertussis to vaccination:
a cause for its reemergence?
Author information
Mooi FR1, van Loo IH, King AJ.
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
Bilthoven, the Netherlands
fr.mooi@rivm.nl
Abstract
In the Netherlands, as in many other western countries, pertussis vaccines
have been used extensively for more than 40 years. Therefore, it is conceivable that vaccine-induced immunity has affected the evolution of Bordetella
pertussis. Consistent with this notion, pertussis has reemerged in the Netherlands, despite high vaccination coverage. Further, a notable change in the
population structure of B. pertussis was observed in the Netherlands subsequent to the introduction of vaccination in the 1950s. Finally, we observed antigenic divergence between clinical isolates and vaccine strains, in particular
with respect to the surface-associated proteins pertactin and pertussis toxin.
Adaptation may have allowed B. pertussis to remain endemic despite widespread vaccination and may have contributed to the reemergence of pertussis
in the Netherlands.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2631860/

“Adaptation
may have allowed B. pertussis
to remain endemic despite
widespread vaccination and
may have contributed to the
reemergence of pertussis in
the Netherlands.”

European Journal Of Immunology • October 2001

Immunization with the adjuvant MF59
induces macrophage trafficking and apoptosis
Author information
Dupuis M1, Denis-Mize K, LaBarbara A,
Peters W, Charo IF, McDonald DM, Ott G.
Cardiovascular Research Institute and Department of Anatomy
University of California, San Francisco, USA
Abstract
The mechanisms associated with the immunostimulatory activity of
vaccine adjuvants are still poorly understood. We have undertaken a
study to determine whether antigen-presenting cell trafficking is modified by administration of the submicron emulsion adjuvant MF59. We
investigated the fate of inflammatory macrophages after intramuscular
injection of the antigen herpes simplex virus gD2 with fluorescencelabeled MF59. A homogeneous population of macrophages infiltrated
the muscle, internalized adjuvant and expressed markers characteristic
of mature macrophages over a 48-h period. Macrophage influx to the
injection site was reduced by 70% in mice deficient for the chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2). Two distinct cell populations were shown to
contain fluorescence-labeled MF59 in the draining lymph node at 48
h post injection. The first population had a round morphology, exhibited bright fluorescence, was located in the subcapsular sinus, and was
apoptotic. The second population had a dendritic morphology, was
weakly fluorescent, and was located in the T cell area where adjuvantcontaining apoptotic bodies identified by TUNEL labeling were present. We propose that lymph node-resident dendritic cells can acquire
antigen and MF59 after intramuscular immunization by uptake of the
apoptotic macrophages.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11592066

“We propose that lymph node-resident
dendritic cells can acquire antigen and MF59 [squalene]
after intramuscular immunization by uptake
of the apoptotic macrophages.”

“There are significantly elevated risks
of febrile seizures after receipt of DTP vaccine or MMR vaccine ...”
CDC New England Journal Of Medicine • 2001

The Risk of Seizures
after Receipt of Whole-Cell Pertussis or
Measles, Mumps, and Rubella Vaccine
William E. Barlow, Ph.D., Robert L. Davis, M.D., M.P.H., John W. Glasser, Ph.D., M.P.H.,
Phillip H. Rhodes, Ph.D., Robert S. Thompson, M.D., John P. Mullooly, Ph.D., Steven B. Black, M.D.,
Henry R. Shinefield, M.D., Joel I. Ward, M.D., S. Michael Marcy, M.D., Frank DeStefano, M.D.,
Virginia Immanuel, M.P.H., John A. Pearson, M.D., Constance M. Vadheim, Ph.D., Viviana Rebolledo, B.S.,
Dimitri Christakis, M.D., M.P.H., Patti J. Benson, M.P.H., Ned Lewis, M.P.H., and Robert T. Chen, M.D.
for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Vaccine Safety Datalink Working Group
BACKGROUND
The administration of the diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and whole-cell pertussis (DTP) vaccine and measles,
mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine has been associated with seizures. We studied the relation between these
vaccinations and the risk of a first seizure, subsequent seizures, and neurodevelopmental disability in children.
METHODS
This cohort study was conducted at four large health maintenance organizations and included reviews of the medical records of children with seizures. We calculated the relative risks of febrile and nonfebrile seizures among
679,942 children after 340,386 vaccinations with DTP vaccine, 137,457 vaccinations with MMR vaccine, or no
recent vaccination. Children who had febrile seizures after vaccination were followed to identify the risk of subsequent seizures and other neurologic disabilities.
RESULTS
Receipt of DTP vaccine was associated with an increased risk of febrile seizures only on the day of vaccination
(adjusted relative risk, 5.70; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.98 to 16.42). Receipt of MMR vaccine was associated with an increased risk of febrile seizures 8 to 14 days after vaccination (relative risk, 2.83; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.44 to 5.55). Neither vaccination was associated with an increased risk of nonfebrile seizures.
The number of febrile seizures attributable to the administration of DTP and MMR vaccines was estimated to be
6 to 9 and 25 to 34 per 100,000 children, respectively. As compared with other children with febrile seizures that
were not associated with vaccination, the children who had febrile seizures after vaccination were not found to be
at higher risk for subsequent seizures or neurodevelopmental disabilities.
CONCLUSIONS
There are significantly elevated risks of febrile seizures after receipt of DTP vaccine or MMR vaccine, but these
risks do not appear to be associated with any long-term, adverse consequences.
http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa003077

Toxicology In Vitro • February 2002

Formaldehyde cytotoxicity
in three human cell types
assessed in three different assays
Author information
Lovschall H1, Eiskjaer M, Arenholt-Bindslev D.
Tissue Culture Laboratory
Department of Dental Pathology
Royal Dental College, Faculty of Health Sciences
University of Aarhus, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
loev@odont.au.dk
Abstract
International standards for preclinical screening of the cytotoxicity of
dental materials so far recommend the use of established cell lines. The
aim of this study was to assess the relative susceptibility of human dental
pulp fibroblasts (HPF), human buccal epithelial cells (HBE) and HeLa
cervix cancer cells exposed to identical cytotoxic challenges. Formaldehyde, which may be released from dental materials such as dental
composites, glassionomer cements, and endodontic sealers, was used as
test chemical. Cytotoxicity data including dose-response relations and
TC(50) values were assessed in three different assays: BrdU incorporation, neutral red uptake and MTT assays. HBE and HPF demonstrated
statistically significant lower TC(50) values in both the neutral red and
the BrdU assay in comparison to HeLa cells. In the MTT assay no statistically significant differences were observed between the cell types.
In the two target-tissue cell types (HPF and HBE) the Neutral Red assay
revealed lower TC(50) values in comparison to the BrdU assay. In HeLa
cells no statistically significant differences were observed between the
assays. In conclusion, the present study confirms that cytotoxicity data
obtained by cell culture studies are influenced by both cell culture model
and choice of assay. Under identical experimental conditions, human
target tissue cells appeared to be more sensitive to formaldehyde toxicity
than human HeLa cancer cells.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11812641

“Under identical experimental conditions,
human target tissue cells appeared to be more
sensitive to formaldehyde toxicity than
human HeLa cancer cells.”

“antivaccination activists use: highly emotive content,
conspiratorial claims and privately published material and newspapers articles ...”
[the reason for the publication of this eBook]
Archives Of Disease In Childhood • March 2002

Antivaccination activists on the world wide web
Author Information
P Davies1, S Chapman1, J Leask2
1. Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Sydney A27, NSW 2006, Australia
2. National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance
Simonc@health.usyd.edu.au
Abstract
Aims
To determine the likelihood of finding an antivaccination site on the world wide web and to characterise their explicit claims and rhetorical appeals.
Methods
Using “vaccination” and “immunisation”, examining the first 10 sites displayed on seven leading
search engines. Detailed examination of content of 100 antivaccination sites found on Google.
Results
43% of websites were antivaccination (all of the first 10 on Google). Main rhetorical appeals involve themes of the scientific veracity of antivaccination argument; rapport with parents seeking
to protect their children from harm; and alleged collusion between doctors, the pharmaceutical
industry, and government to deny vaccine harm.
Conclusions
There is a high probability that parents will encounter elaborate antivaccination material on the
world wide web. Factual refutational strategies alone are unlikely to counter the highly rhetorical
appeals that shape these sites.Campaigns by those opposed to immunisation have been followed
by falling immunisation rates and outbreaks of vaccine preventable disease.1 The internet has
provided antivaccinationists with unprecedented opportunities for exposure. In the USA, 55%
of adults with internet access use it to seek health related information.2 For all its benefits, the
internet has great potential to disseminate health information that is incorrect and potentially dangerous.3 To date, all studies on health information on the internet have assessed content against

a priori standards of evidence, and have not considered the rhetorical subtexts and wider social
discourses in which this information is embedded.4,5 We examined the content of 100 antivaccination websites, considering not only the explicit claims made about vaccination, but also the ways
these claims are framed to maximise their appeal and influence.
Response to the problem
To defuse conspiratorial claims the public should be made aware of efforts to address the issue
of vaccine safety through more active surveillance of adverse events and studies investigating
hypothesised links between vaccination and serious chronic diseases.9,10 Since antivaccination
websites share many of the characteristics we have described, the themes identified in this article
might act as a tool for parents to discern whether the source is trustworthy. The checklist might
include:
• Highly emotive content
• Conspiratorial claims
• Privately published material, newspapers articles, etc.,
given as sources of information
• Claims to have privileged information unknown to medical authorities
Where refuting antivaccination arguments on the basis of fact alone is insufficient, it may be possible to use similarly emotive tactics to promote immunisation. Emphasis could be given to images
and stories of children harmed by vaccine preventable illnesses (see, for example, http://www.immunize.org/stories/unprot.htm).

Full Report: http://adc.bmj.com/content/87/1/22.full

“Several recent epidemiological studies have shown that vaccinations against biological warfare
using pertussis as an adjuvant were associated with the Gulf war syndrome.”
Medical Hypotheses • April 2002

Gulf war syndrome:
could it be triggered by biological warfare-vaccines
using pertussis as an adjuvant?
Author information
Tournier JN1, Jouan A, Mathieu J, Drouet E.
Département de biologie des agents transmissibles
CRSSA, La Tronche, France
j.tournier@eudoramail.com
Abstract
Several recent epidemiological studies have shown that vaccinations against biological warfare using pertussis
as an adjuvant were associated with the Gulf war syndrome. If such epidemiological findings are confirmed, we
propose that the use of pertussis as an adjuvant could trigger neurodegeneration through induction of interleukin1beta secretion in the brain. In turn, neuronal lesions may be sustained by stress or neurotoxic chemical combinations. Particular susceptibility for IL-1beta secretion and potential distant neuronal damage could provide an
explanation for the diversity of the symptoms observed on veterans.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12027522

The Journal of Infection • May 2002

The effect of vaccination
on the epidemiology of varicella zoster virus
Author information
Edmunds WJ1, Brisson M.
Immunisation Division
Colindale, London
NW9 5EQ, UK
jedmunds@phls.org.uk
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox (varicella) on primary exposure and can reactivate later in life to cause shingles (zoster). As primary infection is more serious in adults than
children, and exposure to the virus might boost the immune response to both chickenpox and
shingles, there are two main concerns regarding infant VZV vaccination: that it could lead to
an increase in adult disease; and/or that it could lead to a temporary increase in the incidence
of shingles. This paper reviews the evidence for such outcomes. The consensus view of mathematical modelling studies is that the overall varicella associated burden is likely to decrease in
the long term, regardless of the level of vaccine coverage. On the other hand, recent evidence
suggests that an increase in zoster incidence appears likely, and the more effective vaccination
is at preventing varicella, the larger the increase in zoster incidence. Targeted vaccination of
susceptible adolescents and/or the contacts of high-risk individuals can be effective at preventing disease in these individuals with minimal risk to the community. However, targeted strategies would not prevent most disease (including most severe disease), and will not lead to a
long-term reduction in the incidence of zoster. Understanding the mechanisms for maintaining
immunity against varicella and zoster is critical for predicting the long-term effects of vaccination. Meanwhile sensitive surveillance of both chickenpox and shingles is essential in countries
that have implemented, or are about to implement, varicella vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12099726

“... recent evidence suggests that an increase
in zoster [shingles] incidence appears likely, and
the more effective vaccination is at preventing varicella,
the larger the increase in zoster incidence.”

[varicella is chicken pox]

Current Opinions In Neurology • June 2002

Neurological adverse events associated with vaccination
Author information

“These complications include autism (measles vaccine),
multiple sclerosis (hepatitis B vaccine),
meningoencephalitis (Japanese encephalitis vaccine),

Piyasirisilp S1, Hemachudha T.
Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine
Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
spiyasir@mail.med.cmu.ac.th
Abstract
Public tolerance to adverse reactions is minimal. Several reporting systems have been
established to monitor adverse events following immunization. The present review
summarizes data on neurologic complications following vaccination, and provides
evidence that indicates whether they were directly associated with the vaccines. These
complications include autism (measles vaccine), multiple sclerosis (hepatitis B vaccine), meningoencephalitis (Japanese encephalitis vaccine), Guillain-Barré syndrome
and giant cell arteritis (influenza vaccine), and reactions after exposure to animal rabies
vaccine. Seizures and hypotonic/hyporesponsive episodes following pertussis vaccination and potential risks associated with varicella vaccination, as well as vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis following oral poliovirus vaccination, are also described. In
addition, claims that complications are caused by adjuvants, preservatives and contaminants [i.e. macrophagic myofasciitis (aluminium), neurotoxicity (thimerosal), and new
variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (bovine-derived materials)] are discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12045734

Guillain-Barré syndrome and giant cell arteritis (influenza
vaccine), and reactions after exposure to animal rabies vaccine.
Seizures and hypotonic/hyporesponsive episodes following
pertussis vaccination and potential risks associated with
varicella vaccination, as well as vaccine-associated
paralytic poliomyelitis following oral poliovirus vaccination,
are also described.”

“The present review summarizes data on neurologic complications following vaccination ...”
Current Opinion in Neurology • June 2002

Neurological adverse events associated with vaccination
Piyasirisilp, Sucheepa; Hemachudha, Thiravatb
Abstract
Public tolerance to adverse reactions is minimal. Several reporting systems have been established to monitor
adverse events following immunization. The present review summarizes data on neurologic complications following vaccination, and provides evidence that indicates whether they were directly associated with the vaccines.
These complications include autism (measles vaccine), multiple sclerosis (hepatitis B vaccine), meningoencephalitis (Japanese encephalitis vaccine), Guillain-Barré syndrome and giant cell arteritis (influenza vaccine), and
reactions after exposure to animal rabies vaccine. Seizures and hypotonic/hyporesponsive episodes following pertussis vaccination and potential risks associated with varicella vaccination, as well as vaccine-associated paralytic
poliomyelitis following oral poliovirus vaccination, are also described. In addition, claims that complications are
caused by adjuvants, preservatives and contaminants [i.e. macrophagic myofasciitis (aluminium), neurotoxicity
(thimerosal), and new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (bovine-derived materials)] are discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12045734

Journal Of Biomedical Science • July 2002

Abnormal measles-mumps-rubella antibodies
and CNS autoimmunity in children with autism
Author information
Singh VK1, Lin SX, Newell E, Nelson C.
Department of Biology and Biotechnology Center
Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA
singhvk@cc.usu.edu
Abstract
Autoimmunity to the central nervous system (CNS), especially to myelin
basic protein (MBP), may play a causal role in autism, a neurodevelopmental disorder. Because many autistic children harbor elevated levels of
measles antibodies, we conducted a serological study of measles-mumpsrubella (MMR) and MBP autoantibodies. Using serum samples of 125 autistic children and 92 control children, antibodies were assayed by ELISA
or immunoblotting methods. ELISA analysis showed a significant increase
in the level of MMR antibodies in autistic children. Immunoblotting analysis revealed the presence of an unusual MMR antibody in 75 of 125 (60%)
autistic sera but not in control sera. This antibody specifically detected a
protein of 73-75 kD of MMR. This protein band, as analyzed with monoclonal antibodies, was immunopositive for measles hemagglutinin (HA)
protein but not for measles nucleoprotein and rubella or mumps viral proteins. Thus the MMR antibody in autistic sera detected measles HA protein, which is unique to the measles subunit of the vaccine. Furthermore,
over 90% of MMR antibody-positive autistic sera were also positive for
MBP autoantibodies, suggesting a strong association between MMR and
CNS autoimmunity in autism. Stemming from this evidence, we suggest
that an inappropriate antibody response to MMR, specifically the measles
component thereof, might be related to pathogenesis of autism.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12145534

“... over 90% of MMR antibody-positive autistic sera
were also positive for MBP autoantibodies, suggesting
a strong association between MMR and CNS autoimmunity
in autism. Stemming from this evidence, we suggest that an
inappropriate antibody response to MMR, specifically the
measles component thereof, might be related to
pathogenesis of autism.”

“The results indicated that whole-cell DTP vaccine contained high levels of endotoxin
and was statistically significantly more reactogenic than acellular DTaP vaccine.”
Pediatric Rehabilitation • July 2002

Serious neurological conditions following pertussis immunization:
an analysis of endotoxin levels, the vaccine adverse events reporting
system (VAERS) database and literature review
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
MedCon, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the potential risks for the development and outcome of serious neurological illnesses following whole-cell DTP vaccination and also to determine if the switch to using acellular DTaP
vaccine in the US has had any effect on the incidence rate of serious neurological illnesses following vaccination. This study used the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) endotoxin assay to determine the levels of endotoxin
in various commercially available whole-cell and acellular DTaP vaccines, analysed the Vaccine Adverse Events
Reporting System (VAERS) database to determine the clinical effects of the use of whole-cell DTP and acellular
DTaP vaccines in the US and reviewed recently published pertinent studies that analysed the incidence rates of
serious neurological illness following whole-cell DTP and acellular DTaP vaccines. The results indicated that
whole-cell DTP vaccine contained high levels of endotoxin and was statistically significantly more reactogenic
than acellular DTaP vaccine. The presence of bias in the VAERS database was not borne-out. The recommendation by the American Academy of Paediatrics to use acellular DTaP vaccine for the entire childhood vaccination
schedule beginning in 1996 and the absence of the availability of whole-cell DTP in the US beginning in 2001
seems well justified based upon the results of this study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587565

Experimental And Molecular Pathology • August 2002

Antibodies to squalene
in recipients of anthrax vaccine
Author information
Asa PB1, Wilson RB, Garry RF.
Department of Microbiology
Tulane University Medical School
New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
Abstract
We previously reported that antibodies to squalene, an experimental vaccine adjuvant, are present in persons with symptoms consistent with Gulf
War Syndrome (GWS) (P. B. Asa et al., Exp. Mol. Pathol 68, 196-197,
2000). The United States Department of Defense initiated the Anthrax
Vaccine Immunization Program (AVIP) in 1997 to immunize 2.4 million
military personnel. Because adverse reactions in vaccinated personnel
were similar to symptoms of GWS, we tested AVIP participants for antisqualene antibodies (ASA). In a pilot study, 6 of 6 vaccine recipients
with GWS-like symptoms were positive for ASA. In a larger blinded
study, only 32% (8/25) of AVIP personnel compared to 15.7% (3/19)
of controls were positive (P > 0.05). Further analysis revealed that ASA
were associated with specific lots of vaccine. The incidence of ASA in
personnel in the blinded study receiving these lots was 47% (8/17) compared to an incidence of 0% (0/8; P < 0.025) of the AVIP participants
receiving other lots of vaccine. Analysis of additional personnel revealed
that in all but one case (19/20; 95%), ASA were restricted to personnel
immunized with lots of vaccine known to contain squalene. Except for
one symptomatic individual, positive clinical findings in 17 ASA-negative personnel were restricted to 4 individuals receiving vaccine from
lots containing squalene. ASA were not present prior to vaccination in
preimmunization sera available from 4 AVIP personnel. Three of these
individuals became ASA positive after vaccination. These results suggest that the production of ASA in GWS patients is linked to the presence
of squalene in certain lots of anthrax vaccine.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12127050

“Three of these individuals
became anti-squalene antibody positive after
vaccination. These results suggest that the
production of anti-squalene antibody in
Gulf War Syndrome patients is linked to
the presence of squalene in certain lots
of anthrax vaccine.”

Laboratory Medicine • September 2002

Vaccines and Autism

“Vaccinations may be one of the triggers for autism.

by Bernard Rimland, PhD, Woody McGinnis, MD

Substantial data demonstrate immune abnormality

Autism Research Institute, San Diego, CA

in many autistic children consistent with impaired

Abstract
Autism research is characterized by diverse findings. There is no consensus about the biological determinants of autism. This paper examines the autistic immune profile and the possible role of vaccines in
autism.
Vaccinations may be one of the triggers for autism. Substantial data
demonstrate immune abnormality in many autistic children consistent with impaired resistance to infection, activation of inflammatory
response, and autoimmunity. Impaired resistance may predispose to
vaccine injury in autism.
A mercurial preservative in childhood vaccines, thimerosal, may
cause direct neurotoxic, immunodepressive, and autoimmune injury
and contribute to early-onset and regressed autism. Live viruses in
measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) may result in chronic infection
of the gut and trigger regressed autism. Thimerosal injection may potentiate MMR injury.
Consideration of vaccine etiology must include recognition of compromised gut and nutrition in most autistic children. An integrated
view of the underlying biological problems in autistic children serves
our understanding of the possible role of vaccines. Development of
screening methods for deferral of vaccines in at-risk children is a worthy goal.
http://labmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/labmed/33/9/708.full.pdf

resistance to infection, activation of inflammatory
response, and autoimmunity. Impaired resistance
may predispose to vaccine injury in autism.

A mercurial preservative in childhood vaccines,
thimerosal, may cause direct neurotoxic, immunodepressive,
and autoimmune injury and contribute to early-onset and
regressed autism. Live viruses in measles, mumps, and rubella
(MMR) may result in chronic infection of the gut and
trigger regressed autism. Thimerosal injection may
potentiate MMR injury.”

Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences • October 2002

Peroxide formation in polysorbate 80
and protein stability
Author information
Ha E1, Wang W, Wang YJ.
Analytics & Formulation Department
Process Sciences, Bayer Biotechnology
800 Dwight Way, Berkeley, California 94701, USA
Abstract
Nonionic surfactants are widely used in the development of protein pharmaceuticals. However, the low level of residual peroxides
in surfactants can potentially affect the stability of oxidation-sensitive proteins. In this report, we examined the peroxide formation in
polysorbate 80 under a variety of storage conditions and tested the
potential of peroxides in polysorbate 80 to oxidize a model protein,
IL-2 mutein. For the first time, we demonstrated that peroxides can be
easily generated in neat polysorbate 80 in the presence of air during
incubation at elevated temperatures. Polysorbate 80 in aqueous solution exhibited a faster rate of peroxide formation and a greater amount
of peroxides during incubation, which is further promoted/catalyzed
by light. Peroxide formation can be greatly inhibited by preventing
any contact with air/oxygen during storage. IL-2 mutein can be easily
oxidized both in liquid and solid states. A lower level of peroxides in
polysorbate 80 did not change the rate of IL-2 mutein oxidation in liquid state but significantly accelerated its oxidation in solid state under
air. A higher level of peroxides in polysorbate 80 caused a significant
increase in IL-2 mutein oxidation both in liquid and solid states, and
glutathione can significantly inhibit the peroxide-induced oxidation of
IL-2 mutein in a lyophilized formulation. In addition, a higher level of
peroxides in polysorbate 80 caused immediate IL-2 mutein oxidation
during annealing in lyophilization, suggesting that implementation of
an annealing step needs to be carefully evaluated in the development
of a lyophilization process for oxidation-sensitive proteins in the presence of polysorbate.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12226852

“For the first time,
we demonstrated that
peroxides can be easily generated
in neat polysorbate 80 ...”

Vaccine • November 2002

Routine vaccinations and child survival
in a war situation with high mortality:
effect of gender
Author information
Aaby P1, Jensen H, Garly ML, Balé C, Martins C, Lisse I.
Bandim Health Project, Apartado 861Bissau
Guinea-Bissau and Danish Epidemiology Science Centre
Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
psb@sol.gtelecom.gw
Abstract
Non-specific effects of vaccination may be different for boys and girls. Due to the sequential administration of vaccines, it is difficult to separate the effect of different vaccines. We tested sex-specific effects of diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (DTP) and polio
vaccines and measles vaccines during the recent war (1998) in Guinea-Bissau when
there was no functioning immunisation programme in the country. The study included
1491 children aged 1-17 months in four urban districts in Bissau. Vaccination status
had been assessed in the study area in the 3 months before the war. The effect of DTP
and polio vaccines was assessed for children who had not received measles vaccine.
The effect of measles vaccine was evaluated for children aged 6-17 months. Compared
with measles-unvaccinated children, measles-vaccinated children had lower mortality
(mortality ratio (MR)=0.44 (95% CI 0.20-1.00)), the difference being marked for girls
(0.25 (0.09-0.71)) but not for boys (0.84 (0.26-2.75)) (test of homogeneity, P=0.095).
If measles cases were censored in the analysis, the mortality ratio for vaccinated and
unvaccinated children was 0.38 (0.16-0.89). DTP and polio-vaccinated children did
not have lower mortality than unvaccinated children. The female-male mortality ratio
for DTP and polio-vaccinated children was 3.08 (1.11-8.56) and 0.63 (0.28-1.40) for
measles-vaccinated children, a significant inversion of the ratios (test of homogeneity,
P=0.013). The divergent female-male mortality ratios are unlikely to be explained by a
selection bias going in different directions for different vaccines. The reduction associated with measles vaccination was unrelated to prevention against measles infection.
Non-specific effects of vaccination should be assessed separately for boys and girls.
Taking these effects into consideration may have implications for child mortality patterns in developing countries.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12443658

“The divergent female-male mortality ratios
are unlikely to be explained by a selection bias
going in different directions for different vaccines.
Non-specific effects of vaccination should be
assessed separately for boys and girls.”

Diabetes • December 2002

The rise of childhood type 1 diabetes
in the 20th century
Author information
Gale EA
Department of Diabetes and Metabolism
Division of Medicine, University of Bristol
Medical School Unit, Southmead Hospital
Bristol BS10 5NB, U.K.
Abstract
The incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes increased worldwide in the closing
decades of the 20th century, but the origins of this increase are poorly documented. A search through the early literature revealed a number of useful but
neglected sources, particularly in Scandinavia. While these do not meet the
exacting standards of more recent surveys, tentative conclusions can be drawn
concerning long-term changes in the demography of the disease. Childhood
type 1 diabetes was rare but well recognized before the introduction of insulin.
Low incidence and prevalence rates were recorded in several countries over
the period 1920-1950, and one carefully performed study showed no change in
childhood incidence over the period 1925-1955. An almost simultaneous upturn was documented in several countries around the mid-century. The overall
pattern since then is one of linear increase, with evidence of a plateau in some
high-incidence populations and of a catch-up phenomenon in some low-incidence areas. Steep rises in the age-group under 5 years have been recorded
recently. The disease process underlying type 1 diabetes has changed over time
and continues to evolve. Understanding why and how this produced the pandemic of childhood diabetes would be an important step toward reversing it.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12453886

“Understanding why and how
this produced the pandemic of childhood diabetes
would be an important step toward reversing it.”

“... probably because the pertussis component of most currently available acellular DPT vaccines
contains toxoided pertussis toxin that has a significant rate of reversion to active toxin.”
Toxicology Mechanisms And Methods • 2002

An analysis of the occurrence of convulsions and death
after childhood vaccination
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
MedCon, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland USA
Abstract
The association between the whole-cell diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTP) vaccine and the occurrence of
convulsions and death has long been debated by the medical and scientific communities. A certified copy of the
Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System database was obtained from the Centers for Disease Control, and the
data were analyzed using the Microsoft Access program. The results of this analysis reveal a statistically (p < .01)
higher rate of occurrence of convulsions and death after whole-cell DTP vaccination than after acellular DTP and
DT vaccination, showing, as do the previous findings of many other scientists, that acellular DTP vaccine is much
less reactogenic than is whole-cell DTP vaccine. This study helps to validate the decision by American vaccine
manufactures and the Food and Drug Administration to use only acellular DTP for the American childhood vaccination schedule. However, acellular DTP vaccine is still more reactogenic than is DT vaccine, probably because
the pertussis component of most currently available acellular DPT vaccines contains toxoided pertussis toxin that
has a significant rate of reversion to active toxin. This suggests the need to use the newer acellular pertussis vaccines, which are of higher purity and in which the reversion of the pertussis toxin is prevented.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20597817

“DTP and MMR vaccine are associated with a transiently increased risk of febrile seizures ...”
Paediatric Drugs • 2003

Placing the risk of seizures with pediatric vaccines in a clinical context
Author information
Davis RL1, Barlow W.
Departments of Pediatrics and Epidemiology
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA
rdavis@u.washington.edu
Abstract
In this review we discuss the relationship between commonly administered childhood vaccines such as diphtheria-tetanus-whole cell pertussis (DTP) and measles-mumps-rubella (MMR), and the risk of nonfebrile and febrile
seizure. We summarize data from the Vaccine Safety Datalink Study and other studies that suggest that DTP and
MMR vaccine are associated with a transiently increased risk of febrile seizures, and cause between 5-9 and 2534 additional extra febrile seizures per 100 000 immunized children, respectively. DTP and MMR do not appear
to increase the risk of nonfebrile seizures. We discuss some methodologic challenges in studies of vaccines and
seizures. Because there is no adequate comparison group that would allow for the study of seizures long after vaccination, studies of seizures are limited to acute events shortly following vaccination. Additionally, while seizures
following vaccination are worrisome to parents and physicians alike, observational studies of the neurodevelopmental outcomes of these children are particularly problematic. We discuss how such studies are confounded by
the natural history of predisposition to febrile seizures and by the increased diagnostic scrutiny that children with
febrile seizures might undergo. Nevertheless, current data suggest that children with febrile seizures do not experience long-term negative effects. Finally, we discuss the creation of new clinics designed specifically to assist
physicians in managing the vaccination of children with a personal or family history of seizures. Data from these
clinics suggest that vaccination is safe for children with a personal or family history of seizures, but statistical
power has been limited. We conclude by discussing the introduction of new vaccines, and note that, even with
widespread use, it will take many years before we can be knowledgeable about the risk of rare events with these
newly licensed products.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14580221

International Pediatrics • Vol. 18 • No. 2 • 2003
by Mark R. Geier, MD, PhD; David A Geier

Pediatric MMR Vaccination Safety
Abstract
Measles, mumps and rubella are viral infections that have the potential to result in globally
destructive disorders. Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine has helped to dramatically
reduce the number of cases of measles, mumps and rubella infection, as well as to reduce the
amount of pain and suffering associated with each of these natural infections. The purpose of
this study was to analyze the incidence of serious neurologic disorders in a comparative examination between MMR vaccine and a vaccine control group. The Vaccine Adverse Events
Reporting System (VAERS) database was analyzed for the incidence rate of permanent brain
damage, cerebellar ataxia, autism and mental retardation reported following MMR vaccine and
diphtheria, tetanus and whole-cell pertussis (DTwcP) containing-vaccines from 1994 through
2000 in the US.
Statistically significant increases in the incidence of serious neurologic disorders following
pediatric MMR vaccine in comparison to DTwcP vaccine were found. The potentially globally
destructive effects of natural measles, mumps and rubella infections means that continued vaccination is necessary, but improvements in MMR vaccines are needed to improve its safety.
These results show that primary pediatric MMR vaccination in children is associated with a
marked increase in serious neurologic disorders in comparison to DTwcP vaccination. The
increase is statistically significant for cerebellar ataxia, autism, mental retardation and permanent brain damage following primary pediatric MMR vaccination in comparison to DTwcP
vaccination. These results are remarkable considering that DTwcP vaccination has been found
by the scientific and medical communities to be responsible for permanent neurologic sequellae in children.
Another study found 18 cases of neurological complications following live measles vaccine
administered between 1971 to 1978 in Hamburg, Germany. A causal connection was assumed
by the author in 14 of the cases, resulting in an incidence of 1 per 2,500 vaccinees. The author
observed an incidence of 1 per 17,650 vaccinees of abortive encephalopathy following live
measles vaccination.
In conclusion, this study showed a highly statistically significant increase in serious neurologic
conditions following primary pediatric MMR vaccination in comparison to a DTwcP vaccine
control group. This finding confirms and extends a number of previous studies showing that
patients are at increased risk for developing serious neurologic disorders for about 5-10 days
following pediatric MMR vaccination. The pathogenesis of these reactions appears to follow
a similar course as in the natural viral infections. In order to alleviate the potential for serious
neurologic disorders following primary pediatric MMR vaccination, we recommend that killed
MMR vaccine be made available. If live MMR vaccine is to be used, parents should have the
option to have each viral component of MMR vaccine administered separately.
http://www.tested.net/vaccine/MMRresearch.pdf

“These results show that primary pediatric MMR
vaccination in children is associated with a marked increase
in serious neurologic disorders in comparison to DTwcP
vaccination. The increase is statistically significant for
cerebellar ataxia, autism, mental retardation and permanent
brain damage following primary pediatric MMR vaccination
in comparison to DTwcP vaccination. These results are
remarkable considering that DTwcP vaccination has been
found by the scientific and medical communities to be
responsible for permanent neurologic sequellae in children.”

Revue Neurologique, Paris • February 2003

Lessons from macrophagic myofasciitis:
towards definition of a vaccine adjuvant-related syndrome
Author information
Gherardi RK.
Groupe Nerf-Muscle, Département de Pathologie
Hôpital Henri Mondor, Créteil
romain.gherardi@hmn.ap-hop-paris.fr
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis is a condition first reported in 1998, which cause remained obscure until 2001. Over
200 definite cases have been identified in France, and isolated cases have been recorded in other countries. The
condition manifests by diffuse myalgias and chronic fatigue, forming a syndrome that meets both Center for Disease Control and Oxford criteria for the so-called chronic fatigue syndrome in about half of patients. One third of
patients develop an autoimmune disease, such as multiple sclerosis. Even in the absence of overt autoimmune disease they commonly show subtle signs of chronic immune stimulation, and most of them are of the HLADRB1*01
group, a phenotype at risk to develop polymyalgia rheumatica and rheumatoid arthritis. Macrophagic myofasciitis
is characterized by a stereotyped and immunologically active lesion at deltoid muscle biopsy. Electron microscopy, microanalytical studies, experimental procedures, and an epidemiological study recently demonstrated that
the lesion is due to persistence for years at site of injection of an aluminum adjuvant used in vaccines against
hepatitis B virus, hepatitis A virus, and tetanus toxoid. Aluminum hydroxide is known to potently stimulate the
immune system and to shift immune responses towards a Th-2 profile. It is plausible that persistent systemic immune activation that fails to switch off represents the pathophysiologic basis of chronic fatigue syndrome associated with macrophagic myofasciitis, similarly to what happens in patients with post-infectious chronic fatigue
and possibly idiopathic chronic fatigue syndrome. Therefore, the WHO recommended an epidemiological survey,
currently conducted by the French agency AFSSAPS, aimed at substantiating the possible link between the focal
macrophagic myofasciitis lesion (or previous immunization with aluminium-containing vaccines) and systemic
symptoms. Interestingly, special emphasis has been put on Th-2 biased immune responses as a possible explanation of chronic fatigue and associated manifestations known as the Gulf war syndrome. Results concerning macrophagic myofasciitis may well open new avenues for etiologic investigation of this syndrome. Indeed, both type
and structure of symptoms are strikingly similar in Gulf war veterans and patients with macrophagic myofasciitis.
Multiple vaccinations performed over a short period of time in the Persian gulf area have been recognized as the
main risk factor for Gulf War syndrome. Moreover, the war vaccine against anthrax, which is administered in a 6shot regimen and seems to be crucially involved, is adjuvanted by aluminium hydroxide and, possibly, squalene,
another Th-2 adjuvant. If safety concerns about long-term effects of aluminium hydroxide are confirmed it will
become mandatory to propose novel and alternative vaccine adjuvants to rescue vaccine-based strategies and the
enormous benefit for public health they provide worldwide.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12660567

“Macrophagic myofasciitis is a condition first reported in 1998,
which cause remained obscure until 2001. Over 200 definite cases
have been identified in France, and isolated cases have been recorded in other countries [many thousands of cases have since
been identified]. Electron microscopy, microanalytical studies,
experimental procedures, and an epidemiological study recently
demonstrated that the lesion is due to persistence for years at site
of injection of an aluminum adjuvant used in vaccines against
hepatitis B virus, hepatitis A virus, and tetanus toxoid ... If safety
concerns about long-term effects of aluminium hydroxide are
confirmed it will become mandatory to propose novel and
alternative vaccine adjuvants to rescue vaccine-based strategies ...”

Arthritis & Rheumatism • February 2003

Chronic fatigue syndrome in patients with macrophagic myofasciitis
François-Jérôme Authier MD, PhD, Stéphane Sauvat MD,
Julien Champey MD, Irène Drogou MD, Michèle Coquet MD andRomain K. Gherardi MD
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF), a condition first reported in France in 1998, is defined by the
presence of a stereotyped and immunologically active lesion at deltoid muscle biopsy (1, 2). It was
recently demonstrated that this lesion is an indicator of long-term persistence of the immunologic
adjuvant aluminum hydroxide within the cytoplasm of macrophages at the site of previous intramuscular (IM) injection (2). MMF is typically detected in patients with diffuse arthromyalgias
that have appeared subsequent to aluminum hydroxide administration in the absence of a clearly
defined anatomic substratum (2). Patients also report unexplained chronic fatigue (1). These manifestations are reminiscent of the so-called chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), a poorly understood
condition manifesting as disabling fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, sleep disturbance, impaired concentration, and headaches (3). The present study was conducted to determine the proportion of
MMF patients fulfilling international criteria for CFS.
Thirty unselected consecutive patients with biopsy-proven MMF identified in Créteil and Bordeaux were retrospectively included, regardless of symptoms that led to indication of muscle biopsy. As previously described (2), MMF was assessed by 1) well-circumscribed sheets of denselypacked, large, nonepithelioid macrophages with a finely granular, periodic acid–Schiff–positive
content, in the connective structures of deltoid muscle; 2) lymphocytic infiltrates intermingled
with macrophages and forming microvascular cuffs; and 3) absence of significant muscle fiber
injury (see Figure 1). In each patient, we determined, through both chart review and either direct
patient questioning or telephone interview, 1) the presence of chronic fatigue of >6 months’ duration, 2) the alleged severity of fatigue, and 3) the presence of CFS according to Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria (1994) (4) or Oxford criteria (1991) (5). In addition, in 20
patients, we retrospectively evaluated history of immunization as well as prevalence of fever and
neurologic features suggestive of central nervous system demyelinating disease; laboratory findings, including erythrocyte sedimentation rate, creatine kinase levels, and 67Ga scintigraphy; and
responsiveness to steroids.
Figure 1. Deltoid muscle biopsy samples from patients with macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF).
A, Tightly packed, large, basophilic macrophages intermingled with lymphocytes in perifascicular endomysium (frozen section, hematoxylin and eosin stained; original magnification ×400).
B, MMF lesion in perimuscular adipose tissue showing immunolocalization of the macrophage
marker CD68 (paraffin section, immunoperoxidase procedure; original magnification ×400). C,
Adjacent section of the same biopsy sample showing immunolocalization of the T cell marker
CD3 (paraffin section, immunoperoxidase procedure; original magnification ×400).

The male:female ratio was 1:2. The mean age of patients was 52 years (range 12–78 years). Chronic fatigue was found in 28 of 30 patients (93%) and was considered disabling in 26 of 30 patients
(87%). Sixteen patients (53%) fulfilled CFS criteria from either the CDC (14 of 30 patients, 47%)
or Oxford (12 of 30 patients, 40%), 11 of 30 patients (37%) fulfilled both CDC and Oxford criteria. Other symptoms, laboratory findings, and steroid responsiveness are detailed in Table 1. 67Ga
scintigraphy was performed in 5 patients and showed increased levels of 67Ga uptake in muscle
and para-articular areas, mainly in lower limbs. A history of vaccination was available for 19 of
20 patients. All 19 patients had received IM administration of aluminum-containing vaccine prior
to the onset of CFS symptoms, and the delay from the last vaccination to the first manifestations
ranged from 1 month to 72 months (median 12 months).
We have previously determined that myalgias are a major symptom in patients with MMF. The
prevalence of myalgias was much higher in such patients than in other patients who had undergone
deltoid muscle biopsies at the same time in the same centers (85% versus 45%; P < 0.0001 by
Fisher’s exact test) (2). We show now that chronic disabling fatigue is a symptom as frequent as
diffuse myalgias in patients with MMF (87%), a finding also noted in the French Institut de Veille
Sanitaire exploratory investigation report (6). More than half of the patients also reported other
manifestations of CFS. Therefore, MMF should be alternatively considered as a cause of CFS or as
an additional exclusion criterion, along with rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and other diseases, for the
diagnosis of idiopathic CFS (4). Consequently, we suggest that patients with CFS should be carefully checked for a history of IM administration of aluminum hydroxide, and, if there is consistent
chronology, a muscle biopsy to search for MMF at the site of injection should be considered, even
many years after onset of symptoms.
Pathophysiology of CFS is still fiercely debated by psychologists, neuroendocrinologists, and immunologists. Chronic immune stimulation that fails to switch off has been previously reported as a
possible cause of CFS (7–9), and such a situation may very well result from persistence of the immunologic adjuvant aluminum hydroxide within antigen-presenting cells (2, 10). Therefore, MMF
may well represent a paradigm for CFS of immunologic origin. We believe that clarification of
MMF pathophysiology would significantly contribute to the understanding of the whole spectrum
of chronic fatigue and its syndromes.

Full Report: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.10740/full
PDF: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.10740/epdf

Expert Opinion On Drug Safety • March 2003

A review of hepatitis B vaccination
Author information
Geier MR1, Geier DA, Zahalsky AC.
The Genetic Centers of America
14 Redgate Ct, Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
mgeier@erols.com
Abstract
Hepatitis B is one of the most important infectious causes
of acute and chronic liver disease both in the US and worldwide. In order to combat the life-threatening effects of hepatitis B infection, recombinant hepatitis B vaccines have been
developed. The medical and scientific communities have
generally accepted that recombinant hepatitis B vaccine - a
highly purified, genetically engineered, single antigen vaccine - is a safe vaccine. Information is presented showing
that hepatitis B vaccine contains yeast, aluminium, thimerosal and hepatitis B surface antigen epitopes, which may result in hepatitis B vaccine being associated with autoimmune
diseases among susceptible adult vaccine recipients. There is
little doubt that the benefits of this vaccine overall far outweigh its risks. Physicians and patients should evaluate the
risks and benefits of hepatitis B vaccination and, together,
make an informed consent decision as to whether to undergo
vaccination. Individuals who experience an adverse reaction
to hepatitis B vaccination should report it to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System database and be advised that
they may be eligible for compensation from the no-fault National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program, administered
by the US Court of Claims. The authors strongly urge that
additional research be conducted into the molecular basis of
adverse events following hepatitis B vaccine administration,
so that further recommendations may be made on how to
improve their safety profiles.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12904111

“Information is presented
showing that hepatitis B vaccine
contains yeast, aluminium, thimerosal
and hepatitis B surface antigen epitopes,
which may result in hepatitis B vaccine
being associated with autoimmune diseases
among susceptible adult vaccine recipients.”

Pediatric Neurology • April 2003

Elevated levels of measles antibodies
in children with autism
Author information
Singh VK1, Jensen RL.
Department of Biology and Biotechnology Center
Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USA
Abstract
Virus-induced autoimmunity may play a causal role in autism. To examine the etiologic link of viruses in this brain disorder, we conducted
a serologic study of measles virus, mumps virus, and rubella virus. Viral antibodies were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
in the serum of autistic children, normal children, and siblings of autistic children. The level of measles antibody, but not mumps or rubella
antibodies, was significantly higher in autistic children as compared
with normal children (P = 0.003) or siblings of autistic children (P
<or= 0.0001). Furthermore, immunoblotting of measles vaccine virus
revealed that the antibody was directed against a protein of approximately 74 kd molecular weight. The antibody to this antigen was found
in 83% of autistic children but not in normal children or siblings of autistic children. Thus autistic children have a hyperimmune response to
measles virus, which in the absence of a wild type of measles infection
might be a sign of an abnormal immune reaction to the vaccine strain
or virus reactivation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12849883

“Thus autistic children
have a hyperimmune response
to measles virus, which in the
absence of a wild type of measles
infection might be a sign of an
abnormal immune reaction to the
vaccine strain or virus reactivation.”

Clinical Immunology • May 2003

Influenza vaccination and Guillain Barre syndrome
Author information
Geier MR1, Geier DA, Zahalsky AC.
The Genetic Centers of America
14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
mgeier@erols.com
Abstract
Acute and severe Guillain Barre Syndrome (GBS) cases reported following
influenza vaccine to the Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS)
database from 1991 through 1999 were examined. Endotoxin concentrations
were measured using the Limulus amebocyte lysate assay in influenza vaccines.
There were a total of 382 cases of GBS reported to the VAERS database following influenza vaccination (male/female ratio, 1.2). The median onset of GBS
following influenza vaccine was 12 days (interquartile range, 7 days to 21 days).
There was an increased risk of acute GBS (relative risk, 4.3; 95% confidence
interval, 3.0 to 6.4) and severe GBS (relative risk, 8.5; 95% confidence interval, 3.7 to 18.9) in comparison to an adult tetanus-diphtheria (Td) vaccine control group. There were maximums in the incidence of GBS following influenza
vaccine that occurred approximately every third year (1993, 1996, and 1998)
and statistically significant variation in the incidence of GBS among different
influenza manufacturers. Influenza vaccines contained from a 125- to a 1250fold increase in endotoxin concentrations in comparison to an adult Td vaccine
control and endotoxin concentrations varied up to 10-fold among different lots
and manufacturers of influenza vaccine. The biologic mechanism for GBS following influenza vaccine may involve the synergistic effects of endotoxin and
vaccine-induced autoimmunity. There were minimal potential reporting biases
in the data reported to the VAERS database in this study. Patients should make
an informed consent decision on whether to take this optional vaccine based
upon its safety and efficacy and physicians should vigilantly report GBS following influenza vaccination to the VAERS in the United States so that continued
evaluation of the safety of influenza vaccine may be undertaken.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12763480

“from 1991 through 1999 ...
There were a total of 382 cases of
Guillain-Barre Syndrome reported to
the VAERS database following influenza vaccination ...”

Mediators Of Inflammation • August 2003

Cytokine profile after rubella vaccine inoculation:
evidence of the immunosuppressive effect of vaccination
Author information
Pukhalsky AL1, Shmarina GV, Bliacher MS,
Fedorova IM, Toptygina AP, Fisenko JJ, Alioshkin VA
Research Centre for Medical Genetics
1 Moskvorechie Street
Moscow 11547 Russia
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM:
Immunization with live virus vaccines may cause an immunosuppression with lymphopaenia, impaired cytokine production and defective lymphocyte response to mitogenes.
These abnormalities were described in subjects vaccinated against measles. This study was
performed to analyse the host immune response related to immunosuppression in subjects
vaccinated with live attenuated rubella vaccine.
METHODS:
Eighteen schoolgirls, aged 11-13 years, were vaccinated with live attenuated rubella vaccine Rudivax. Before immunization, and 7 and 30 days after, peripheral blood was collected. Cellular fractions were subjected to flow cytometric analysis, and the lymphocyte
response to phytohaemagglutinin was investigated. Plasma samples were analysed for cytokines (interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, and interferon-gamma) by
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay techniques.
RESULTS:
On day 7 after vaccination, the number of each lymphocyte subset was decreased; however, only for CD3 and CD4 lymphocytes has a significant reduction been shown. On the
contrary, tumour necrosis factor-alpha and IL-10 levels markedly increased and amounted
to its maximum on day 30. Simultaneously, a significant reduction in plasma interferongamma and a profound decrease of the lymphocyte response to phytohaemagglutinin were
shown. The changes were accompanied with marked elevation of plasma IL-4.
CONCLUSIONS:
Our data indicate that the vaccination with live attenuated rubella vaccine results in moderate but sustained immune disturbance. The signs of immunosuppression, including defective lymphocyte response to mitogene and impaired cytokine production, may persist for at
least 1 month after vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14514470

“Immunization with live virus vaccines
may cause an immunosuppression with lymphopaenia,
impaired cytokine production and defective lymphocyte
response to mitogenes. These abnormalities were described
in subjects vaccinated against measles. Our data indicate
that the vaccination with live attenuated rubella vaccine
results in moderate but sustained immune disturbance.”

“The potential to induce autoimmunity may complicate the use of
oil adjuvants in human and veterinary vaccines.”
Journal Of Autoimmunity • August 2003

Induction of lupus autoantibodies by adjuvants
Author information
Satoh M1, Kuroda Y, Yoshida H, Behney KM, Mizutani A,
Akaogi J, Nacionales DC, Lorenson TD, Rosenbauer RJ, Reeves WH.
Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology
Department of Medicine, University of Florida
P.O. Box 100221, 1600 SW Archer Road
Gainesville, FL 32610-0221, USA
satohm@medicine.ufl.edu
Abstract
Exposure to the hydrocarbon oil pristane induces lupus specific autoantibodies in non-autoimmune mice. We investigated whether the capacity to induce lupus-like autoimmunity is a unique property of pristane or is shared by
other adjuvant oils. Seven groups of 3-month-old female BALB/cJ mice received a single intraperitoneal injection
of pristane, squalene (used in the adjuvant MF59), incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (IFA), three different medicinal
mineral oils, or saline, respectively. Serum autoantibodies and peritoneal cytokine production were measured.
In addition to pristane, the mineral oil Bayol F (IFA) and the endogenous hydrocarbon squalene both induced
anti-nRNP/Sm and -Su autoantibodies (20% and 25% of mice, respectively). All of these hydrocarbons had prolonged effects on cytokine production by peritoneal APCs. However, high levels of IL-6, IL-12, and TNFalpha
production 2-3 months after intraperitoneal injection appeared to be associated with the ability to induce lupus
autoantibodies. The ability to induce lupus autoantibodies is shared by several hydrocarbons and is not unique to
pristane. It correlates with stimulation of the production of IL-12 and other cytokines, suggesting a relationship
with a hydrocarbon’s adjuvanticity. The potential to induce autoimmunity may complicate the use of oil adjuvants
in human and veterinary vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12892730

Neurology • September 2003

Excess incidence of ALS in young Gulf War veterans
Author information
Haley RW.
Epidemiology Division
Department of Internal Medicine
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA
Robert.Haley@UTSouthwestern.edu
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Reported cases of ALS in young veterans of the 1991 Gulf War have suggested excess incidence.
OBJECTIVE
To compare observed and expected incidence of ALS in Gulf War veterans diagnosed before age 45
years (young veterans).
METHODS
Cases of ALS diagnosed from 1991 through 1998 were collected from military registries and a publicity campaign in late 1998. Diagnoses were established from neurologists’ medical records using
El Escorial criteria. Expected incidence was estimated from the age distribution of the Gulf War
veteran population, weighted by age-specific death rates of the US population. Secular changes in
nationwide ALS rates were assessed using calculations of the age-specific US population death rates
from vital statistics data of 1979 to 1998.
RESULTS
During 8 postwar years, 20 ALS cases were confirmed in approximately 690,000 Gulf War veterans, and 17 were diagnosed before age 45 years. All developed bulbar and spinal involvement, and
11 have died. In young veterans, the expected incidence increased from 0.93 cases/year in 1991 to
1.57 cases/year in 1998, but the observed incidence increased from 1 to 5 cases/year. The observed
incidence was 0.94 (95% CI, 0.26 to 2.41) times that expected in the baseline period from 1991 to
1994 (4 vs 4.25 cases; p = 0.6); it increased to 2.27 (95% CI, 1.27 to 3.88) times that expected during
the 4-year period from 1995 to 1998 (13 vs 5.72 cases; p = 0.006); and it peaked at 3.19 (95% CI,
1.03 to 7.43) times that expected in 1998 (5 vs 1.57 cases; p = 0.02). The magnitude of the excess
of ALS cases over the expected incidence increased during the 8-year period (Poisson trend test, p =
0.05), and the increase was not explained by a change in the interval from onset to diagnosis or by
a change in the US population death rate of ALS in those aged <45 years.
CONCLUSIONS
The observed incidence of ALS in young Gulf War veterans exceeded the expected, suggesting a
war-related environmental trigger.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14504316

“The observed incidence of
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
in young Gulf War veterans
exceeded the expected ...”

Neuroscience And Biobehavioral Reviews • October 2003

Analysis of neurological disease in four dimensions:
insight from ALS-PDC epidemiology and animal models
Author information
Shaw CA1, Wilson JM.
Program in Neuroscience
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC, Canada
cshaw@interchange.ubc.ca
Abstract
The causal factor(s) responsible for sporadic neurological diseases are unknown and the stages of
disease progression remain undefined and poorly understood. We have developed an animal model
of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-parkinsonism dementia complex which mimics all the essential features of the disease with the initial neurological insult arising from neurotoxins contained in washed
cycad seeds. Animals fed washed cycad develop deficits in motor, cognitive, and sensory behaviors
that correlate with the loss of neurons in specific regions of the central nervous system. The ability
to recreate the disease by exposure to cycad allows us to extend the model in multiple dimensions by
analyzing behavioral, cellular, and biochemical changes over time. In addition, the ability to induce
toxin-based neurodegeneration allows us to probe the interactions between genetic and epigenetic
factors. Our results show that the impact of both genetic causal and susceptibility factors with the
cycad neurotoxins are complex. The article describes the features of the model and suggests ways
that our understanding of cycad-induced neurodegeneration can be used to decipher and identify the
early events in various human neurological diseases.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14599431

“... causal factor(s) responsible
for sporadic neurological diseases
are unknown and the stages of
disease progression remain
undefined and poorly understood.”

Immunology And Allergy Clinics Of North America • November 2003

Aluminum inclusion macrophagic myofasciitis:
a recently identified condition
Author information
Gherardi RK1, Authier FJ.
Muscle and Nerve Group
Henri Mondor University Hospital
Créteil, France
lauret@univ-paris12.fr
Abstract
The authors conclude that the persistence of aluminum hydroxide at the site of intramuscular injection is a novel finding which has an exact significance that remains
to be established fully. It seems mandatory to evaluate possible long-term adverse
effects induced by this compound, because this issue has not been addressed (in the
past, aluminum hydroxide was believed to be cleared quickly from the body). If
safety concerns about the long-term effects of aluminum hydroxide are confirmed,
novel and alternative vaccine adjuvants to rescue vaccine-based strategies should
be proposed to ensure the enormous benefit for public health that these vaccines
provide worldwide.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14753387

“The authors conclude
that the persistence of aluminum hydroxide
at the site of intramuscular injection is a novel
finding which has an exact significance
that remains to be established fully.”

“... it has become apparent over the past 20 years, and most notably during the past 10 years,
that an array of metabolic machinery is also expressed in this organ ...”
Drug Metabolism & Disposition • December 2003

The Small Intestine
As A Xenobiotic-Metabolizing Organ
Author Information
Laurence S. Kaminsky and Qing-Yu Zhang
Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health
Albany, New York (L.S.K., Q-Y.Z.)
Department of Environmental Health and Toxicology
School of Public Health, University at Albany
State University of New York, Albany, New York (L.S.K.)
Address correspondence to:
Dr. Laurence Kaminsky, New York State Department of Health
Wadsworth Center, P.O. Box 509, Albany, NY 12201-0509
kaminsky@wadsworth.org
Abstract
The mammalian small intestine serves principally as the site for absorption of nutrients, water, and both beneficial
and potentially harmful xenobiotics. However, it has become apparent over the past 20 years, and most notably
during the past 10 years, that an array of metabolic machinery is also expressed in this organ (Kaminsky and
Fasco, 1992; Lin et al., 1999; Doherty and Charman, 2002; Ding and Kaminsky, 2003). Both phase I and phase
II metabolic enzymes are expressed, together with associated transporters. In this minireview we discuss some
of the most prominent phase I and II enzymes in the metabolic systems in the small intestine. The transporters,
despite their importance for the fate of enterocyte- absorbed xenobiotics, are beyond the scope of this minireview
(Suzuki and Sugiyama, 2000).
http://dmd.aspetjournals.org/content/31/12/1520.long

[vaccines are xenobiotics]

Pediatrics • December 2003

Addressing parents’ concerns:
do vaccines contain harmful preservatives,
adjuvants, additives, or residuals?
Author information
Offit PA1, Jew RK.
Division of Infectious Diseases
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
and Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
offit@email.chop.edu
Abstract
Vaccines often contain preservatives, adjuvants, additives, or manufacturing residuals in addition to pathogen-specific immunogens. Some
parents, alerted by stories in the news media or information contained
on the World Wide Web, are concerned that some of the substances
contained in vaccines might harm their children. We reviewed data on
thimerosal, aluminum, gelatin, human serum albumin, formaldehyde,
antibiotics, egg proteins, and yeast proteins. Both gelatin and egg proteins are contained in vaccines in quantities sufficient to induce rare
instances of severe, immediate-type hypersensitivity reactions. However, quantities of mercury, aluminum, formaldehyde, human serum albumin, antibiotics, and yeast proteins in vaccines have not been found
to be harmful in humans or experimental animals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14654615

[Dr. Offit, pro-vaccine media pundit,
discusses vaccine safety with parents]

Alternative Medicine Reviews �� 2003

Th1/Th2 Balance:
The Hypothesis, its Limitations,
and Implications for Health and Disease
Parris Kidd, PhD
Abstract
One theory of immune regulation involves homeostasis between T-helper 1 (Th1) and T- helper
2 (Th2) activity. The Th1/Th2 hypothesis arose from 1986 research suggesting mouse T-helper
cells expressed differing cytokine patterns. This hypothesis was adapted to human immunity,
with Th1- and Th2-helper cells directing different immune response pathways. Th1 cells drive
the type-1 pathway (“cellular immunity”) to fight viruses and other intracellular pathogens, eliminate cancerous cells, and stimulate delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin reactions. Th2 cells
drive the type-2 pathway (“humoral immunity”) and up-regulate antibody production to fight
extracellular organisms; type 2 dominance is credited with tolerance of xenografts and of the fetus during pregnancy. Overactivation of either pattern can cause disease, and either pathway can
down-regulate the other. But the hypothesis has major inconsistencies; human cytokine activities
rarely fall into exclusive pro- Th1 or -Th2 patterns. The non-helper regulatory T cells, or the antigen-presenting cells (APC), likely influence immunity in a manner comparable to Th1 and Th2
cells. Many diseases previously classified as Th1 or Th2 dominant fail to meet the set criteria.
Experimentally, Th1 polarization is readily transformed to Th2 dominance through depletion of
intracellular glutathione, and vice versa. Mercury depletes glutathione and polarizes toward Th2
dominance. Several nutrients and hormones measurably influence Th1/Th2 balance, including
plant sterols/sterolins, melatonin, probiotics, progesterone, and the minerals selenium and zinc.
The long- chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic
acid) significantly benefit diverse inflammatory and autoimmune conditions without any specific
Th1/Th2 effect. Th1/Th2-based immunotherapies, e.g., T-cell receptor (TCR) peptides and interleukin-4 (IL- 4) injections, have produced mixed results to date.
Conclusion
In managing immune hypofunction or other dysfunction, it is crucial to manage all forms of
stress. Rooks reported diverse stressors, includ- ing sleep deprivation, calorie restriction, excessive exercise, examination stress, and cardiopul- monary bypass surgery, down-regulate Th1 and
up-regulate Th2 activity.95 These effects are mediated mainly by glucocorticoids, but also by the
catecholamine hormones epinephrine and norepi- nephrine.92 As heroic efforts to tailor technological immune therapies go forward, the best immune intervention tools continue to be lifestyle
modification, vitamins, minerals, orthomolecules, and selected nontoxic phytotherapies.
http://www.altmedrev.com/publications/8/3/223.pdf

“As heroic efforts to tailor technological immune
therapies go forward, the best immune intervention tools
continue to be lifestyle modification, vitamins, minerals,
orthomolecules, and selected nontoxic phytotherapies.”

Brain Pathology • January 2004

The July 2003 Case of the Month (COM)
62-year-old female with progressive muscular weakness
Author information
Bornemann A1, Bohl J, Schneider HM,
Goebel HH, Schmidt PF, Gherardi RK.
Institute of Brain Research
Eberhard-Karls University
Tübingen, Germany
Abstract
The July 2003 Case of the Month (COM). A 62-year-old female patient experienced progressive muscular weakness over the last ten years, involving shoulder and pelvic girdle
muscles, paraspinal and facial muscles. A biopsy was taken from the left deltoid muscle
where hepatitis vaccination had taken place 4 weeks previously. The specimen revealed
macrophagic myofasciitis due to the injection of aluminium-bound vaccines. The finding
can be reproduced experimentally by injecting vaccines in rats. The pathomechanism is
supposed to involve immune stimulation due to long term persistence of the adjuvant.
Macrophagic myofasciitis has been suggested to occasionally cause myopathy but is
supposed to be unrelated to the underlying myopathy in our patient.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14997943

“The specimen revealed
macrophagic myofasciitis due to
the injection of aluminium-bound vaccines.”

“When mass vaccination programs encompass billions of lives, even relatively rare toxicity events cannot be tolerated.”
Presentation to the Vaccine Safety Committee of the Institute of Medicine
The National Academies of Science • February 9, 2004
Jeff Bradstreet MD, ICDRC 321-953-0278

Biological Evidence
of Significant Vaccine Related Side-effects
Resulting in Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Hypothesis
Evident for many individuals experienced with these issues, is the data supporting unprecedented levels of neurodevelopmental and immune disorders within the last two decades. The prevalence has risen to the point that many
believe it has reached epidemic proportions. Our group of researchers and clinicians, have hypothesized that a
subset of neurodevelopmental and medical disorders including: encephalopathy with autistic features, a unique
inflammatory bowel disease, along with speech, learning and sensorimotor dysfunction, represent the manifestations of injuries related to vaccine components, especially mercury in the form of Thimerosal and measles virus
from the MMR. Part of this hypothesis has been the existence of specific genetic vulnerability or environmental
susceptibility cofactors. Our group represents researchers and clinicians with heterogeneous experience and expertise, that when taken together, provide the substance for a broad understanding of this phenomena.

Vaccine Contribution to Public Health
The well-accepted benefits of vaccinations to prevention of many childhood and serious illnesses are without
question. All the data presented herein are intended to improve vaccine safety and long-term public confidence
in vaccines. When mass vaccination programs encompass billions of lives, even relatively rare toxicity events
cannot be tolerated. While others may debate the frequency of specific adverse events and the appropriate detection and surveillance methodologies, medicine remains governed by the foundational tenet, primum non nocere.
Where options exist, as is the case with Thimerosal, there is no acceptable rationale for continued use of a known,
suspected or plausible neurotoxin in vaccines for developing children. Safe vaccine policy can now completely
eliminate any concern of mercury for every age-group. This way, none of us need to fear even subtle potential
effects of mercury.

Thesis
It must be recognized I am defining the data of a subgroup of children and in no way making estimates about
autism or autism spectrum disorders in general. These terms will be discussed further in a moment. For what is
often referred to as the broader autism phenotype, numerous candidate genes have been presented in the literature which I will not discuss here. To my knowledge, none of these genes would serve as susceptibility genes for
measles viral persistence, mercury toxicity or autoimmunity of the type we will describe in this presentation, with
the exception of the haplotype B44-SC30-DR4. Within this population, specific vulnerability factors, i.e. single
nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) within genes for enzymes regulating the methionine transulfuration and glutathione systems, occur at statistically significant greater frequency than within the general or control populations.
The biochemical defects predicted by these SNP are all present as well. These include: low methionine, thiol deficiencies, heavy metal (particularly mercury) accumulation, immunological disorders including autoimmunity and
neurotransmitter malregulation, and the probability of viral persistence. Proteomic studies are presently underway
and will help to further define and confirm these associations. Other environmental factors include oxidative
stress, which has broad implications on chemistry, and in utero exposure to mercury (methylmercury from fish
and Thimerosal in anti-Rho immunoglobulin preparations). In all endpoint issues, the findings have been reproduced by at least two independent laboratories, and as in the case of SNP identification and low thiols, by multiple
laboratories using various methodologies. These data will be presented in summary form to the committee during
the brief time allotted, but will be presented in toto in written form with supporting literature.

The sixth month cut-off, which seems to be in practice (whereby children over 6 months are routinely advised to
take vaccines with 25 mcg of ethylmercury, e.g. influenza vaccine) is equally untenable. As has been eloquently
demonstrated by Landing et al, (full paper submitted: Pediatric Pathology and Molecular Medicine 21: 321^342,
2002) the organization of the six layers of the human neocortex undergoes repeated and dynamic changes during the exact time when a known neurotoxicant (ethylmercury) has been and is continuing to be administered.
Strides to reduce Thimerosal in vaccines have been partially successful in the youngest children, but incompletely
understood potential risks remain in older children who are still being exposed through Diptheria Tetanus boosters, Influenza and other vaccines. Since no market-ready alternative for MMR exists in the US, this is a more
challenging issue until new options emerge. I did receive notice from Secretary Tommy Thompson that a nasal
measles vaccine was in development and expected within 2-3 years. No safety data is available, nor will be available for some time. Researchers at Johns Hopkins are working on a DNA MV vaccine. The concept is designed
to further improve safety, but I have serious reservation regarding those within the population at risk for DNA
hypomethylation, i.e. the same individuals with deficient methionine production secondary to folate deficiency,
MTHFR defects or other factors. Methylation of viral DNA is a critical pathway to viral replication regulation/
suppression. A discussion of this is beyond the scope of this paper. Below are two graphs from the Landing paper,
presented here to allow easier understanding of the timing issue on neocortical development.
http://www.vaccinationnews.org/DailyNews/2004/February/IOMBradstreet14.htm
Full Report: http://iom.nationalacademies.org/~/media/4B8DAC4AD18F432283E67D91DB81F49B.ashx

Neuromuscular Disorders • February 2004

Macrophagic myofasciitis:
an infantile Italian case
Author information
Di Muzio A1, Capasso M, Verrotti A, Trotta D,
Lupo S, Pappalepore N, Manzoli C, Chiarelli F, Uncini A.
Center for Neuromuscular Diseases
University ‘G. d’Annunzio’, Chieti, Italy
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis is a recently identified inflammatory
myopathy mostly described in adult French patients complaining
of arthro-myalgias and fatigue. It is probably due to intramuscular injection of aluminium-containing vaccines and is characterized by a typical muscular infiltrate of large macrophages with
aluminium inclusions. We report a 1-year-old Italian child presenting irritability, delayed motor development, hyperCKemia
(up to 10 times the normal value), and typical features of macrophagic myofasciitis on muscle biopsy. The child recovered
fully after steroid therapy. Macrophagic myofasciitis is a new
treatable cause of motor retardation and hyperCKemia in children, and is probably more common than reported. Diagnosis
requires a high index of suspicion and can be missed if biopsy
is performed outside the vaccination site.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=14733966

“It is probably due to
intramuscular injection of
aluminium-containing vaccines
and is characterized by a typical
muscular infiltrate of large macrophages
with aluminium inclusions.”

Pediatrics • April 2004

An analysis of rotavirus vaccine reports
to the vaccine adverse event reporting system:
more than intussusception alone?
Author information
Haber P1, Chen RT, Zanardi LR, Mootrey GT,
English R, Braun MM; VAERS Working Group.
National Immunization Program
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
phaber@cdc.gov
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The rhesus-human rotavirus reassortant-tetravalent vaccine (RRV-TV) was licensed on August, 31, 1998, and
subsequently recommended for routine infant immunizations in the United States. After approximately 1 million
doses had been administered, an increase in acute risk of intussusception in vaccinees led to the suspension of
the use of RRV-TV and its withdrawal from the market. These postmarketing safety studies focused on a single
adverse event (intussusception) and, to minimize the risk of a false-positive finding, accepted only cases that met a
strict case definition. Safer rotavirus vaccines are needed to prevent the substantial global morbidity and mortality
caused by rotavirus infections; their development and future use may benefit from a better understanding of the
postmarketing safety profile of RRV-TV beyond intussusception.
OBJECTIVE
To characterize more completely the postmarketing surveillance safety profile of RRV-TV more completely by
review and analysis of Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) case reports to better understand 1)
whether severe adverse events other than intussusception may have occurred after RRV-TV and 2) the likely
scope of gastrointestinal illnesses, of which the previously identified, highly specific intussusception cases may
account for just a fraction.
SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS
Infants vaccinated with RRV-TV and other vaccines in the United States and for whom a report was submitted to
VAERS during September 1, 1998, to December 31, 1999.
METHODOLOGY
To detect adverse events of interest other than intussusception, we used proportional morbidity analysis to compare the adverse event profile of VAERS reports among infants who received routine vaccines including RRV-TV

(after excluding confirmed and suspected intussusception reports) with infants who received identical vaccine
combinations but without RRV-TV. Next, to better capture all described diagnoses, signs, and symptoms associated with the suspected adverse events, a set of new codes was developed and assigned to each VAERS report.
All 448 nonfatal RRV-TV-associated reports (including intussusception) were recoded manually from the clinical
description on the VAERS report and categorized into clinical groups to better describe a spectrum of reported
illnesses after the vaccine. Each report was assigned to one of the following hierarchical and mutually exclusive
clinical groups: 1) diagnosed intussusception; 2) suspected intussusception; 3) illness consistent with either gastroenteritis or intussusception; 4) gastroenteritis; 5) other gastrointestinal diagnoses (ie, not consistent with intussusception or rotavirus-like gastroenteritis); and 6) nongastrointestinal diagnoses.
RESULTS
Even after excluding intussusception cases, a higher proportion of RRV-TV reports than non-RRV-TV reports
included fever and various gastrointestinal symptoms, most notably bloody stool but also vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, gastroenteritis, abnormal stool, and dehydration. Distribution of RRV-TV reports by clinical groups
was as follows: diagnosed intussusception (109 [24%], suspected intussusception (36 [8%]), and illness consistent
with gastroenteritis or intussusception (33 [7%]), gastroenteritis (101 [22%]), other gastrointestinal diagnoses (10
[2%]), and nongastrointestinal outcomes (159 [35%]). The median time interval between vaccination and illness
onset decreased incrementally among the first 4 clinical groups: from 7 days for diagnosed intussusceptions to 3
days for gastroenteritis.
CONCLUSIONS
Intussusception and gastroenteritis were the most commonly reported outcomes; however, a substantial number
of reports indicate signs and symptoms consistent with either illness, possibly suggestive of a spectrum of gastrointestinal illness(es) related to RRV-TV. Although VAERS data have recognized limitations such as underreporting (that may differ by vaccine) and are nearly always insufficient to prove causality between a vaccine and an
adverse event, this safety profile of RRV-TV may aid better understanding of the pathophysiology of intussusception as well as development of future safer rotavirus vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15060267

“Intussusception and gastroenteritis were the most
commonly reported outcomes; however, a substantial
number of reports indicate signs and symptoms consistent
with either illness, possibly suggestive of a spectrum
of gastrointestinal illness(es) related to RRV-TV.”

“Induction of autoantibodies by mineral oils considered nontoxic
also may have pathogenetic implications in human autoimmune diseases.”
Toxicology Science • April 2004

Distinctive patterns of autoimmune response
induced by different types of mineral oil
Author information
Kuroda Y1, Akaogi J, Nacionales DC,
Wasdo SC, Szabo NJ, Reeves WH, Satoh M.
Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology
Department of Medicine, University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32610-0221, USA
Abstract
Although mineral oils are generally considered nontoxic and have a long history of use in humans, the mineral oil Bayol F (incomplete Freund’s
adjuvant, IFA) and certain mineral oil components (squalene and n-hexadecane) induce lupus-related anti-nRNP/Sm or -Su autoantibodies in
nonautoimmune mice. In the present study, we investigated whether medicinal mineral oils can induce other types of autoantibodies and whether
structural features of hydrocarbons influence autoantibody specificity. Female 3-month-old BALB/c (16-45/group) mice each received an i.p. injection of pristane (C19), squalene (C30), IFA, three medicinal mineral oils (MO-F, MO-HT, MO-S), or PBS. Sera were tested for autoantibodies and
immunoglobulin levels. Hydrocarbons were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. IFA contained mainly C15-C25 hydrocarbons,
whereas MO-HT and MO-S contained C20-C40, and MO-F contained C15-C40. Pristane and n-hexadecane were found in IFA (0.17% and 0.10%
w/v, respectively) and MOs (0.0026-0.027%). At 3 months, pristane and IFA induced mainly IgG2a, squalene IgG1, and MOs IgG3 and IgM in sera.
Anti-cytoplasmic antibodies were common in mice treated with MO-F, as well as those treated with pristane, squalene, and IFA. Anti-ssDNA and
-chromatin antibodies were higher in MO-F and MO-S than in untreated/PBS, squalene-, or IFA-treated mice, suggesting that there is variability
in the induction of anti-nRNP/Sm versus -chromatin/DNA antibodies. The preferential induction of anti-chromatin/ssDNA antibodies without antinRNP/Sm/Su by MO-S and MO-F is consistent with the idea that different types of autoantibodies are regulated differently. Induction of autoantibodies by mineral oils considered nontoxic also may have pathogenetic implications in human autoimmune diseases.
Full Report
http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/78/2/222.long

Journal Of American Physicians And Surgeons • Summer 2004

Chronic Microglial Activation and Excitotoxicity
Secondary to Excessive Immune Stimulation:
Possible Factors in Gulf War Syndrome and Autism
Russell L. Blaylock, M.D.
Abstract
There is considerable and growing evidence that chronic microglial activation plays a major role in numerous
neurological conditions including Alzheimer’s dementia, Parkinson’s disease, ALS, strokes, and inflammatory brain diseases. The release of toxic elements from activated microglia, such as cytokines and excitotoxins, is known to produce neurodegeneration. Peripheral immune stimulation has been shown to activate CNS
microglia, and when excessive can lead to neurodegeneration and cognitive defects commonly associated
with both the Gulf War Syndrome (GWS) and autism. This paper summarizes the mechanism linking these
two disorders with excessive immune stimulation secondary to overvaccination.
The Role of Vaccines
As stated above, peripheral immune stimulation readily activates the brain’s immune system. In most instances this is short- lived, and neuron damage is minimal. Chronic activation of microglia, however, can lead
to substantial disruption of neuronal function and even neurodegeneration.
Two basic processes seem to be responsible for the chronic stimulation of brain immunity: repeated, closely
spaced inoculation without allowing brain recovery, and inoculation with live viruses or contaminant organisms that persist in the brain. Gulf War veterans were given some 17 inoculations very close together. Children are often given as many as five to seven inoculations during one visit to the pediatrician’s office, several
as combined vaccines, such as measles-mumps-rubella (MMR).
Of particular concern is the use of live organisms and contaminant organisms. Garth Nicolson and co-workers
have demonstrated polymerase chain reaction (PCR) evidence of mycoplasma species in the blood samples
of Gulf War veterans suffering from ALS, the incidence of which was found to be increased by 200 percent
in this population.40 Nicolson et al. found that 83 percent of veterans with ALS had positive tests, whereas
positives were rarely seen in controls. It is hypothesized that the vaccines were contaminated primarily with
Mycoplasma fermentens. Numerous activated microglia are found in the spinal cord of affected veterans. The
involvement of live M. fermentens could also explain the appearance of similar illnesses in other household
members.
Excitotoxins contribute to the damage in central nervous system infections. Cerebrospinal fluid glutamate
levels rise in bacterial meningitis, and levels are directly correlated with prognosis. Extracellular glutamate
levels are elevated in all cases of viral encephalopathies, including that of the acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome (AIDS). Glutamate and aspartate levels in the plasma were also found to be elevated in 11 of 14
autistic children.41 There is also evidence that viruses can enhance the toxicity of glutamate.42
Injection of the immune adjuvant lipopolysaccharide (LPS) closely resembles the vaccination process. In one
study, it was shown for the first time that peripherally administered LPS decreased learning in mice.43 The
dose used did not produce observable injury to the neurons, but significantly impaired the animals’ completing the Morris water maze and spontaneous alternation Y-maze, which tests spatial learning requiring a functional hippocampus. Associative learning was affected most. Memory retention was spared. LPS injection,
by elevating IL-1 levels, has been shown to alter hippocampal norepinephrine and serotonin levels, as well as
increasing glutamate levels.44 Elevated serotonin levels have been described in autism.45
Long-term persistent immune activation and low-grade brain inflammation have been described in three children who recovered from Herpex simplex encephalitis before age two.46 The children all demonstrated abundant activated microglia at brain biopsy and continued to deteriorate after viral treatment, indicating continued microgial activation. Viral fragments, without active infection, can produce this phenomenon.
Not all persistent viral infections are associated with obvious inflammatory responses. Using a hamster neurotrophic strain of measles, it was found that a noninflammatory encephalopathy could occur with destruction of the CA1 and CA3 segments of the hippocampus.47 This could more closely resemble the situation in
autistic child and some cases of GWS, since obvious clinical and laboratory signs of inflammation would be
absent. Neurodegeneration caused by this neurotrophic measles virus was blocked using the NMDA receptor
antagonist, MK-801, indicating an excitotoxic mechanism. (The NMDA receptor is the postsynaptic receptor
for L- glutamate that can be activated by the drug N-methyl-D-aspartate.)
The smallpox vaccine is associated with postvaccinal encephalitis at a rate of 1 in 110,000 vaccinations. This
includes only obvious cases of encephalitis; more chronic, subtle cases involving ill-defined neurological
symptoms remote from the vaccination would be overlooked. Most vaccine follow-up studies do not extend
beyond two weeks. It is obvious from the above studies that this follow-up period is far too short. More persistent neurotropic viruses now being discovered appear to be related to chronic neurodegeneration. These include HSV-1, coronavirus, measles virus, and human herpes viruses 6 and 7 (HHV-6 and HHV- 7). A postvaccinal encephalopathy has been described in children under age two years following the smallpox vaccine.48
Most of these occur as chronic conditions.

http://www.jpands.org/vol9no2/blaylock.pdf

Toxicology • July 2004

Flow-cytometric analysis
on adverse effects of
polysorbate 80 in rat thymocytes
Author information
Hirama S1, Tatsuishi T, Iwase K, Nakao H, Umebayashi C,
Nishizaki Y, Kobayashi M, Ishida S, Okano Y, Oyama Y.
Department of Pharmaceutical Care and Clinical Pharmacy
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University
Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
Abstract
The effects of polysorbate 80, a non-ionic surfactant widely used
in pharmaceutical products, on rat thymocytes were examined to
reveal its toxic property at the cellular level. Polysorbate 80 at concentrations of 1-100 microg/ml did not significantly affect the cell
viability. This surfactant at 30 microg/ml or more augmented the intensity of fluo-3 fluorescence, indicating the increase in intracellular
Ca(2+) concentration. Such an augmentation of fluo-3 fluorescence
by polysorbate 80 was not seen under the Ca(2+)-free condition,
suggesting that polysorbate 80 increased membrane Ca(2+) permeability. The concentration-dependent polysorbate 80 at 10 microg/
ml or more attenuated the intensity of 5-chloromethylfluorescein,
indicating a decrease in cellular content of glutathione by polysorbate 80. Furthermore, the agent at 1 microg/ml or more attenuated
the intensity of bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid) trimethine oxonol
fluorescence, being independent from the changes in membrane potential. This phenomenon indicates that polysorbate 80 at 1 microg/
ml or more may attenuate the incorporation of anionic compounds
into the membranes. It can be suggested that polysorbate 80 modifies some of membranes and intracellular physiological parameters
without affecting the cell viability.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15147788

“ It can be suggested
that polysorbate 80 modifies
some of membranes and
intracellular physiological
parameters without affecting
the cell viability.”

JAMA • July 2004

MMR vaccination and febrile seizures:
evaluation of susceptible subgroups and long-term prognosis
Author information
Vestergaard M1, Hviid A, Madsen KM, Wohlfahrt J, Thorsen P, Schendel D, Melbye M, Olsen J.
The Danish Epidemiology Science Centre
Department of Epidemiology and Social Medicine
Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
mv@soci.au.dk
Abstract
CONTEXT
The rate of febrile seizures increases following measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccination but it is unknown whether the rate varies according to personal or family history of seizures, perinatal factors, or socioeconomic status. Furthermore, little is known about the
long-term outcome of febrile seizures following vaccination.
OBJECTIVES
To estimate incidence rate ratios (RRs) and risk differences of febrile seizures following MMR vaccination within subgroups of children
and to evaluate the clinical outcome of febrile seizures following vaccination.
DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS
A population-based cohort study of all children born in Denmark between January 1, 1991, and December 31, 1998, who were alive at
3 months; 537,171 children were followed up until December 31, 1999, by using data from the Danish Civil Registration System and 4
other national registries.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES
Incidence of first febrile seizure, recurrent febrile seizures, and subsequent epilepsy.
RESULTS
A total of 439,251 children (82%) received MMR vaccination and 17,986 children developed febrile seizures at least once; 973 of these
febrile seizures occurred within 2 weeks of MMR vaccination. The RR of febrile seizures increased during the 2 weeks following MMR
vaccination (2.75; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.55-2.97), and thereafter was close to the observed RR for nonvaccinated children. The
RR did not vary significantly in the subgroups of children that had been defined by their family history of seizures, perinatal factors, or
socioeconomic status. At 15 to 17 months, the risk difference of febrile seizures within 2 weeks following MMR vaccination was 1.56 per
1000 children overall (95% CI, 1.44-1.68), 3.97 per 1000 (95% CI, 2.90-5.40) for siblings of children with a history of febrile seizures,
and 19.47 per 1000 (95% CI, 16.05-23.55) for children with a personal history of febrile seizures. Children with febrile seizures following MMR vaccinations had a slightly increased rate of recurrent febrile seizures (RR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.01-1.41) but no increased rate of
epilepsy (RR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.33-1.50) compared with children who were nonvaccinated at the time of their first febrile seizure.
CONCLUSIONS
MMR vaccination was associated with a transient increased rate of febrile seizures but the risk difference was small even in high-risk
children. The long-term rate of epilepsy was not increased in children who had febrile seizures following vaccination compared with
children who had febrile seizures of a different etiology.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15265850

“439,251
children
received MMR
vaccination and
17,986
children
developed
febrile
seizures
at least once ...”

Brain Development • August 2004

An evaluation of serious neurological disorders
following immunization: a comparison of
whole-cell pertussis and acellular pertussis vaccines
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
MedCon, Inc., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
Serious neurological disorders reported following whole-cell pertussis in comparison to
acellular pertussis vaccines were evaluated. The Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System
(VAERS) was analyzed for Emergency Department (ED) visits, life-threatening reactions,
hospitalizations, disabilities, deaths, seizures, infantile spasms, encephalitis/encephalopathy,
autism, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and speech disorders reported with an initial
onset of symptoms within 3 days following whole-cell pertussis and acellular pertussis vaccines among those residing in the US from 1997 to 1999. Controls were employed to evaluate
potential biases in VAERS. Evaluations as to whether whole-cell and acellular vaccines were
administered to populations of similar age and sex were undertaken because these factors
might influence the study’s results. Statistical increases were observed for all events examined
following whole-cell pertussis vaccination in comparison to acellular pertussis vaccination,
excepting cerebellar ataxia. Reporting biases were minimal in VAERS, and whole-cell and
acellular pertussis vaccines were administered to populations of similar age and sex. Biologic
mechanisms for the increased reactogenicity of whole-cell pertussis vaccines may stem from
the fact that whole-cell pertussis vaccines contain 3,000 different proteins, whereas DTaP
contains two to five proteins. Whole-cell pertussis vaccine contains known neurotoxins including: endotoxin, pertussis toxin and adenylate cyclase. Our results, and conclusions by the
US Institute of Medicine, suggest an association between serious neurological disorders and
whole-cell pertussis immunization. In light of the presence of a safer and at least equally efficacious acellular pertussis vaccine alternative, the Japanese and US switch to using acellular
pertussis vaccine seems well justified. Other countries using whole-cell pertussis-containing
vaccines should consider following suite in the near future.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15165669

“... results, and conclusions by the US Institute of Medicine,
suggest an association between serious neurological disorders
and whole-cell pertussis immunization.”

Annals Of Dermatology And Venereology • August 2004

Granuloma with
lymphocytic hyperplasia
following vaccination: 10 cases
Presence of aluminium in the biopsies
Author information
Lafaye S1, Authier FJ, Fraitag S, Rethers L, Bagot M, Wechsler J.
Département de Pathologie, Hôpital Henri Mondor,
51 avenue du Maréchal de Lattre de Tassigny
94010 Créteil, France
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Few cases of cutaneous lymphocytic hyperplasia secondary to vaccination have been published, although such lesions are not rare.
PATIENTS AND METHODS
We report a series of 10 cases registered between 1993 and 2003.
RESULTS
Mean age was 25. The clinical aspect was solitary or multiple subcutaneous nodules, located on the arm, developing after a delay of 1 to
18 months after vaccination. Histologic examination showed a lymphocytic infiltration of the subcutaneous fat, with diffuse and/or follicular pattern, without nuclear atypia, the morphological and immunohistochemical analysis of which revealed the benign nature. In all cases,
there was fibrosis and granuloma composed of lymphocytes, plasma
cells, eosinophils and macrophages with basophilic cytoplasm. Morin
stain showed intralesional aluminium in the 6 investigated cases. Evolution was always benign, with no relapse following exeresis.
DISCUSSION
Cutaneous lymphocytic hyperplasia secondary to vaccination has to be
suspected in a young patient with subcutaneous nodules appearing at
a vaccination site. Evidence of aluminium in the lesions supports the
diagnosis and the hypothesis that aluminium in the vaccine excipient
might have a role in the onset of such lesions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15505542

“Cutaneous lymphocytic hyperplasia
secondary to vaccination has to be suspected
in a young patient with subcutaneous nodules
appearing at a vaccination site. Evidence of
aluminium in the lesions supports the diagnosis ...”

American Journal Of Therapeutics • September 2004

Urinary tract diseases revealed after DTP vaccination
in infants and young children: cytokine irregularities and
down-regulation of cytochrome P-450 enzymes induced by the vaccine
may uncover latent diseases in genetically predisposed subjects
Author information
Prandota J.
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University Medical School, Wroclaw, Poland
Jzef.854735@pharmanet.com.pl
Abstract
Prophylactic vaccinations may sometimes shorten the incubation period of some illnesses and/or convert a latent
infection/inflammation into a clinically apparent disease. Cytokines play a major role in mediating the inflammatory process in various clinical entities and represent a potential source of tissue damage if their production is
not sufficiently well controlled. It seems that irregularities in production of proinflammatory cytokines may be
responsible for the abnormalities associated with full-blown clinical symptoms of various urinary tract diseases
observed after DTP vaccination in 13 infants and young children hospitalized over the past 24 years. On admission, upper respiratory tract diseases, atopic dermatitis, and/or latent urinary tract infection/inflammation were
found in these children. It is suggested that the whole-cell pertussis present in DTP vaccine, acting as an excessive
stimulus in these patients, produced symptoms reminiscent of biologic responses to circulating proinflammatory
monokines such as IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, and IL-6 because earlier it was reported that in vitro the whole-cell
vaccine induced significantly more such cytokine production than did the acellular pertussis or diphtheria-tetanus-only vaccine. Analysis of the cellular immune disturbances previously reported in urinary tract infection/inflammation (increased serum and/or urinary IL-1alpha, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-6 and IL-8), steroid-sensitive
nephrotic syndrome (increased IL-2, IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and decreased or increased IL-4, depending on
the cells studied), and atopic dermatitis (decreased IFN-gamma and increased IL-4 production), may suggest that
similar subclinical chronic cytokine-mediated abnormalities produced in the course of latent diseases revealed
in our patients, combined with those caused by DTP vaccination stimulus, were responsible for the pathomechanism of these clinical entities. This speculation is in agreement with the reports on the long-lasting induction of
cytokine release and down-regulation of hepatic cytochrome P-450 isoenzyme activities after administration of
DTP vaccine to mice and may be supported by the fact that TH1 phenotype is associated with the up-regulation
of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and RANTES, whereas TH2 phenotype is associated with the up-regulation
of the vascular cell adhesion molecule and P-selectin, which are key players in the migration into inflamed tissues
and localization of lymphocytes and other allergic effector and inflammatory cells. Because several inflammatory
cytokines down-regulate gene expression of major cytochrome P-450 and/or other enzymes with the specific effects on mRNA levels, protein expression, and enzyme activity, thus affecting the metabolism of several endogenous lipophilic substances such as steroids, lipid-soluble vitamins, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes,
and exogenous substances, their irregularities in the body may eventually lead to the flare of latent diseases in
some predisposed subjects. Also, interleukin genetic polymorphisms, especially the constellation of TNF-alpha
and IL-6 genetic variants, might predispose some infants with infection to a more than usually intense inflammatory response in the kidneys after vaccination. It seems that the aforementioned pathomechanism may also be
responsible for some cases of sudden infant death syndrome, which is often preceded by infection/inflammation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15356430

“It seems that the aforementioned
pathomechanism may also be responsible
for some cases of sudden infant death syndrome,
which is often preceded by infection/inflammation.”

Neurology • September 2004

Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine
and the risk of multiple sclerosis:
a prospective study
Author information
Hernán MA1, Jick SS, Olek MJ, Jick H.
Department of Epidemiology
Harvard School of Public Health
677 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
miguel_hernan@post.harvard.edu
Abstract
BACKGROUND
A potential link between the recombinant hepatitis B vaccine and an increased risk of multiple sclerosis (MS) has been evaluated in several studies, but some of them have substantial methodologic limitations.

“These findings

METHODS
The authors conducted a nested case-control study within the General
Practice Research Database (GPRD) in the United Kingdom. The authors
identified patients who had a first MS diagnosis recorded in the GPRD
between January 1993 and December 2000. Cases were patients with a
diagnosis of MS confirmed through examination of medical records, and
with at least 3 years of continuous recording in the GPRD before their
date of first symptoms (index date). Up to 10 controls per case were randomly selected, matched on age, sex, practice, and date of joining the
practice. Information on receipt of immunizations was obtained from the
computer records.

the hypothesis that

RESULTS
The analyses include 163 cases of MS and 1,604 controls. The OR of MS
for vaccination within 3 years before the index date compared to no vaccination was 3.1 (95% CI 1.5, 6.3). No increased risk of MS was associated
with tetanus and influenza vaccinations.
CONCLUSIONS
These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that immunization with
the recombinant hepatitis B vaccine is associated with an increased risk of
MS, and challenge the idea that the relation between hepatitis B vaccination and risk of MS is well understood.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15365133

are consistent with

immunization with
the recombinant
hepatitis B vaccine
is associated with an
increased risk of MS,
and challenge the idea
that the relation between
hepatitis B vaccination
and risk of MS is well understood.”

“In this review, we discuss recent articles and controversies pertaining to vaccine-associated adverse events.”
Current Allergy And Asthma Reports • November 2004

Update on side effects from common vaccines
Author information
Song BJ1, Katial RK.
Division of Adult Allergy and Immunology
National Jewish Medical and Research Center
1400 Jackson Street, Denver, CO 80206, USA
Abstract
Vaccines have had a tremendous impact on public health by reducing morbidity and mortality from a variety of
virulent pathogens. However, unintended side effects continue to pose a potential risk that may outweigh the
vaccine’s protective attributes. In this review, we discuss recent articles and controversies pertaining to vaccine-associated adverse events. Included in the discussion are influenza, hepatitis B, measles-mumps-rubella,
diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis, polio, Haemophilus influenzae type b, and rotavirus vaccines. The importance and
contribution of vaccine constituents (such as thimerosal) to side effects is also reviewed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15462710

JAMA • November 2004

Guillain-Barré syndrome following influenza vaccination
Author information
Haber P1, DeStefano F, Angulo FJ, Iskander J, Shadomy SV, Weintraub E, Chen RT.
Immunization Safety Branch
Epidemiology and Surveillance Division
National Immunization Program
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Atlanta, Ga 30333, USA
PHaber@cdc.gov
Abstract
CONTEXT
An unexplained increase in the risk of Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) occurred among recipients of the swine influenza vaccine in 1976-1977. Guillain-Barre syndrome remains the most frequent neurological condition reported after influenza vaccination to the Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS) since its inception in 1990.
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate trends of reports to VAERS of GBS following influenza vaccination in adults.
DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS
VAERS is the US national spontaneous reporting system for adverse events following vaccination. Reports of GBS in persons
18 years or older following influenza vaccination were evaluated for each influenza season from July 1, 1990, through June
30, 2003. The number of people vaccinated was estimated from the National Health Interview Survey and US census data.
Beginning in 1994, active follow-up was conducted to verify GBS diagnosis and obtain other clinical details.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE
Reporting rates of GBS following influenza vaccination over time.
RESULTS
From July 1990 through June 2003, VAERS received 501 reports of GBS following influenza vaccination in adults. The median onset interval (13 days) was longer than that of non-GBS reports of adverse events after influenza vaccine (1 day) (P<.001).
The annual reporting rate decreased 4-fold from a high of 0.17 per 100,000 vaccinees in 1993-1994 to 0.04 in 2002-2003
(P<.001). A GBS diagnosis was confirmed in 82% of reports. Preceding illness within 4 weeks of vaccination was identified
in 24% of reported cases.
CONCLUSIONS
From 1990 to 2003, VAERS reporting rates of GBS after influenza vaccination decreased. The long onset interval and low
prevalence of other preexisting illnesses are consistent with a possible causal association between GBS and influenza vaccine.
These findings require additional research, which can lead to a fuller understanding of the causes of GBS and its possible relationship with influenza vaccine.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15562126

“An unexplained increase in the risk
of Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) occurred
among recipients of the swine influenza
vaccine in 1976-1977. Guillain-Barre syndrome
remains the most frequent neurological condition
reported after influenza vaccination to the Vaccine
Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS)
since its inception in 1990.”

“... the whole cell vaccine may lead to the acute encephalopathy, fever seizures,
hypotonic-hyporeactive episodes, inconsolable crying or anaphylactic reactions.”
Przeglad Epidemiologiczny • 2004

Prevention of pertussis and high expectations concerning vaccines
Author information
Wysocki J.
Katedra Profilaktyki Zdrowotnej
Akademia Medyczna im Karola Marcinkowskiego w Poznaniu
Abstract
The basic vaccine used in the prevention of pertussis is the combined vaccine including a whole cell pertussis
component and tetanus and diphtheria toxoids. Although this type of vaccine has been used more than 50 years in
USA and more than 40 years in Poland it is still effective what can be evidenced by the decreased number of pertussis cases since the vaccine has been implemented. There are however some evidences that the whole cell vaccine may lead to the acute encephalopathy, fever seizures, hypotonic-hyporeactive episodes, inconsolable crying
or anaphylactic reactions. But still is a lack of convincing evidences that the vaccine may be a cause of persistent
brain damage. It was also shown that the longer is the period after the last dose of the vaccine the lower effectiveness was observed. Improving the safety of the pertussis vaccine was the reason of introducing the acellular
vaccines in the eightieth. All these products contain pertussis toxoid and some of them contain also filamentous
hemagglutinin, pertactin and fimbrial agglutinogens. Some published studies have shown that the effectiveness
of these vaccines is similar to the whole cells vaccines and that the incidence of some adverse events especially
seizures, hypotonic-hyporeactive episodes and inconsolable crying is lower.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15807156

Archives de Pediatrie • January 2005

Vaccine adjuvants
and macrophagic myofasciitis
Author information
Siegrist CA.
Département de pathologie
centre de vaccinologie, université de Genève
CMU, Suisse
claire-anne.siegrist@medecine.unige.ch
Abstract
Aluminium-based adjuvants have been used throughout the world since
1926, and their safety profile is such that they have long been the sole
adjuvants registered for clinical use. Their safety has nevertheless been
questioned in France over the last few years following the demonstration that aluminium could persist for prolonged periods at the injection
site, within macrophages gathered around the muscular fibres and forming a microscopic histological lesion called “macrophagic myofasciitis
(MMF)”. This image has been observed in patients undergoing a deltoid
muscular biopsy for diagnostic purposes of various symptoms essentially
including muscular pain and fatigue, in association with a large panel
of various symptoms and diseases, including those of an autoimmune
nature. Studies of the clinical, biological and epidemiological characteristics undertaken to identify a possible association between the MMF histological image and a systematic disease have remained negative. As of
today, available evidence indicates that although vaccine aluminium may
persist at the site of injection for years (“vaccine tattoo”), this does not
reflect the existence of a diffuse inflammatory muscular disease and is
not associated with a specific clinical disease. The existence of sampling
bias inherent to the complexity of the clinical and pathological diagnoses
remains the most likely hypothesis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15653065

“Aluminium-based adjuvants
have been used throughout the world since
1926, and their safety profile is such that they
have long been the sole adjuvants registered
for clinical use. Their safety has nevertheless
been questioned in France over the last few
years following the demonstration that
aluminium could persist for prolonged periods
at the injection site, within macrophages
gathered around the muscular fibres and
forming a microscopic histological lesion
called “macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF)”.”

Danish Medical Journal • January 2005

Combining vitamin A and vaccines: convenience or conflict?
Author information
Benn CS1.
Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen S, Denmark
cb@ssi.dk
Abstract
The present thesis is based on 11 papers from 1995-2010. The studies have mainly taken
place at the Bandim Health Project in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, but a reanalysis of a
randomised trial from Ghana is also included. My research has explored the consequences
of combining high-dose vitamin A supplementation and childhood vaccines. Vitamin A
deficiency is associated with increased mortality. To protect against the consequences of
vitamin A deficiency the World Health Organization recommends that high-dose vitamin
A supplements be given together with routine vaccines to children between 6 months and
5 years of age in more than 100 low-income countries. The recommendation is based on
logistical considerations. The consequences of combining vitamin A and vaccines were not
investigated in randomised trials prior to the implementation of this policy - it was assumed
that the interventions were independent. My first project aimed to study the effect on the
immune response to measles of providing vitamin A together with measles vaccine. We
found that the two interventions were not independent. Vitamin A enhanced the antibody
response to measles vaccine given at 9 months of age significantly, especially in boys.
The effects were sustained over time; the children who had received vitamin A with their
measles vaccine were more protected against measles at 6-8 years of age. Though vitamin
A supplementation had a beneficial effect on the immune response to measles vaccine,
it intrigued me that the effect of vitamin A supplementation on overall mortality was not
always beneficial. While vitamin A was beneficial when given after 6 months of age, and
two studies had shown a beneficial effect when given at birth, all studies testing the effect
between 1-5 months of age had found no effect. These time windows are dominated by
three different childhood vaccines: BCG vaccine given at birth, diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) vaccine given between 1-5 months of age, and measles vaccine given at 9 months
of age. These vaccines have been shown to have strong effects on mortality from infectious diseases in general, so-called non-specific effects. The live BCG and measles vaccine
protects against more mortality than can be ascribed to the prevention of tuberculosis and
measles, respectively. The inactivated DTP vaccine worryingly has been associated with
increased mortality from other infectious diseases. Both positive and negative effects are
strongest for girls. I proposed the hypothesis that vitamin A amplifies not only the specific
vaccine effects, as we saw for measles vaccine, but also the non-specific effects of vaccines
on mortality from other infectious diseases. According to my hypothesis, vitamin A would
enhance the non-specific beneficial effects on mortality of BCG and measles vaccine, but
also the negative effects of DTP vaccine. Hence, the hypothesis offered an explanation for
the mortality-age pattern after vitamin A supplementation. Since it was formulated, I have
aimed to test this hypothesis. Since it is associated with ethical problems to randomise

children above 6 months of age to vitamin A supplementation, and to randomise children
in general to recommended vaccines, we have had to be pragmatic when designing the trials. Hence, our studies have taken many different forms. We conducted an observational
study during a vitamin A campaign in which missing vaccines were also provided, and a
randomised trial testing the effect of two different doses of vitamin A during another campaign; we tested the effect of providing vitamin A with BCG at birth in two randomised trials, and we reanalysed data from one of the original randomised trials of vitamin A supplementation from the perspective of vaccination status. In all studies the main outcome was
mortality. The results document that vitamin A supplements do more than protect against
vitamin A deficiency. They support the hypothesis that vitamin A supplements interact with
vaccines with important consequences for mortality. First, a smaller dose of vitamin A was
more beneficial than a larger dose for girls. Second, the effect of vitamin A given with DTP
vaccine was significantly different from the effect of vitamin A given with measles vaccine,
and children, who received vitamin A with DTP vaccine, had higher mortality than children, who had received vitamin A alone, or who did not receive anything. Third, vitamin
A given with BCG at birth interacted negatively with subsequent DTP vaccines in girls.
Fourth, the effect of vitamin A to older children in Ghana depended on vaccination status,
being beneficial in boys, but harmful in girls who received DTP vaccine during follow-up.
The results also show that boys and girls respond differently to vitamin A and vaccines. It
is a common assumption within public health in low-income countries that interventions
can be combined without producing unexpected consequences. The work presented in this
thesis confronts this assumption; the results show that vitamin A and vaccines should be
seen not only as specific interventions with specific and independent effects, but as immuno-modulators, which can interact with important consequences for overall mortality.
Combining interventions can be convenient and lead to synergistic health benefits, but we
documented several examples, where it also leads to unexpectedly increased mortality.
Thus, to optimise the child health intervention policy in low-income countries a shift in
paradigm is needed. Health interventions should no longer be seen as merely specific and
independent, and the policy should probably not be the same for boys and girls. Though
more complex, it is necessary to evaluate all health interventions in terms of their effect
on overall mortality - and their potential interactions with other health interventions and
potential sex-differential effects should always be investigated. Only in this way can we
assure that the children in the poorest countries get the best possible treatment and avoid
using large amounts of money and resources on interventions which may, in worst case,
kill them.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22239846

“In all studies the main outcome was mortality. The results document that vitamin A
supplements do more than protect against
vitamin A deficiency. They support the
hypothesis that vitamin A supplements
interact with vaccines with important
consequences for mortality. First, a smaller
dose of vitamin A was more beneficial than
a larger dose for girls. Second, the effect
of vitamin A given with DTP vaccine was
significantly different from the effect of
vitamin A given with measles vaccine, and
children, who received vitamin A with DTP
vaccine, had higher mortality than children, who had received vitamin A alone, or
who did not receive anything. Third, vitamin A given with BCG at birth interacted
negatively with subsequent DTP vaccines in
girls. Fourth, the effect of vitamin A to older
children in Ghana depended on vaccination
status, being beneficial in boys, but harmful
in girls who received DTP vaccine during
follow-up. The results also show that boys
and girls respond differently to vitamin A
and vaccines. It is a common assumption
within public health in low-income countries that interventions can be combined
without producing unexpected consequences. The work presented in this thesis confronts this assumption; the results
show that vitamin A and vaccines should
be seen not only as specific interventions
with specific and independent effects, but
as immuno-modulators, which can interact
with important consequences for overall
mortality. Combining interventions can be
convenient and lead to synergistic health
benefits, but we documented several examples, where it also leads to unexpectedly
increased mortality.”

Vaccine • January 2005

Routine vaccinations
associated with divergent effects on female and male mortality
at the paediatric ward in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
Author information
Veirum JE1, Sodemann M, Biai S,
Jakobsen M, Garly ML, Hedegaard K, Jensen H, Aaby P.
Projecto de Saúde de Bandim, Apartado 861
Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
Abstract
Several studies have suggested that routine childhood immunisations may have non-specific effects
on mortality. To examine which disease categories might be affected, we investigated whether immunisation status had an impact on the case fatality for hospitalised children. Between 1990 and
1996, the Bandim Health Project maintained a register of all children from the study area hospitalised at the paediatric ward of the central hospital in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. The study included
2079 hospitalised children aged 1.5-17 months coming from the Bandim study area. Among children whose vaccination card had been seen at admission, the case fatality ratio for measles-vaccinated children versus measles-unvaccinated children was 0.51 (0.27-0.98), the beneficial effect
being significantly stronger for girls than for boys (test of interaction, p=0.050). The protective
effect of measles vaccine remained unchanged when hospitalised measles cases were excluded
from the analysis (0.49 (0.26-0.94)). The effect of measles vaccine was strongest for children with
pneumonia (MR=0.28 (0.07-0.91)) and presumptive malaria (MR=0.40 (0.13-1.18)). For measlesvaccinated children, the female to male case fatality ratio was 0.54 (0.28-0.97). Among children
having received diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) and oral polio (OPV) as the last vaccines, girls
had higher case fatality than boys, the mortality ratio being 1.63 (1.03-2.59). The female to male
ratios were significantly inversed for DTP and OPV versus measles vaccine (test of interaction,
p=0.003). These results remained unchanged if 1-month post-discharge deaths were included in
the analysis, and in multivariate analyses controlling for determinants of mortality. In conclusion,
measles vaccine was associated with reduced mortality from diseases other than measles, the beneficial effect being stronger for girls than for boys. On the other hand, DTP and OPV vaccine were
associated with higher case fatality for girls than for boys. Understanding the divergent non-specific effects of common vaccines may contribute to better child survival in developing countries.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15629363

“Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis
and Oral Polio Vaccine were associated
with higher case fatality for girls than for boys.”

Reviews In Medical Virology • January 2005

Viruses as adjuvants for autoimmunity:
evidence from Coxsackievirus-induced myocarditis
Author information
Fairweather D1, Frisancho-Kiss S, Rose NR.
The Department of Pathology
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
Abstract
Adjuvants historically are considered to stimulate immune responses ‘non-specifically’. Recently, a renewed understanding of the critical role of innate immunity in
influencing the development of an adaptive immune response has led researchers
to a better understanding of ‘the adjuvant effect’. Although innate immune cells do
not respond to specific antigenic epitopes on pathogens, they do produce restricted
responses to particular classes of pathogens via pattern recognition receptors such as
Toll-like receptors (TLR). Coxsackievirus infection was found to upregulate TLR4
on mast cells and macrophages immediately following infection. Although both susceptible and resistant mice produce a mixture of Th1 and Th2 cytokines, susceptible
mice have increased levels of key proinflammatory cytokines, increased numbers of
mast cells, and go on to develop chronic autoimmune heart disease. TLR4 signalling also increases acute myocarditis and proinflammatory cytokines in the heart.
Many similarities are described in the pathogenesis of Coxsackievirus and the adjuvant-induced model of myocarditis including upregulation of particular TLRs and
cytokines soon after inoculation. Recent findings suggest that mast cell activation by
viruses or adjuvants may be important in initiating autoimmune disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15386590

“... mast cell activation by viruses or adjuvants may
be important in initiating autoimmune disease.”

Autoimmunity Reviews • February 2005

Autoimmune hazards of hepatitis B vaccine
Author information
Girard M1.
1 bd de la République 78000-Versailles, France
agosgirard@aol.com
Abstract
According to Hippocratic tradition, the safety level of a preventive medicine must
be very high, as it is aimed at protecting people against diseases that they may not
contract. This paper points out that information on the safety of hepatitis B vaccine (HBV) is biased as compared to classical requirements of evidence-based
medicine (EBM), as exemplified by a documented selectivity in the presentation
or even publication of available clinical or epidemiological data. Then, a review is
made of data suggesting that HBV is remarkable by the frequency, the severity and
the variety of its complications, some of them probably related to a mechanism of
molecular mimicry leading to demyelinating diseases, and the others reproducing
the spectrum of non-hepatic manifestations of natural hepatitis B. To be explained,
this unusual spectrum of toxicity requires additional investigations based upon
complete release of available data.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15722255

“... a review is made of data suggesting that Hepatitus B
Vaccine is remarkable by the frequency, the severity and
the variety of its complications, some of them probably
related to a mechanism of molecular mimicry leading to
demyelinating diseases, and the others reproducing the
spectrum of non-hepatic manifestations of natural hepatitis B.”

“Result suggests that polysorbate 80 (at clinically-relevant concentrations)
may increase the susceptibility of cells to oxidative stress.”
Toxicology • February 2005

Polysorbate 80
increases the susceptibility to oxidative stress in rat thymocytes
Author information
Tatsuishi T1, Oyama Y, Iwase K, Yamaguchi JY,
Kobayashi M, Nishimura Y, Kanada A, Hirama S.
Laboratory of Cellular Signaling
Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences
The University of Tokushima
Tokushima 770-8502, Japan
Abstract
Effect of simultaneous application of polysorbate 80, a nonionic surfactant widely used in pharmaceutical products, and hydrogen peroxide on rat thymocytes was examined to see if polysorbate 80 increases the susceptibility
to oxidative stress because this surfactant decreases the cellular content of glutathione. Polysorbate 80 at clinically-relevant concentrations increases the cytotoxicity of hydrogen peroxide under the in vitro condition. Result
suggests that polysorbate 80 may increase the susceptibility of cells to oxidative stress.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15590117

Journal Of The American Academy Of Dermatology • April 2005

Vaccination-induced
cutaneous pseudolymphoma
Author information
Maubec E1, Pinquier L, Viguier M, Caux F,
Amsler E, Aractingi S, Chafi H, Janin A, Cayuela JM,
Dubertret L, Authier FJ, Bachelez H.
Institut de Recherche sur la Peau
Université Paris 7, Paris, France
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Although mild early cutaneous transient reactions to vaccinations are
common, late-onset chronic lesions have been scarcely reported. We
report herein a series of 9 patients presenting with cutaneous and subcutaneous pseudolymphoma.
OBSERVATIONS
Nine patients presenting with late-onset, chronic skin lesions occurring at the site of antihepatitis B (8 cases) and antihepatitis A (one case)
vaccination were reported. Histopathologic and immunohistochemic
studies, and molecular analysis of clonality of skin biopsy specimens,
were performed. Furthermore, the presence of vaccine products was
investigated in skin lesions by using histochemical, microanalytic, and
electronic microscopy techniques.
RESULTS
Histopathologic studies showed dermal and hypodermal lymphocytic
follicular infiltrates with germinal center formation. The center of follicles was mostly composed of B cells without atypia, whereas CD4+
T cells were predominant at the periphery. Molecular analysis of clonality revealed a polyclonal pattern of B-cell and T-cell subsets. Aluminium deposits were evidenced in all cases by using histochemical
staining in all cases, and by microanalysis and ultrastructural studies
in one case. Associated manifestations were vitiligo (one case) and
chronic fatigue with myalgia (two cases).
CONCLUSION
Cutaneous lymphoid hyperplasia is a potential adverse effect of vaccinations including aluminium hydroxide as an adjuvant. Further prospective studies are warranted to evaluate the incidence of this complication in the immunized population.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15793512

“Cutaneous lymphoid hyperplasia
is a potential adverse effect of vaccinations
including aluminium hydroxide as an adjuvant.”

Autoimmunity • May 2005

Infection, vaccines and other
environmental triggers of autoimmunity
Author information
Molina V1, Shoenfeld Y.
Department of Medicine B and The Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
The etiology of autoimmune diseases is still not clear but genetic, immunological, hormonal and environmental factors are considered to be
important triggers. Most often autoimmunity is not followed by clinical
symptoms unless an additional event such as an environmental factor
favors an overt expression. Many environmental factors are known to
affect the immune system and may play a role as triggers of the autoimmune mosaic.Infections: bacterial, viral and parasitic infections
are known to induce and exacerbate autoimmune diseases, mainly by
the mechanism of molecular mimicry. This was studied for some syndromes as for the association between SLE and EBV infection, pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection and more. Vaccines, in several reports were found to be
temporally followed by a new onset of autoimmune diseases. The same
mechanisms that act in infectious invasion of the host, apply equally to
the host response to vaccination. It has been accepted for diphtheria and
tetanus toxoid, polio and measles vaccines and GBS. Also this theory has
been accepted for MMR vaccination and development of autoimmune
thrombocytopenia, MS has been associated with HBV vaccination. Occupational and other chemical exposures are considered as triggers for
autoimmunity. A debate still exists about the role of silicone implants in
induction of scleroderma like disease.Not only foreign chemicals and
agents have been associated with induction of autoimmunity, but also
an intrinsic hormonal exposure, such as estrogens. This might explain
the sexual dimorphism in autoimmunity. Better understanding of these
environmental risk factors will likely lead to explanation of the mechanisms of onset and progression of autoimmune diseases and may lead
to effective preventive involvement in specific high-risk groups. So by
diagnosing a new patient with autoimmune disease a wide anamnesis
work should be done.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16126512

“The same mechanisms
that act in infectious invasion of the host,
apply equally to the host response to vaccination.

It has been accepted for diphtheria and tetanus toxoid,
polio and measles vaccines and Guillain Barre Syndrome.

Also this theory has been accepted for MMR vaccination
and development of autoimmune thrombocytopenia,
Multiple Sclerosis has been associated with HBV vaccination.”

Neurologic Clinics • May 2005

Neurodegenerative memory disorders:
a potential role of environmental toxins
Author information
Caban-Holt A1, Mattingly M, Cooper G, Schmitt FA.
Sanders-Brown Center on Aging
University of Kentucky Medical Center
Lexington, KY 40536, USA
Abstract
The hypothesis that neurotoxins may play a role in neurodegenerative disorders remains an elusive one, given that
epidemiologic studies often provide conflicting results. Although these conflicting results may result from methodological differences within and between studies, the complexity of chemical disruption of the central nervous
system cannot be ignored in attempts to evaluate this hypothesis in different neurodegenerative disorders. Spencer
provides a detailed review of the complex processes involved in defining the neurotoxic potential of naturally occurring and synthetic agents. Even concepts such as exposure and dose, as often reported in studies attempting to
evaluate the risk imparted by a potential compound, can be deceptive. For example, although dose reflects “that
amount of chemical transferred to the exposed subject”, factors such as time and concentration in the organism,
the ability to access the central nervous system, and how a compound reaches the central nervous system (routes
of administration) or secondarily affects other organ systems leading to central nervous system disruption are
clearly important to the concept of neurotoxic risk in neurodegenerative disorders. These factors would appear to
explain the observed disagreements between studies using animal or neuronal models of neurotoxicity and population-based studies in humans. The importance of these factors and how a potential neurotoxin is investigated are
clearly seen in the data on AD and aluminum. In contrast, the impact of MTPT on the central nervous system is
more direct and compelling. Added complexity in the study of neurotoxins in human neurodegeneration is derived
from data showing that agents may have additive, potentiating, synergistic, or antagonistic effects. Therefore, data
from studies evaluating EMF risks could be readily confounded by the presence or absence of heavy metals (eg,
arc welding). Other factors that may conceal neurotoxic causes for a given disorder focus on additional features
such as genetic predispositions, physiologic changes that occur in aging, and even nutritional status that can support or hinder the affect of a given agent on the central nervous system. Finally, many studies that investigate
exposure risk do not readily incorporate the five criteria proposed by Schaumburg for establishing causation.
For example, if we apply Schaumburg’s first criterion, epidemiologic studies often determines the presence of
an agent through history, yet they cannot readily confirm exposure based on environmental or clinical chemical
analyses to fulfill this criterion for causation. Additional limitations in research design along with the populations
and methods that are sued to study neurotoxins in human neurodegenerative disorders often fail to meet other criteria such as linking the severity and onset with duration and exposure level. Therefore, although studies of agents
such as MTPT provide compelling models of neurotoxins and neurodegeneration in humans, disorders such as
ALS, PD, and particularly AD will require additional effort if research is to determine the contribution (presence
or absence) of neurotoxins to these neurologic disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15757794

“Added complexity
in the study of neurotoxins
in human neurodegeneration
is derived from data showing that
agents may have additive, potentiating,
synergistic, or antagonistic effects.”

Journal Of Neurochemistry • May 2005

Vaccination alone or in combination with
pyridostigmine promotes and prolongs activation of
stress-activated kinases induced by
stress in the mouse brain
Author information
Wang D1, Perides G, Liu YF.
Department of Pharmacology
Boston University School of Medicine
Massachusetts 02118, USA
Abstract
Gulf war illnesses (GWI) are currently affecting thousands of veterans. To date,
the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of these illnesses remain
unknown. During Gulf war I, military personnel were exposed to multiple stressors, one or more vaccines, pyridostigmine (PY), and other chemicals. In our previous studies, we found that stress induces activation of mitogen activated proteinkinase kinase 4 (MKK4) and c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) in the mouse brain
(Liu et al. 2004). Our working hypothesis is that stress, vaccination, and PY may
synergistically induce activation of MKK4 and JNK in the brain, leading to overactivation of these kinases and neurological injuries. To test our hypothesis, we
examined the effect of keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) immunization alone or
in combination with PY on activation of MKK4 and JNK induced by stress. We
found that KLH immunization alone had a small effect on MKK4 or JNK activity
but it significantly enhanced and prolonged activation of these kinases induced by
stress, from a few hours to several days. Additionally, KLH immunization caused
activation of p38MAPK. PY treatment further enhanced and prolonged activation
of these kinases induced by stress in combination with KLH immunization and
triggered activation of caspase-3. Our current studies suggest that stress, vaccination, and PY may synergistically act on multiple stress-activated kinases in the
brain to cause neurological impairments in GWI.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15857404

“Our current studies
suggest that stress, vaccination,
and pyridostigmine may synergistically
act on multiple stress-activated kinases
in the brain to cause neurological impairments
in Gulf War Illness.”

Journal Of Hygiene Research • May 2005

Effect of formaldehyde
on energy metabolism in
postnatal rat cortex neurons in culture
Author information
Liu T1, Bai XT.
Department of Toxicology
Institute of Environment Health and Related Product Safety
China CDC, Beijing 100021, China
Abstract
OBJECTIVE:
The mechanism of the effect of formaldehyde on CNS
which is much concerned to formaldehyde poisoning was studied.
METHODS:
In the present study, incubation of postnatal rat cortex neurons in culture with
formaldehyde at 1, 2, 4, 8 mg/L (medium) was carried out to evaluate the effect
of formaldehyde on energy metabolism.
RESULTS:
The result of cytochemistry showed a significant down-regulation of cytochrome oxidase activity after consecutive formaldehyde treatment for 4 hours
compared with the control (P < 0.01), the significant dosage-response relationship was also observed (R value is - 0.92, P < 0.01).
CONCLUSION:
The result demonstrates that excessive exposure of formaldehyde can decrease
cytochrome oxidase activity in cortex neurons which indicates energy metabolism will be decreased and therefore normal physiology function would be
damaged.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16111027

“The result demonstrates
that excessive exposure of
formaldehyde can decrease
cytochrome oxidase activity
in cortex neurons which indicates
energy metabolism will be decreased
and therefore normal physiology
function would be damaged.”

Autoimmunity • June 2005

A case-control study
of serious autoimmune adverse events
following hepatitis B immunization
Author information
Geier DA1, Geier MR.
MedCon, Inc., Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
Abstract
Hepatitis B infection is one of the most important causes of acute and
chronic liver disease. During the 1980s, genetically engineered hepatitis
B vaccines (HBVs) were introduced in the United States. A large-series
of serious autoimmune conditions have been reported following HBVs,
despite the fact that HBVs have been reported to be “generally well-tolerated.” A case-control epidemiological study was conducted to evaluate
serious autoimmune adverse events prospectively reported to the vaccine
adverse events reporting system (VAERS) database following HBVs, in
comparison to an age, sex, and vaccine year matched unexposed tetanuscontaining vaccine (TCV) group for conditions that have been previously
identified on an a priori basis from case-reports. Adults receiving HBV
had significantly increased odds ratios (OR) for multiple sclerosis (OR =
5.2, p < 0.0003, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.9 - 20), optic neuritis
(OR = 14, p < 0.0002, 95% CI = 2.3 - 560), vasculitis (OR = 2.6, p < 0.04,
95% CI = 1.03 - 8.7), arthritis (OR = 2.01, p < 0.0003, 95% CI = 1.3 - 3.1),
alopecia (OR = 7.2, p < 0.0001, 95% CI = 3.2 - 20), lupus erythematosus
(OR = 9.1, p < 0.0001, 95% CI = 2.3 - 76), rheumatoid arthritis (OR = 18,
p < 0.0001, 95% CI = 3.1 - 740), and thrombocytopenia (OR = 2.3, p <
0.04, 95% CI = 1.02 - 6.2) in comparison to the TCV group. Minimal confounding or systematic error was observed. Despite the negative findings
of the present study regarding the rare serious adverse effects of HBVs, it
is clear that HBV does, indeed, offer significant benefits, but it is also clear
that chances of exposure to hepatitis B virus in adults is largely life-style
dependent. Adults should make an informed consent decision, weighing
the risks and benefits of HBV, as to whether or not to be immunized.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16206512

“Adults receiving
Hepatitus B Vaccine
had significantly increased
odds ratios (OR) for
multiple sclerosis ...
optic neuritis ...
vasculitis ...
arthritis ...
alopecia ...
lupus erythematosus ...
rheumatoid arthritis and
thrombocytopenia”

Environmental Health Perspectives • September 2005

Meeting report:
summary of IARC monographs
on formaldehyde, 2-butoxyethanol,
and 1-tert-butoxy-2-propanol
Author information
Cogliano VJ1, Grosse Y, Baan RA, Straif K,
Secretan MB, El Ghissassi F; Working Group for Volume 88
International Agency for Research on Cancer
Lyon, France
Abstract
An international, interdisciplinary working group of expert scientists
met in June 2004 to develop IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of
the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans (IARC Monographs)
on formaldehyde, 2-butoxyethanol, and 1-tert-butoxy-2-propanol.
Each IARC Monograph includes a critical review of the pertinent scientific literature and an evaluation of an agent’s potential to cause
cancer in humans. After a thorough discussion of the epidemiologic,
experimental, and other relevant data, the working group concluded
that formaldehyde is carcinogenic to humans, based on sufficient evidence in humans and in experimental animals. In the epidemiologic
studies, there was sufficient evidence that formaldehyde causes nasopharyngeal cancer, “strong but not sufficient” evidence of leukemia,
and limited evidence of sinonasal cancer. The working group also
concluded that 2-butoxyethanol and 1-tert-butoxy-2-propanol are not
classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans, each having limited
evidence in experimental animals and inadequate evidence in humans.
These three evaluations and the supporting data will be published as
Volume 88 of the IARC Monographs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16140628

“there was sufficient evidence
that formaldehyde causes
nasopharyngeal cancer,
“strong but not sufficient” evidence
of leukemia, and limited evidence
of sinonasal cancer.”

Cochrane Database Systematic Review • October 2005

Vaccines for
measles, mumps and rubella
in children
Author information
Demicheli V1, Jefferson T, Rivetti A, Price D.
Servizo Sovrazonale di Epidemiologia, ASL 20
Via Venezia 6, Alessandria, Piemonte, Italy 15100
demichelivittorio@asl20.piemonte.it
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Public debate over the safety of the trivalent measles,
mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine, and the resultant
drop in vaccination rates in several countries, persists
despite its almost universal use and accepted effectiveness.
OBJECTIVES
We carried out a systematic review to assess the evidence of effectiveness and unintended effects associated
with MMR.
SEARCH STRATEGY
We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled
Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library Issue 4,
2004), MEDLINE (1966 to December 2004), EMBASE
(1974 to December 2004), Biological Abstracts (from
1985 to December 2004), and Science Citation Index
(from 1980 to December 2004). Results from reviews,
handsearching and from the consultation of manufacturers and authors were also used.

SELECTION CRITERIA
Eligible studies were comparative prospective or retrospective trials testing the effects of MMR compared
to placebo, do-nothing or a combination of measles,
mumps and rubella antigens on healthy individuals up to
15 years of age. These studies were carried out or published by 2004.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
We identified 139 articles possibly satisfying our inclusion criteria and included 31 in the review.
MAIN RESULTS
MMR was associated with a lower incidence of upper respiratory tract infections, a higher incidence of irritability,
and similar incidence of other adverse effects compared
to placebo. The vaccine was likely to be associated with
benign thrombocytopenic purpura, parotitis, joint and
limb complaints, febrile convulsions within two weeks
of vaccination and aseptic meningitis (mumps) (Urabe
strain-containing MMR). Exposure to MMR was unlikely to be associated with Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, autism or aseptic meningitis (mumps) (Jeryl-Lynn
strain-containing MMR). We could not identify studies
assessing the effectiveness of MMR that fulfilled our inclusion criteria even though the impact of mass immunisation on the elimination of the diseases has been largely
demonstrated.
AUTHORS’ CONCLUSIONS
The design and reporting of safety outcomes in MMR
vaccine studies, both pre- and post-marketing, are largely inadequate. The evidence of adverse events following
immunisation with MMR cannot be separated from its
role in preventing the target diseases.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16235361

“The design and reporting of safety outcomes
in MMR vaccine studies, both pre- and post-marketing,
are largely inadequate. The evidence of adverse events
following immunisation with MMR cannot be separated
from its role in preventing the target diseases.”

Clinical And Experimental Immunology • November 2005

Anti-phospholipid antibodies following
vaccination with recombinant hepatitis B vaccine
Author information
Martinuc Porobic J1, Avcin T, Bozic B, Kuhar M,
Cucnik S, Zupancic M, Prosenc K, Kveder T, Rozman B.

“ In genetically susceptible individuals or together with some
other triggers such combination might confer the risk of
developing a continuous autoimmune response in an individual.”

Department of Allergology
Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology
University Children’s Hospital Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract
This study was undertaken to evaluate the possible role of hepatitis B recombinant
vaccine inducing the synthesis of IgG and IgM anti-cardiolipin antibodies (aCL),
antibodies against beta(2)GPI (anti-beta(2)GPI), lupus anti-coagulant (LA), antinuclear antibodies and antibodies against extractable nuclear antigens (anti-ENA).
The study population consisted of 85 healthy students (63 female, 22 male; mean
age 20.8 years), vaccinated with three doses of recombinant DNA hepatitis B vaccine. One month after vaccination with the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine a minority of vaccinated individuals showed changes in IgG or IgM aCL or anti-beta(2)GPI
or LA activity (P < 0.001). Among subjects in whom changes of IgG anti-beta(2)GPI
were observed, a significantly higher number of increased (8/85) than decreased
(2/85) values were found (P < 0.01). Analyses of paired data showed that differences
in aCL or anti-beta(2)GPI levels before vaccination or 1 month later did not reach
statistical significance. In two people aCL transitorily reached medium positivity
after the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine with a drop 5 months later. Similar evident
anti-beta(2)GPI fluctuation was also observed in one person. Another participant
was initially low positive for IgG anti-beta2GPI and the levels were increasing after
vaccination. Two participants became positive for anti-nuclear antibodies during 6
months’ follow-up. There were no sex-dependent differences in tested antibodies
observed and no associations between levels of aPL and levels of anti-HBV antibodies. We conclude that HBV can induce aPL, although rarely. In genetically susceptible individuals or together with some other triggers such combination might confer
the risk of developing a continuous autoimmune response in an individual.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1809502/

Editors Note:
aPL or Antiphospholipid Syndrome
Antiphospholipid syndrome or antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS or APLS), or often also Hughes syndrome, is
an autoimmune, hypercoagulable state caused by antiphospholipid antibodies. APS provokes blood clots (thrombosis) in
both arteries and veins as well as pregnancy-related complications such as miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm delivery, and
severe preeclampsia.
Antiphospholipid syndrome can be primary or secondary. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome occurs in the absence of
any other related disease. Secondary antiphospholipid syndrome occurs with other autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). In rare cases, APS leads to rapid organ failure due to generalised thrombosis; this is
termed “catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome” (CAPS) and is associated with a high risk of death.
Antiphospholipid syndrome often requires treatment with anticoagulant medication such as heparin to reduce the risk
of further episodes of thrombosis and improve the prognosis of pregnancy. Warfarin/Coumadin is not used during pregnancy because it can cross the placenta, unlike heparin, and is teratogenic.

Pediatrics And Neurology • November 2005

Macrophagic myofasciitis in childhood:
a controversial entity
Author information
Rivas E1, Gómez-Arnáiz M, Ricoy JR, Mateos F,
Simón R, García-Peñas JJ, Garcia-Silva MT, Martín E,
Vázquez M, Ferreiro A, Cabello A.
Department of Pathology, Neuropathology Section
Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis is an unusual inflammatory myopathy, which has been almost
exclusively reported in French adults with diffuse arthromyalgias and asthenia. It is
characterized by an infiltrate of densely packed macrophages, with granular periodicacid-Schiff positive content, on muscle biopsies at the site of vaccination. The presence
of aluminum inclusions in these macrophages points to an inappropriate reaction to
aluminum used as an adjuvant in some vaccines. Although in adults this entity is well
defined, less than 15 cases have been reported in children. This study describes seven
children, younger than 3 years of age, with typical lesions of macrophagic myofasciitis
on quadriceps muscle biopsy. In five cases, biopsies were performed to exclude mitochondrial pathology. All the children developed hypotonia and motor or psychomotor
delay, associated with others symptoms. Abnormal neuroimaging was evident in six
cases. Spectrometry studies detected elevated levels of aluminum in muscle in three of
four cases tested. Despite the wide use of vaccines in childhood, macrophagic myofasciitis was rarely observed in children and its characteristic histologic pattern could not
be correlated with a distinctive clinical syndrome.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16243223

“Although in adults this entity is well defined,
less than 15 cases have been reported in children.
This study describes seven children, younger than 3
years of age, with typical lesions of macrophagic
myofasciitis on quadriceps muscle biopsy.”

European Journal Of Pediatrics • November 2005

Nineteen cases
of persistent pruritic nodules and contact allergy
to aluminium after injection of commonly used
aluminium-adsorbed vaccines
Author information
Bergfors E1, Björkelund C, Trollfors B.
Department of Primary Health Care
Göteborg University, Box 454
40530 Gothenburg, Sweden
elisabet.bergfors@allmed.gu.se
Abstract
Rare cases of persistent pruritic nodules, sometimes associated with aluminium (Al) allergy,
have been reported after the use of several Al adsorbed vaccines. During vaccine trials in the
1990s a high incidence of pruritic nodules (645 cases/76,000 recipients), in 77% associated
with Al allergy, was observed after the administration of diphtheria-tetanus / acellular pertussis (DT/aP) vaccines from a single producer. In the present report 19 children with pruritic
nodules after vaccination with Al hydroxide-adsorbed DTaP/polio+Hib (Infanrix, Pentavac)
are described. The children had intensely itching nodules at the injection site, often aggravated during upper respiratory tract infections, and local skin alterations. So far, the symptoms
have persisted for up to 7 years. The median time between vaccination and onset of symptoms
was 1 month. 16 children were epicutaneously tested for Al, all with positive reactions indicating delayed hypersensitivity to Al. The condition is not commonly known but is important
to recognise, as the child and the family may suffer considerably. Future vaccinations with
Al-adsorbed vaccines may cause aggravation of the symptoms and the Al allergy. Al-containing skin products, such as antiperspirants, may cause contact dermatitis. Nodules may
be mistaken for tumours. Even though the incidence of itching nodules and Al allergy after
administration of Infanrix, Pentavac and other Al-adsorbed vaccines is probably low, research
to replace Al adjuvants seems appropriate. We conclude that intensely itching subcutaneous
nodules, lasting for many years, and hypersensitivity to aluminium may occur after DTaP/
polio+Hib vaccination of infants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16044278

“... intensely itching subcutaneous nodules,
lasting for many years, and hypersensitivity to
aluminium may occur after DTaP/polio + Hib
vaccination of infants.”

Medical Hypotheses • 2005

Do cytosine guanine dinucleotide (CpG)
fragments induce vasoactive neuropeptide mediated
fatigue-related autoimmune disorders?
Author information
Staines DR.
Gold Coast Public Health Unit
10-12 Young Street, Southport 4215
Qld., Australia
don_staines@health.qld.gov.au
Abstract
Autoimmune dysfunction of certain vasoactive neuropeptides (e.g., vasoactive intestinal peptide, pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide) may be implicated in a range of disorders associated with fatigue-like states (chronic fatigue syndrome, Gulf War syndrome) and even sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). The
important roles of these vasoactive neuropeptides make them a vulnerable target for
autoimmune dysfunction. They are known to be associated with heat shock proteins
for intracellular functioning with which they may form immunostimulating complexes. Cytosine guanine dinucleotide (CpG) fragments are potently immunogenic
DNA fragments which serve as friend or foe recognition systems between bacterial
(hypomethylated) and mammalian (methylated) DNA and are being assessed for
suitability for use in human vaccines as adjuvants. Interactions between CpG fragments, heat shock proteins and vasoactive neuropeptides may be associated with
fatigue-related autoimmune conditions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15922114

“Interactions between CpG fragments, heat shock
proteins and vasoactive neuropeptides may be
associated with fatigue-related autoimmune conditions.”

“In this study, 24.5% of asymptomatic children from 6 months to 5 years of age
were sensitized to one or more contact allergens, and thimerosal was the second most prevalent allergen ...”
Dermatitis • 2005

Hypersensitivity Reactions to Vaccine Components
Noushin Heidary; David E. Cohen
Department of Dermatology and Allergic, Occupational and Environmental Dermatology
New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
Excerpt
This article will review adverse cutaneous events consistent with hypersensitivity reactions to the following ingredients in vaccines: aluminum, thimerosal, 2-phenoxyethanol, formaldehyde, and neomycin.
Despite the low clinical relevance of thimerosal allergy, the rate of thimerosal sensitivity has increased during the last decade,
probably because of the increase in vaccines administered during infancy. With the initiation of a mass vaccination campaign in
Austria in 1981, the administration of thimerosal-containing vaccines for tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) increased from 6% in
1980 to 86% in 2001. The growing number of people immunized to TBE has been concomitant with an increase in thimerosalsensitized individuals in Austria.[14,20]
Bruckner and colleagues investigated the prevalence of positive patch-test results using the TRUE Test system (Mekos Laboratories A/S, Hillerød, Denmark) on children under 5 years of age to determine whether sensitization to contact allergens was
common in infancy.[21]
In this study, 24.5% of asymptomatic children from 6 months to 5 years of age were sensitized to one or more contact allergens,
and thimerosal was the second most prevalent allergen (after nickel). Vaccines thus appear to sensitize children to thimerosal at
a younger age than expected, given the unlikeliness of contact exposure in this age group to other thimerosal-containing products. Osawa and colleagues also demonstrated this phenomenon by associating DTP vaccination with thimerosal sensitivity in a
guinea pig model.[22]
To determine whether patients with thimerosal allergy could tolerate vaccination, Audicana and colleagues evaluated tolerance to
thimerosal-containing vaccines in 125 patients sensitized to mercury derivatives and/or thimerosal.[23] Patch-test results in this
patient population revealed that 45% of patients had positive reactions to thimerosal (0.05% in petrolatum), 74% had positive
reactions to metallic mercury (0.5% in petrolatum), and 70% had positive reactions to mercury chloride (0.1% in water). In 10
cases, of all mercury derivatives tested, thimerosal yielded the only positive patch-test result. A questionnaire revealed that the
likely source of sensitization in the 57 thimerosal patch-test-positive patients was vaccination.
Full Report
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/516045

Virchows Archives • January 2006

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
shortly after hexavalent vaccination:
another pathology in suspected SIDS?
Author information
Ottaviani G1, Lavezzi AM, Matturri L.
Institute of Pathology, University of Milan
Via della Commenda 19, Milan 20122, Italy
Abstract
Experts from panels of the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medical Products have investigated whether there might be a link between
hexavalent vaccines and some cases of deaths that occurred. Participants
included pathologists with experience in the field of vaccines and sudden infant death syndrome who conducted autopsies. However, to the
best of our knowledge, little, if any, attention was paid to examination
of the brainstem and the cardiac conduction systems on serial sections,
nor was the possibility of a triggering role of the vaccine in these deaths
considered. Herein we report the case of a 3-month-old female infant
dying suddenly and unexpectedly shortly after being given a hexavalent
vaccination. Examination of the brainstem on serial sections revealed bilateral hypoplasia of the arcuate nucleus. The cardiac conduction system
presented persistent fetal dispersion and resorptive degeneration. This
case offers a unique insight into the possible role of hexavalent vaccine
in triggering a lethal outcome in a vulnerable baby. Any case of sudden
unexpected death occurring perinatally and in infancy, especially soon
after a vaccination, should always undergo a full necropsy study according to our guidelines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16231176

“This case offers a unique insight into the
possible role of hexavalent vaccine in
triggering a lethal outcome in a vulnerable
baby. Any case of sudden unexpected death
occurring perinatally and in infancy,
especially soon after a vaccination, should
always undergo a full necropsy study
according to our guidelines.”

Vaccine • April 2006

Low-dose intraperitoneal Freund’s adjuvant:
toxicity and immunogenicity in mice
using an immunogen targeting amyloid-beta peptide
Author information
Oscherwitz J1, Hankenson FC, Yu F, Cease KB.
Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine
University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
joscher@umich.edu
Abstract
Complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) is effective for potentiating immune responses
in mice when administered subcutaneously, and is often more potent when given
intraperitoneally (i.p.). However, the the potential toxicity of i.p. administration
in mice has led investigators and Institutional Animal Care and Use committees
to increasingly view the use of CFA i.p. with reservation. We evaluated whether
an 80% reduction in the dose of CFA administered i.p. to mice, compared to the
i.p. doses used in a previous analysis, could abrogate the untoward effects associated with its use, while still maintaining adjuvanticity. Using a novel immunogen
targeting the N-terminus of the 42-amino acid amyloid-beta peptide, we compared
low dose CFA administered i.p., with three other commonly used adjuvants given
i.p.: alum, incomplete Freunds adjuvant (IFA) and monophoshoryl lipid A + trehalose dicorynomycolate (MPL + TDM). The results of the study showed that,
though the reduction in intraperitoneal dose of CFA mitigated transient weight
loss and leukocytosis observed previously with higher doses of i.p. CFA, all mice
administered CFA or IFA i.p. developed abdominal adhesions and granulomatous
peritonitis. Mice from all adjuvant groups, however, appeared to tolerate the respective adjuvants well and excellent comparative immunogenicity was observed
in mice immunized with the Freunds and MPL + TDM adjuvants. Consequently,
we conclude that though a high-titered, humoral response may be generated using
low dose CFA administered i.p., the accompanying toxicity remains significant,
and thus alternative adjuvants and/or routes should be considered.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16307832

“Consequently, we conclude that
though a high-titered, humoral response
may be generated using low dose CFA
[still used in several vaccines today]
administered i.p., the accompanying
toxicity remains significant, and thus
alternative adjuvants and/or routes
should be considered.”

“Adverse cardiorespiratory events including apnea, bradycardia, and desaturations have been described
following administration of the first diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-inactivated polio-Haemophilus
influenzae type B (DTP-IPV-Hib) immunization to preterm infants.”
BMC Pediatrics • June 2006

Frequency of apnea, bradycardia, and desaturations
following first diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-inactivated
polio-Haemophilus influenzae type B immunization
in hospitalized preterm infants
Jackie Lee,1 Joan L Robinson,1 and Donald W Spady1
Stollery Children’s Hospital and Department of Pediatrics
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
jr3@ualberta.ca
Abstract
Background
Adverse cardiorespiratory events including apnea, bradycardia, and desaturations have been described following
administration of the first diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-inactivated polio-Haemophilus influenzae type B (DTPIPV-Hib) immunization to preterm infants. The effect of the recent substitution of acellular pertussis vaccine for
whole cell pertussis vaccine on the frequency of these events requires further study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16784533

“... the outbreak lasted for approximately 2 months, suggesting that varicella in vaccinated persons
was contagious and that 99% varicella vaccination coverage was not sufficient to prevent the outbreak.”
Pediatrics • June 2006

One dose of varicella vaccine does not prevent school outbreaks: is it time for a second dose?
Author information
Lopez AS1, Guris D, Zimmerman L, Gladden L, Moore T, Haselow DT, Loparev VN, Schmid DS, Jumaan AO, Snow SL.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
alopez@cdc.gov
OBJECTIVES
The implementation of a routine childhood varicella vaccination program in the United States in 1995
has resulted in a dramatic decline in varicella morbidity and mortality. Although disease incidence has
decreased, outbreaks of varicella continue to be reported, increasingly in highly vaccinated populations. In
2000, a varicella vaccination requirement was introduced for kindergarten entry in Arkansas. In October
2003, large numbers of varicella cases were reported in a school with high vaccination coverage. We investigated this outbreak to examine transmission patterns of varicella in this highly vaccinated population,
to estimate the effectiveness of 1 dose of varicella vaccine, to identify risk factors for vaccine failure, and
to implement outbreak control measures.
METHODS
A retrospective cohort study involving students attending an elementary school was conducted. A questionnaire was distributed to parents of all of the students in the school to collect varicella disease and vaccination history; parents of varicella case patients were interviewed by telephone. A case of varicella was
defined as an acute, generalized, maculopapulovesicular rash without other apparent cause in a student or
staff member in the school from September 1 to November 20, 2003. Varicella among vaccinated persons
was defined as varicella-like rash that developed >42 days after vaccination. In vaccinated persons, the
rash may be atypical, maculopapular with few or no vesicles. Cases were laboratory confirmed by polymerase chain reaction, and genotyping was performed to identify the strain associated with the outbreak.
RESULTS
Of the 545 students who attended the school, 88% returned the questionnaire. Overall varicella vaccination coverage was 96%. Forty-nine varicella cases were identified; 43 were vaccinated. Three of 6 specimens tested were positive by polymerase chain reaction. The median age at vaccination of vaccinated
students in the school was 18 months, and the median time since vaccination was 59 months. Forty-four
cases occurred in the East Wing, where 275 students in grades kindergarten through 2 were located, and
vaccination coverage was 99%. In this wing, varicella attack rates among unvaccinated and vaccinated
students were 100% and 18%, respectively. Vaccine effectiveness against varicella of any severity was
82% and 97% for moderate/severe varicella. Vaccinated cases were significantly milder compared with
unvaccinated cases. Among the case patients in the East Wing, the median age at vaccination was 18.5 and
14 months among non-case patients. Four cases in the West Wing did not result in further transmission in
that wing. The Arkansas strains were the same as the common varicella-zoster virus strain circulating in
the United States (European varicella-zoster virus strain).

CONCLUSIONS
Although disease was mostly mild, the outbreak lasted for approximately 2 months, suggesting that varicella in vaccinated persons was contagious and that 99% varicella vaccination coverage was not sufficient to prevent the outbreak. This investigation highlights several challenges related to the prevention
and control of varicella outbreaks with the 1-dose varicella vaccination program and the need for further
prevention of varicella through improved vaccine-induced immunity with a routine 2-dose vaccination
program. The challenges include: 1-dose varicella vaccination not providing sufficient herd immunity
levels to prevent outbreaks in school settings where exposure can be intense, the effective transmission
of varicella among vaccinated children, and the difficulty in the diagnosis of mild cases in vaccinated
persons and early recognition of outbreaks for implementing control measures. The efficacy of 2 doses
of varicella vaccine compared with 1 dose was assessed in a trial conducted among healthy children who
were followed for 10 years. The efficacy for 2 doses was significantly higher than for 1 dose of varicella
vaccine. This higher efficacy translated into a 3.3-fold lower risk of developing varicella >42 days after
vaccination in 2- vs 1-dose recipients. Of the children receiving 2 doses, 99% achieved a glycoproteinbased enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay level of > or =5 units (considered a correlate of protection)
6 weeks after vaccination compared with 86% of children who received 1 dose. The 6-week glycoprotein-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay level of > or =5 units has been shown to be a good surrogate for protection from natural disease. Ten years after the implementation of the varicella vaccination
program, disease incidence has declined dramatically, and vaccination coverage has increased greatly.
However, varicella outbreaks continue to occur among vaccinated persons. Although varicella disease
among vaccinated persons is mild, they are contagious and able to sustain transmission. As a step toward
better control of varicella outbreaks and to reduce the impact on schools and public health officials, in
June 2005, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended the use of a second dose
of varicella vaccine in outbreak settings. Early recognition of outbreaks is important to effectively implement a 2-dose vaccination response and to prevent more cases. Although the current recommendation of
providing a second dose of varicella vaccine during an outbreak offers a tool for controlling outbreaks,
a routine 2-dose recommendation would be more effective at preventing cases. Based on published data
on immunogenicity and efficacy of 2 doses of varicella vaccine, routine 2-dose vaccination will provide
improved protection against disease and further reduce morbidity and mortality from varicella.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16740809

Health & Place • June 2006

Environmental mercury release,
special education rates, and autism disorder:
an ecological study of Texas
Author information
Palmer RF1, Blanchard S, Stein Z, Mandell D, Miller C.
University of Texas Health Science Center
San Antonio Department of Family and Community Medicine
7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, Texas 78229-3900, USA
palmer@uthscsa.edu
Abstract
The association between environmentally released mercury, special education
and autism rates in Texas was investigated using data from the Texas Education Department and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. A
Poisson regression analysis adjusted for school district population size, economic and demographic factors was used. There was a significant increase
in the rates of special education students and autism rates associated with
increases in environmentally released mercury. On average, for each 1,000
lb of environmentally released mercury, there was a 43% increase in the rate
of special education services and a 61% increase in the rate of autism. The
association between environmentally released mercury and special education
rates were fully mediated by increased autism rates. This ecological study
suggests the need for further research regarding the association between environmentally released mercury and developmental disorders such as autism.
These results have implications for policy planning and cost analysis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16338635

“On average,
for each 1,000 lb of
environmentally released mercury,
there was a 43% increase in the rate
of special education services and a
61% increase in the rate of autism.”

Vaccine • Volume 24, Issues 31–32 • July 2006

Unexplained cases of sudden infant death
shortly after hexavalent vaccination
Author Information
Zinka B, Rauch E, Buettner A, Ruëff F, Penning R.
Report available for purchase:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X05004688

CMAJ • August 2006

Two successive outbreaks of mumps in Nova Scotia
among vaccinated adolescents and young adults
Author Information
Gaynor Watson-Creed, Andrea Saunders, Jeffrey Scott, Luis Lowe, Janice Pettipas, and Todd F. Hatchette
From Nova Scotia Health Promotion and Protection (Watson-Creed, Saunders, Scott)
the Departments of Community Health and Epidemiology (Watson-Creed, Scott), Pediatrics (Scott) and Pathology (Hatchette)
Dalhousie University, and the Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (Pettipas, Hatchette)
QEII Health Science Centre, Halifax, NS; the Canadian Field Epidemiology Program (Saunders), Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
and the Respiratory and Enteric Virus Branch (Lowe), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Abstract
Background
Before the widespread use of vaccine, mumps was the
most common cause of viral meningitis (up to 10% of
mumps infections). Vaccination programs have resulted
in a drop of more than 99% in the number of reported mumps cases in the United States and Canada. Although rare in Canada, outbreaks have recently occurred
throughout the world, including a large outbreak in the
United Kingdom, where more than 56,000 cases were
reported in 2004–2005.
Methods
Two recent outbreaks in Nova Scotia were investigated
by public health officials. Cases were defined by laboratory confirmation of infection (i.e., isolation of mumps
virus by culture) or clinical diagnosis in people epidemiologically linked to a laboratory-confirmed case. The
people infected were interviewed to determine possible
links and to identify contacts. Mumps virus was cultured
from urine and throat specimens, identified via reversetranscriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and
subjected to phylogenetic analysis to identify the origin
of the strain.

Results
The first outbreak involved 13 high-school students (median age 14 yr): 9 who had previously received 2 doses
of measles–mumps–rubella vaccine (MMR) and 4 who
received a single dose. The second outbreak comprised
19 cases of mumps among students and some staff at a
local university (median age 23 yr), of whom 18 had received only 1 dose of MMR (the other received a second
dose). The viruses identified in the outbreaks were phylogenetically similar and belonged to a genotype commonly reported in the UK. The virus from the second
outbreak is identical to the strain currently circulating in
the UK and United States.
Interpretation
The predominance in these outbreaks of infected people
of university age not only highlights an environment
with potential for increased transmission but also raises
questions about the efficacy of the MMR vaccine. The
people affected may represent a “lost cohort” who do not
have immunity from natural mumps infection and were
not offered a 2-dose schedule. Given the current level
of mumps activity around the world, clinicians should
remain vigilant for symptoms of mumps.

Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1550754

“... studies especially on neurotoxicity, genotoxicity,
or carcinogenicity, are previously published in numerous articles.”
Biometals • August 2006

Occurrence, use and potential toxic effects of metals and metal compounds
Ana-Maria Florea, Dietrich Büsselberg
Abstract
Metals and metal compounds are constituents of our natural environment. Their distribution depends on the
existence of natural sources (e.g. volcanoes or erosion) and their use in human’s activity. They are transformed
naturally (e.g. by bacterial activity) with formation of organic species that influence their mobility and accumulation in abiotic as well as biotic systems. Up to date metal species are released into the environment questioning
their influence on human health. Due to their widespread use in human activities such as industry, agriculture and
even as medicine (e.g. As, Se, Pt), numerous health risks may be associated with exposure to these substances.
Different reports on metal intoxication are documented and studies especially on neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, or
carcinogenicity, are previously published in numerous articles. This mini-review gives an overview on the use and
the actions of selected metal species of actual scientific concern, with a focus on neuronal cells.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10534-005-4451-x

Pediatric Neurology • August 2006

Acute metabolic crisis induced by vaccination
in seven Chinese patients
Author information
Yang Y1, Sujan S, Sun F, Zhang Y, Jiang Y, Song J, Qin J, Wu X.
Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital
Beijing, China
yanlingy@vip.sina.com
Abstract
Seven Chinese patients (5 males and 2 females) with vaccination-induced acute metabolic
crisis were reported. Only one male with 21-hydroxylase deficiency had been diagnosed before vaccination. In the remaining six patients, the preexisting diagnoses were not confirmed
before the vaccination. Acute metabolic crisis occurred in seven patients between 3 and 12
hours after the administration of Japanese encephalitis, diphtheria, and tetanus toxoids and
acellular pertussis, hepatitis B, or measles vaccines. Patients 1 and 2 displayed acute adrenal
insufficiencies at the ages of 5 years and 3 months, respectively. Patient 3 had presented with
mild motor retardation previously. Patients 4 to 7 were previously healthy, but suffered from
fever, seizures, coma, acidosis, and hypoglycemia after being vaccinated. Glutaric aciduria
type 1 was evident in case 4. Leigh syndromes were present in Patients 5, 6, and 7. They all
died from respiratory failure before 2 years of age. Symmetric foci, cystic cavitations with
neuronal loss, and vascular proliferation were observed by postmortem examination. Among
the seven patients, although the vaccines were not the primary cause of the acute metabolic
crisis, the severe acute episodes occurred coincidentally.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16876007

“Seven Chinese patients with vaccination-induced
acute metabolic crisis were reported.”

“The first rotavirus vaccine ... left instead the unfortunate legacy that
live oral rotavirus vaccines may be associated with a serious but rare adverse event: intussusception.”
Pediatrics • August 2006

Rotavirus Vaccination and Intussusception:
Can We Decrease Temporally Associated Background Cases
of Intussusception by Restricting the Vaccination Schedule?
Author Information
Jennifer H. Tai, MDa, Aaron T. Curns, MPHb,
Umesh D. Parashar, MBBS, MPHa, Joseph S. Bresee, MDa, Roger I. Glass, MD, PhDa
a. Viral Gastroenteritis Section
b. Office of the Director, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
The first rotavirus vaccine that was licensed in the United States, RotaShield, could have prevented the enormous
burden of rotavirus diarrhea in American children but left instead the unfortunate legacy that live oral rotavirus
vaccines may be associated with a serious but rare adverse event: intussusception. Although large trials indicate
that the next generation of rotavirus vaccines is not associated with this complication, many children likely
will develop intussusception by chance alone in the 2-week window after immunization, raising concerns about
whether these cases might be “caused” by the vaccine. Our objective for this study was to model and compare
the number of temporally associated intussusception events that are expected by chance alone under 2 rotavirus
vaccination strategies.
CONCLUSIONS
Although an age-restricted vaccination schedule substantially reduced the number of intussusception events that
were observed in the 2-week postvaccination window when compared with a schedule with fewer restrictions,
this decrease was attributable to a lower rate of vaccine coverage rather than a safer schedule of vaccination. The
risk for intussusception did not differ significantly between vaccination strategies. Public health policy and education messages for physicians and parents should be developed to anticipate intussusception events that will occur
by chance alone but are temporally related to rotavirus vaccination.
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/118/2/e258

Multiple Sclerosis • October 2006

Elevated urinary excretion
of aluminium and iron in multiple sclerosis
Author information
Exley C1, Mamutse G, Korchazhkina O,
Pye E, Strekopytov S, Polwart A, Hawkins C.
Birchall Centre for Inorganic Chemistry and Materials Science
Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
c.exley@chem.keele.ac.uk
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, immune-mediated, demyelinating disease
of the central nervous system of as yet unknown aetiology. A consensus of opinion has suggested that the disorder is the result of an interplay between environmental factors and susceptibility genes. We have used a battery of analytical
techniques to determine if the urinary excretion of i) markers of oxidative damage; ii) iron and iii) the environmental toxin aluminium and its antagonist, silicon, are altered in relapsing-remitting (RRMS) and secondary progressive MS
(SPMS). Urinary concentrations of oxidative biomarkers, MDA and TBARS,
were not found to be useful indicators of inflammatory disease in MS. However,
urinary concentrations of another potential marker for inflammation and oxidative stress, iron, were significantly increased in SPMS (P<0.01) and insignificantly increased in RRMS (P>0.05). Urinary concentrations of aluminium were
also significantly increased in RRMS (P<0.001) and SPMS (P <0.05) such that
the levels of aluminium excretion in the former were similar to those observed
in individuals undergoing metal chelation therapy. The excretion of silicon was
lower in MS and significantly so in SPMS (P<0.05). Increased excretion of iron
in urine supported a role for iron dysmetabolism in MS. Levels of urinary aluminium excretion similar to those seen in aluminium intoxication suggested that
aluminium may be a hitherto unrecognized environmental factor associated with
the aetiology of MS. If aluminium is involved in MS then an increased dietary
intake of its natural antagonist, silicon, might be a therapeutic option.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17086897

“Levels of urinary aluminium excretion
similar to those seen in aluminium intoxication
suggested that aluminium may be a hitherto
unrecognized environmental factor
associated with the aetiology of Multiple Sclerosis.”

Journal Of Autoimmunity • November 2006

Fibromyalgia, infection and vaccination:
two more parts in the etiological puzzle
Author information
Ablin JN1, Shoenfeld Y, Buskila D.
Department of Rheumatology
Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center and Sackler Faculty of Medicine
Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
ajacob@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
As the pathogenesis of fibromyalgia continues to raise debate, multiple putative triggers have been implicated. The current review summarizes the available data linking fibromyalgia to either infection or
vaccination. Multiple infectious agents have been associated with the
development of either full-blown fibromyalgia (e.g. hepatits C), or with
symptom complexes extensively overlapping with that syndrome (e.g.
chronic Lyme disease). The cases of Lyme disease, mycoplasma, hepatits C and HIV are detailed. Despite the described associations, no
evidence is available demonstrating the utility of antibiotic or anti-viral treatment in the management of fibromyalgia. Possible mechanistic
links between fibromyalgia and HIV are reviewed. Associations have
been described between various vaccinations and symptom complexes
including fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. The case of Gulf
War syndrome, a functional multisystem entity sharing many clinical
characteristics with fibromyalgia is discussed, with emphasis on the
possibility of association with administration of multiple vaccinations
during deployment in the Persian Gulf and the interaction with stress
and trauma. Based on this example a model is proposed, wherein vaccinations function as co-triggers for the development of functional disorders including fibromyalgia, in conjunction with additional contributing factors.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17071055

“Based on this example
a model is proposed, wherein
vaccinations function as co-triggers
for the development of functional disorders
including fibromyalgia, in conjunction with
additional contributing factors.”

Egyptian Journal Of Immunology • 2006

Possible immunological disorders in autism:
concomitant autoimmunity and immune tolerance
Author information
Kawashti MI1, Amin OR, Rowehy NG.
Microbiology Department
Faculty of Medicine For Women
Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
Abstract
Autism is a pervasive developmental disorder that affect children early in
their life. Immunological disorders is one of several contributing factors
that have been suggested to cause autism. Thirty autistic children aged 36 years and thirty non-autistic psychologically-free siblings were studied.
Circulating IgA and IgG autoantibodies to casein and gluten dietary proteins
were detected by enzyme-immunoassays (EIA). Circulating IgG antibodies
to measles, mumps and rubella vaccine (M.M.R) and cytomeglovirus were
investigated by EIA. Results revealed high seropositivity for autoantibodies to casein and gluten: 83.3% and 50% respectively in autistic children
as compared to 10% and 6.7% positivity in the control group. Surprisingly,
circulating anti-measles, anti-mumps and anti-rubella IgG were positive in
only 50%, 73.3% and 53.3% respectively as compared to 100% positivity
in the control group. Anti-CMV IgG was positive in 43.3% of the autistic
children as compared to 7% in the control group. It is concluded that, autoimmune response to dietary proteins and deficient immune response to
measles, mumps and rubella vaccine antigens might be associated with autism, as a leading cause or a resulting event. Further research is needed to
confirm these findings.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17974154

“It is concluded that,
autoimmune response to dietary
proteins and deficient immune response to
measles, mumps and rubella vaccine antigens
might be associated with autism, as a
leading cause or a resulting event.”

Vaccine • January 2007

DTP with or after measles vaccination
is associated with increased in-hospital mortality
in Guinea-Bissau
Author information
Aaby P1, Biai S, Veirum JE, Sodemann M, Lisse I,
Garly ML, Ravn H, Benn CS, Rodrigues A.
Projecto de Saúde de Bandim, Apartado 861
Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
p.aaby@bandim.org
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The sequence of routine immunisations may be important for childhood
mortality. Three doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine (DTP)
should be given at 6, 10, and 14 weeks and measles vaccine (MV) at 9
months of age. The sequence is not always respected. We examined inhospital mortality of children having received DTP with or after measles
vaccine.
SETTING
The only paediatric ward in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau.
PARTICIPANTS
Children hospitalised during two periods in 1990-1996 and 2001-2002
who had received MV prior to hospitalisation.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE
The all-cause case fatality at the hospital for children aged 6-17 months.
RESULT
The case fatality was increased for children who had received DTP with or
after measles vaccine compared with children who had received measles
vaccine as the most recent vaccine, the ratio being 2.53 (1.37-4.67) and
1.77 (0.92-3.41) in the two periods, respectively. The combined estimate
was 2.10 (1.34-3.28). These results were not explained by differences in
nutritional status, number of doses of DTP or discharge policy.
CONCLUSION
Administration of DTP with, or after MV, may
reduce the beneficial effect of MV.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17092614

“The case fatality was increased
for children who had received DTP with or after
measles vaccine compared with children who
had received measles vaccine as the most recent
vaccine, the ratio being 2.53 (1.37-4.67) and 1.77
(0.92-3.41) in the two periods, respectively.”

Brain Research • May 2007

Effects of postnatal formaldehyde exposure
on pyramidal cell number, volume of cell layer
in hippocampus and hemisphere in the rat:
a stereological study
Author information
Sarsilmaz M1, Kaplan S, Songur A, Colakoglu S,
Aslan H, Tunc AT, Ozen OA, Turgut M, Bas O.
Department of Anatomy
Firat University School of Medicine
Elazig, Turkey
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to determine whether exposure of neonatal rats to formaldehyde (FA) had either early or delayed effects on the numbers of pyramidal cells in the cornu
ammonis (CA) of the hippocampus. Neonatal Wistar rats were exposed to 0 ppm (control group),
6 ppm and 12 ppm (high concentration group) of FA concentrations throughout the 30-day period
following the birth by placing them for 6 h/day in a glass chamber containing FA vapor. Then,
some of the animals from each FA-treated group were anesthetized and decapitated at the day 30,
and the remaining ones were killed at the day 90. The brains were removed immediately and fixed
in 10% neutral-buffered FA solution. The Cavalieri principle was used to determine the volumes
of the CA and the entire cerebral hemisphere. The optical fractionator counting method was used
to estimate the total number of pyramidal cells in the CA. The appearance of pyramidal cells was
normal under light microscopy at both postnatal day (PND) 30 and PND 90 in all groups. There
were concentration-related volume changes of CA at PND 30 and PND 90; low concentration of
FA significantly increased, whereas high concentration decreased the volume of CA in comparison
of the control at PND 30. Importantly, high concentration of FA at PND 90 increased the volume
of CA in comparison of the low concentration but not with the control. Furthermore, low and high
concentrations of FA decreased the volume of hemisphere at PND 30, whereas a reverse effect of
these concentrations was observed at the hemisphere of PND 90 in comparison of the control. In
both CA and cerebral hemisphere, an age-related volume decrease in both control and low/high
concentration groups were found. On the other hand, there were significant age-related reductions
in the total number of pyramidal cells at 90 days of age irrespective of the groups examined. Rats
treated with high concentration FA were seen to have significantly fewer pyramidal cell neurons
than either the animals treated with low concentration FA or control groups (p<0.01). These observations indicate that pyramidal cells in the hippocampus may be vulnerable to FA exposure during
the early period of life.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17346681

“These observations indicate
that pyramidal cells in the hippocampus
may be vulnerable to Formaldehyde exposure
during the early period of life.”

Journal Of Pediatrics • August 2007

Primary immunization
of premature infants with gestational age <35 weeks:
cardiorespiratory complications and C-reactive protein responses
associated with administration of single and
multiple separate vaccines simultaneously
Author information
Pourcyrous M1, Korones SB, Arheart KL, Bada HS.
Department of Pediatrics
The University of Tennessee Health Science Center
Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA
mpourcyrous@utmem.edu
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To determine the incidence of cardiorespiratory events and abnormal C-reactive protein (CRP) level
associated with administration of a single vaccine or multiple separate vaccines simultaneously.
STUDY DESIGN
Prospective observational study on 239 preterm infants at > or =2 months of age in the neonatal
intensive care unit (NICU). Each infant received either a single vaccine or multiple vaccines on
one day. CRP levels and cardiorespiratory manifestations were monitored for 3 days following immunization.
RESULTS
Abnormal elevation of CRP level occurred in 85% of infants administered multiple vaccines and
up to 70% of those given a single vaccine. Overall, 16% of infants had vaccine-associated cardiorespiratory events within 48 hours postimmunization. In logistic regression analysis, abnormal CRP
values were associated with multiple vaccines (OR, 15.77; 95% CI 5.10-48.77) and severe intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) (OR, 2.28; 95% CI 1.02-5.13). Cardiorespiratory events were associated
marginally with receipt of multiple injections (OR, 3.62; 95% CI 0.99-13.25) and significantly with
gastroesophageal reflux (GER) (OR, 4.76; 95% CI 1.22-18.52).
CONCLUSION
CRP level is expected to be elevated in the 48 hours following immunization. In a minority of infants immunized, cardiorespiratory events were associated with presumed need for intervention.
Underlying medical conditions and possibly multiple injections are associated with cardiorespiratory events. Precautionary monitoring following immunizations is warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17643770

“In a minority of infants immunized [16%],
cardiorespiratory events were associated with
presumed need for intervention.”

Pediatrics • August 2007

Risk of Serious Neurologic Disease
After Immunization of Young Children in Britain and Ireland
Author Information
Katherine N. Ward, MA, MB, BChir, PhD, FRCPatha, Naomi J. Bryant, MSca,
Nick J. Andrews, MScb, Jennifer S. Bowley, BSca, Anu Ohrling, MDa,
Christopher M. Verity, MA, BM, BCh, FRCP, FRCPCH, DCHc,
Euan M. Ross, MD, FRCP, FRCPCH, FFPH, DCHd,
Elizabeth Miller, BSc, MB, BS, FRCPath, FFPHb
a. Centre for Virology (UCL Campus), Division of Infection and Immunity
Royal Free and University College Medical School, Windeyer Institute of Medical Sciences, London, UK
b. Centre for Infections, Health Protection Agency, London, United Kingdom
c. Child Development Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
d. Child Studies Department, King’s College, Strand, London, United Kingdom
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
We sought to investigate the risk of serious neurologic disease after immunization in early childhood.
METHODS
The results of a 3-year prospective study of children (2–35 months old) in Britain and Ireland with encephalitis
and/or severe illness with convulsions and fever were linked to each child’s vaccine history. Cases were reported
via the British Paediatric Surveillance Unit’s network. The self-controlled case-series method was used to investigate associations between immunization and acute potential adverse events. The risk periods investigated were 0
to 3 and 0 to 7 days post–diphtheria, tetanus, whole cell pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae type b or meningococcal C conjugate vaccine and 6 to 11 and 15 to 35 days post–measles, mumps, rubella vaccine.
RESULTS
A total of 157 disease episodes from 155 children met the analytical case definition. There were 11 cases of herpes
simplex encephalitis and 23 cases of primary human herpesvirus 6 and/or 7 infection. There was no evidence of
a raised relative incidence of serious neurologic disease in any of the specified risk periods with the exception of
a raised relative incidence of 5.68 in the 6–11 days after measles, mumps, rubella vaccine. Based on this relative
incidence, between 3 and 6 of the 6 cases in this period were estimated to be attributable to the vaccine with a
best estimate of 5. The 6 cases all had fever with convulsions lasting >30 minutes; in all but 1, there was complete
recovery by discharge from hospital. Of the 5 patients who recovered, 1 had a concurrent primary human herpesvirus 6 infection and one a primary human herpesvirus 7.
CONCLUSIONS
Six to 11 days after measles, mumps, rubella vaccine there is an increased risk of fever and convulsions lasting
>30 minutes. All 6 of the episodes temporally related to immunization met the criteria for complex febrile convulsions. The estimated attributable risk of serious neurological disease was similar to that previously found for
measles vaccine.
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/120/2/314

“All 6 of the episodes temporally
related to immunization met the
criteria for complex febrile convulsions.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • September 2007

Induction of specific micro RNA (miRNA) species
by ROS-generating metal sulfates
in primary human brain cells
Author information
Lukiw WJ1, Pogue AI.
Neuroscience Center and Department of Ophthalmology
Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center
New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
wlukiu@lsuhsc.edu
Abstract
Iron- and aluminum-sulfate together, at nanomolar concentrations, trigger the
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cultures of human brain cells.
Previous studies have shown that following ROS induction, a family of pathogenic brain genes that promote inflammatory signalling, cellular apoptosis and brain
cell death is significantly over-expressed. Notably, iron- and aluminum-sulfate
induce genes in cultured human brain cells that exhibit expression patterns similar to those observed to be up-regulated in moderate- to late-stage Alzheimer’s
disease (AD). In this study we have extended our investigations to analyze the
expression of micro RNA (miRNA) populations in iron- and aluminum-sulfate
treated human neural cells in primary culture. The main finding was that these
ROS-generating neurotoxic metal sulfates also up-regulate a specific set of miRNAs that includes miR-9, miR-125b and miR-128. Notably, these same miRNAs
are up-regulated in AD brain. These findings further support the idea that ironand aluminum-sulfates induce genotoxicity via a ROS-mediated up-regulation
of specific regulatory elements and pathogenic genes that redirect brain cell fate
towards progressive dysfunction and apoptotic cell death.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17629564

“Iron- and aluminum-sulfate together,
at nanomolar concentrations, trigger the
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
in cultures of human brain cells. Previous
studies have shown that following reactive
oxygen species (ROS) induction, a family of
pathogenic brain genes that promote
inflammatory signalling, cellular apoptosis
and brain cell death is significantly over-expressed.”

Archives Of Neurology • November 2007

Optic Neuritis and Vaccination Investigation:
Failure to Consider Significant Sex Differences
and Multiple Vaccine Combinations
Renata J. M. Engler, MD; Mary Klote, MD;
Michael R. Nelson, MD, PhD
Abstract
In follow-up to recent correspondence related to the study of vaccinations and subsequent optic neuritis by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),1,2
we are deeply concerned regarding the lack of consideration of sex differences in
incidence of disease for the ICD-9 code 377.3, a common finding for autoimmune
disorders, particularly in young adults aged 18 to 39 years. The Defense Medical Surveillance System (DMSS) demonstrates that in the population of service
members of greatest concern, there is a consistent pattern, regardless of year for
review, of increased disease incidence by first visit in women compared with men.
This sex difference is also independent of race. The Figure was extracted from the
remote access program to data contained within the DMSS offered by the Army
Medical Surveillance Activity.3 Similar sex differences were identified for ICD-9
codes for optic neuritis, unspecified (377.30); optic papillitis (377.31); retrobulbar
neuritis, acute (377.32); and optic neuritis, other (377.39) during the period between January 1, 1998, and December 31, 2003. It is of increasing concern in the
context of medical evidence and research that sex differences are not adequately
considered in both research design and data analysis. Given the mandatory nature
of immunizations in the military health system and the fact that most visits involve
complex and sometimes new mixtures, concern for sex-based risk differences is
not a minor question and merits far more attention on the agenda of vaccine safety
surveillance.
http://archneur.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=794738&resultClick=3

“we are deeply concerned
regarding the lack of consideration
of sex differences in incidence of disease ...
there is a consistent pattern, regardless of year
for review, of increased disease incidence
by first visit in women compared with men ...”

Report of the Subcommittee on Science and Technology • November 2007

FDA Science and Mission at Risk
FDA Mission Statement
“The FDA is responsible for protecting the public health by assuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human
and veterinary drugs, biological products, medical devices, our nation’s food supply, cosmetics, and products that
emit radiation. The FDA is also responsible for advancing the public health by helping to speed innovations that
make medicines and foods more effective, safer, and more affordable; and helping the public get the accurate,
science-based information they need to use medicines and foods to improve their health.”
FINDINGS OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE
The FDA cannot fulfill its mission
because its scientific base has eroded and its scientific organizational structure is weak.
The FDA cannot fulfill its mission
because its scientific workforce does not have sufficient capacity and capability.
The FDA cannot fulfill its mission
because its information technology (IT) infrastructure is inadequate.
FDA does not have the capacity to ensure the safety of food for the nation.
The development of medical products based on “new science” cannot be adequately regulated by the FDA.
The FDA cannot provide the information infrastructure support to regulate products based on new science.
The FDA IT infrastructure is obsolete, unstable, and
lacks sufficient controls to ensure continuity of operations or to provide effective disaster recovery services.
There is insufficient capacity in modeling, risk assessment and analysis.
The FDA has experienced decreasing resources in the face of increasing responsibilities.
The FDA science agenda lacks a coherent structure and vision,
as well as effective coordination and prioritization.
The IT workforce is insufficient and suboptimally organized.
The FDA has an inadequate and ineffective program for scientist performance.
Recommendations of excellent FDA reviews are seldom followed.
The FDA has inadequate funding for professional development.
The FDA has not taken sufficient advantage of external and internal collaborations.
The FDA lacks the information science capability and information infrastructure
to fulfill its regulatory mandate.

The nation’s food supply is at risk. Crisis management in FDA’s two food safety centers, Center for Food
Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) and Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM), has drawn attention
and resources away from FDA’s ability to develop the science base and infrastructure needed to efficiently
support innovation in the food industry, provide effective routine surveillance, and conduct emergency
outbreak investigation activities to protect the food supply.
FDA’s inability to keep up with scientific advances means that American lives are at risk. While the world
of drug discovery and development has undergone revolutionary change — shifting from cellular to molecular and gene-based approaches — FDA’s evaluation methods have remained largely unchanged over
the last half century. Likewise, evaluation methods have not kept pace with major advances in medical
devices and use of products in combination.
The turnover rate in FDA science staff in key scientific areas is twice that of other government agencies.
There are insufficient programs of measurement to determine worker performance. There is insufficient
investment in professional development, which means that the workforce does not keep up with scientific advances. Finally, for various reasons, the FDA does not have sufficiently extensive collaboration
with external scientists, thus limiting infusion of new knowledge and missing opportunities to leverage
resources.
FDA’s failure to retain and motivate its workforce puts FDA’s mission at risk. Inadequately trained scientists are generally risk-averse, and tend to give no decision, a slow decision or, even worse, the wrong
decision on regulatory approval or disapproval. During our encounters with staff and center leadership, we
were struck by the near unanimity that the shortage of science staff (due to lack of resources to hire) and
the inability to recruit and retain needed expertise are serious, longstanding challenges. Internal expertise
and experience to provide the science capability and capacity needed in highly specialized and fast-evolving areas is disturbingly limited. The lack of a trained workforce means that the FDA is ineffective in responding to emerging fields that require individuals and work teams with multidisciplinary skills built on
very complex, highly specialized, often esoteric bodies of knowledge.
The Subcommittee was extremely disturbed at the state of the FDA IT infrastructure .. the IT workforce
is insufficient. The IT situation at FDA is problematic at best — and at worst it is dangerous. Many of the
FDA systems reside on technology that has been in service beyond the usual life cycle. Systems fail frequently, and even email systems are unstable — most recently during an E.coli food contamination investigation. More importantly, reports of product dangers are not rapidly compared and analyzed, inspectors’
reports are still hand written and slow to work their way through the compliance system, and the system
for managing imported products cannot communicate with Customs and other government systems (and
often miss significant product arrivals because the system cannot even distinguish, for example, between
road salt and table salt).
There are inadequate emergency backup systems in place: recent system failures have resulted in loss
of FDA data. Critical data reside in large warehouses sequestered in piles and piles of paper documents.
There is no backup of these records, which include valuable clinical trial data. The FDA has inadequate
extramural funding programs and collaborations to accelerate the development of critical health information exchanges in order to support clinical trials and pharmacovigilance activities.
In contrast to previous reviews that warned crises would arise if funding issues were not addressed, recent
events and our findings indicate that some of those crises are now realities and American lives are at risk.

http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/07/briefing/2007-4329b_02_01_FDA%20Report%20on%20Science%20and%20Technology.pdf

Medical Veritas • 2008

Current childhood vaccine programs:
An overview
with emphasis on the Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine
and of its compromising of the mucosal immune system
Harold E. Buttram, MD
Email: hbuttram1304@comcast.net
Abstract
Both common observation and official statistics confirm that there have been
dramatic increases in chronic physical and mental illnesses in American children, such as autism, asthma, and allergies since the introduction of the MMR
vaccine in 1978. Government health officials have denied a relationship with
vaccines, but U.S. Congressional hearings on vaccine safety (1999 to Dec. 2004)
revealed a total absence of vaccine safety tests that would meet current scientific
standards, so that it can be assumed that many vaccine reactions are taking place
unrecognized. Prior to the introduction of vaccines, the Th1 cellular immune
system of the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems served as the primary defense systems with the Th2 hu- moral immune system in the bone marrow, serving a secondary role.
There is a school of thought that the “minor childhood diseases” of earlier times,
including measles, mumps, chicken pox, and rubella, which involved the epithelial tissues of skin, respiratory, and/or gastrointestinal tracts, served a necessary
purpose in challenging, strengthening, and estab- lishing the dominance of Th1
cellular immune system during early childhood. Current vaccines against these
diseases, in contrast, being directed at stimulating antibody production in the
bone marrow, are bypassing the cellular immune system and thereby tending to
reverse the roles of the cellular and humoral systems, with the former suffering
from a lack of challenge. In addition, the cellular immune system is being further compromised by the powerfully immunosuppressive effects of the MMR
vaccine. The time is overdue to totally rethink and redirect our current childhood
vaccine program.
http://www.vacinfo.org/buttram.pdf

“Both common observation
and official statistics confirm
that there have been dramatic
increases in chronic physical and
mental illnesses in American children,
such as autism, asthma, and allergies
since the introduction of the MMR
vaccine in 1978. Government health
officials have denied a relationship with
vaccines, but U.S. Congressional hearings
on vaccine safety (1999 to Dec. 2004) revealed
a total absence of vaccine safety tests that
would meet current scientific standards,
so that it can be assumed that many vaccine
reactions are taking place unrecognized.”

Medical Veritas 2008

“This paper demonstrates

Vaccines, depression, and neurodegeneration after age 50 years:
another reason to avoid the recommended vaccines

the known links between:

by Russell L. Blaylock, MD, CCN
There is growing evidence that a number of the psychiatric disorders are strongly related to glutamate
excess. Likewise, recent studies have shown a connection between chronic inflammation and these
same disorders. A compelling body of research links these two observations, glutamate excess (an
excitotoxicity marker) and chronic inflammation (immune over-reactivity). It is known that systemic
activation of the immune system also activates the brain’s special immune system, which is regulated
by the microglia. Based on results of studies of the sickness behavior response to natural infections,
neuroscientists have deciphered much of the mechanism responsible for the behavioral effects associated with intense systemic immune activation, including social isolation, depression, anxiety, and a loss
of appetite. Most of these symptoms are shared by the major depressive disorders. Other studies have
linked neurodegeneration and a worsening of neurodegenerative diseases to systemic immune activation. This paper demonstrates the known links between: systemic immune activation, brain microglial
activation, and both major depressive disorder and a worsening of neurodegenerative diseases. Because
a number of vaccines are being recommended to adults, the risk of precipitating or worsening these
disorders is quite real. The mechanism for this process is discussed.
http://www.vacinfo.org/man1742_1747.pdf

systemic immune activation,
brain microglial activation,
and both major depressive disorder
and a worsening of neurodegenerative
diseases. Because a number of vaccines
are being recommended to adults,
the risk of precipitating or worsening
these disorders is quite real.”

“Adjuvants ... are challenging to develop and license because
adjuvant compounds that stimulate strong protective immunity also frequently induce significant toxicity.”
Frontiers In Bioscience • January 2008

Rationally-designed vaccine adjuvants:
separating efficacy from toxicity
Author information
Hauguel TM1, Hackett CJ.
Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Transplantation
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
Abstract
Adjuvants, substances included in many vaccines in order to improve immune responses, are challenging to develop and license because adjuvant compounds that stimulate strong protective immunity also frequently induce
significant toxicity. Adjuvant design and development has until recently been largely empirical; but with the current knowledge that most adjuvants act via receptors of the innate immune system, molecular-based approaches
are rapidly advancing the field. Data support the concept that proinflammatory pathways induced by innate immune receptor triggering underlie many of the observed toxic effects. Importantly, the cellular signaling pathways
that lead to inflammation are known, for a number of innate immune receptors, to be distinct from those that are
involved in the costimulation of protective adaptive immune responses, leading to approaches for attenuating
inflammatory signaling that should lead to safer and more effective vaccine adjuvants. This article addresses
whether there is a clear rationale for the separation of toxicity from efficacy in the function of adjuvants based
upon innate immune receptor ligands.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17981755

“Maternal body weight was lowered at 7.5%. Number of pups born was lowered at 7.5%.
Lowered body weight was observed in male and female offspring ...”
Reproductive Toxicology • January 2008

Evaluation of developmental neurotoxicity of polysorbate 80 in rats
Author information
Ema M1, Hara H, Matsumoto M, Hirata-Koizumi M, Hirose A, Kamata E.
Division of Risk Assessment, Biological Safety Research Center
National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
ema@nihs.go.jp
Abstract
The developmental neurotoxicity of polysorbate 80 (PS80) was evaluated in rats. Crl:CD(SD) rats were given
drinking water containing PS80 at 0, 0.018, 0.13, 1.0, or 7.5% (0, 0.035, 0.245, 1.864, or 16.783ml/kgbw/day) on
day 0 of pregnancy through day 21 after delivery. Pregnant rats were allowed to deliver spontaneously. Potential
adverse effects of pre- and post-natal exposure on the development and function of the nervous system in offspring of rats given PS80 were examined. Maternal body weight was lowered at 7.5%. Number of pups born was
lowered at 7.5%. There were no compound-related effects on locomotor activity of offspring on postnatal days
(PNDs) 14-15, 17-18, 20-21 and 33-37. No compound-related changes were found in developmental landmarks,
sexual maturation, or reflex responses. Although decreased rate of avoidance responses was noted on PNDs 23-27
in male and female offspring at 7.5%, no compound-related changes were found in performance in the conditioned avoidance response on PNDs 60-67. Histopathological examinations of the brain revealed no toxicological
changes. Lowered body weight was observed in male and female offspring at 7.5%. The NOAEL in this study was
considered to be 1.0% (1.864ml/mg/kgbw/day).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17961976

Vaccine • March 2008

Kinetics of asthma- and allergy-associated
immune response gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells
from vaccinated infants after in vitro re-stimulation with vaccine antigen
Author information
Lahdenperä AI1, Nilsson LJ, Regnström K.
Division of Paediatrics
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, 5818
Linköping, Sweden
Abstract
The global expression of immune response genes in infants after vaccination and their role in asthma and allergy
is not clearly understood. Pharmacogenomics is ideally suited to study the involved cellular responses, since the
expression of thousands of genes can be assessed simultaneously. Here, array technology was used to assess the
expression kinetics of immune response genes with association to asthma and allergy in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of five healthy infants after vaccination with Infanrix-Polio+Hib. At 12h after in vitro restimulation of the PBMC with pertussis toxin (PT) antigen, 14 immune response pathways, 33 allergy-related and
66 asthma-related genes were found activated.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18336961

“At 12h after in vitro re-stimulation
of the peripheral blood mononuclear cells
with pertussis toxin antigen,
14 immune response pathways,
33 allergy-related and 66 asthma-related
genes were found activated.”

“... Triton X-100-induced apoptosis ...”
Leukemia Research • March 2008

Release of cytochrome c from mitochondria
precedes Bax translocation/activation
in Triton X-100-induced apoptosis
Author information
Sawai H1, Domae N.
Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Dental University
8-1 Kuzuhahanazonocho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-1121, Japan
sawai@cc.osaka-dent.ac.jp
Abstract
The precise mechanisms by which sublytic concentrations of detergents induce apoptosis remain unclear. Recent studies reported the ability of nonionic detergents such as Triton X-100 to induce conformational change of Bax
to the active form in vitro. Here we investigated whether activation of Bax
might play a role in Triton X-100-induced apoptosis in cells. Although Bax
translocation/activation was inhibited by caspase inhibitors, cytochrome c
release from mitochondria was not affected in Triton X-100-induced apoptosis in U-937 cells. These results demonstrate that translocation/activation
of Bax occurs downstream of cytochrome c release and caspase activation in
Triton X-100-induced apoptosis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17689609

Clinical Vaccine Immunology • March 2008

Considerable Differences
in Vaccine Immunogenicities and Efficacies
Related to the Diluent Used for
Aluminum Hydroxide Adjuvant
Author Information
Lin Lin,1 Ashraf S. Ibrahim,1,2 Valentina Avanesian,1 John E. Edwards, Jr.,1,2
Yue Fu,1,2 Beverlie Baquir,1 Rebecca Taub,1 and Brad Spellberg1,2,*
1. Division of Infectious Diseases
Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center
Torrance, California
2. The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
Los Angeles, California
Abstract
We are developing an anticandidal vaccine using the recombinant N terminus of
Als3p (rAls3p-N). We report that although more rAls3p-N was bound by aluminum
hydroxide diluted in saline than by aluminum hydroxide diluted in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), its immunogenicity and efficacy were superior in PBS. Thus,
protein binding, by itself, may not predict the efficacy of some vaccines with aluminum adjuvants.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2268268/

“Thus, protein binding, by itself,
may not predict the efficacy of some
vaccines with aluminum adjuvants.”

Oxford Journal • Toxicology Science • March 2008

Modeling Neurodevelopment Outcomes and Ethylmercury Exposure from Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines
José G. Dórea*,1 and Rejane C. Marques†

	
Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil

†Fundação Universidade Federal de Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Dear Editor,
The neurotoxic effects of ethylmercury (EtHg) accidentally consumed in Iraq were sufficient to
withdraw ethylmercury-containing fungicides as seed dressing. Despite that, not only did thimerosal continue to be used in pharmaceutical preparations but also toxicological interest in EtHg-derived substances diminished considerably and was never addressed with regard to the small quantities used as a vaccine preservative. Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCV) have no record of overt
clinical neurological consequences due to EtHg, and the plausibility of subtle neurotoxic effects in
children has been recognized only recently by the United States and other industrialized countries.
In this context, we welcome the interesting work of Berman et al. (2008); it is clear that this assiduous study (in immunologically susceptible mice) took into consideration doses and schedules of
TCV-Hg concentrations that had been used in infants in the United States. Their mice model does
not, however, cover the full extent of modifying factors associated with TCV-Hg exposure in the
majority of immature and newborns around the world that still have to depend on TCV.
According to Berman et al. (2008), the United States vaccination scheduled exposed a total of 125
μgHg distributed at 2, 2, and 6 months through TCV (hepatitis B and DTP). This type of vaccine
is no longer used in industrialized countries but it is still used all over the world. We know that thimerosal concentrations vary among brands of vaccines and also that immunization schedules vary
depending on a country’s health policy; not only that but new outbreaks of disease introduce additional new vaccines (which may contain thimerosal) during the first year of life. As an example, the
public health services of Brazil, like other countries, still uses several brands of hepatitis B vaccine
(containing thimerosal as preservative) with concentrations ranging from 12.5 to 50 μgHg per 0.5
ml shot. Another salient difference between countries that use TCV (like Brazil) and the United
States is that in the former country hepatitis B inoculation starts within the first 12–24 h after birth
(Marques et al., 2007) and is administered to low-birth weight ≥2000 g (Ministério, da Saúde,
2006 and premature babies who are also recommended a fourth shot as an additional booster (DI/
DH/CVE, 2006). In such situations, not only toxicokinetics (TK) but especially toxicodynamics
(TD) of EtHg are entirely different between a 1-day-old (with different stages of immaturity and
birth weight) and a 60-day-old child (as modeled).
The newborn presents several physiological degrees of immaturity in the excretory system (kidneys and bile formation) and target organ (central nervous system, CNS) that are important modi-

fiers of EtHg TK and TD. These features are inversely accentuated by gestational age and birth
weight. Under such circumstances, unbound circulating EtHg in a newborn (and immature) may
not be eliminated as fast as in a 2-month-old baby and thus will be readier to cross the more vulnerable blood-brain barrier (BBB). The newborn BBB increases in effectiveness with age; therefore,
the free EtHg can more easily penetrate the immature CNS (Dorea, 2007). As a consequence, the
smaller the body size and blood volume, the more altered the TD and TK of EtHg. Indeed, Stajich
et al. (2000) showed that preterm infants do not metabolize Hg efficiently. Collectively, studies
show that larger babies have significantly higher mean liver metallothionein than smaller babies
(Dorea, 2007).
Factors associated with protein-binding capacity, excretion mechanisms, and enzyme activities are
immature in the neonate and modulate differences in adverse effects between newborns and infants
exposed to neurotoxic substances. During the period of immaturity, not only plasma albumin but
also total protein concentrations decrease (Dorea, 2007). The best example in differences between
neurotoxic effects is the type of albumin and competition for binding sites (due to increased circulatory concentrations of bilirubin). Albumin binding (to bilirubin) is less effective during the first
postnatal days and, as a consequence, excess free bilirubin can cross the BBB at early stages of the
postnatal CNS immaturity and cause brainstem abnormalities; albumin priming can be effective in
attenuating effects caused by unbound bilirubin (Dorea, 2007).
We do not dispute the conclusions drawn by Berman et al. regarding Hg and the neurobiology of
autism; however, we think it is possible to take their findings one step further in regards to thimerosal neurotoxicity. We contend that these findings are appropriate for U.S.-like scenarios (as
intended by the authors) but are not sufficient to address the current TCV schedules in the majority
of newborns and infants around the world. TCV are used worldwide in vaccination schedules that
include more of these vaccines at an earlier age. Unfortunately, the differences that set newborns
(especially low-birth-weights and prematures) apart from 2-month-old infants have not yet been
modeled in experimental studies and remain neglected in TK and TD knowledge of TCV-EtHg
exposure. We hope that studies like Berman et al. (2008) can inspire conventional toxicology to
address uncertainties regarding current serial EtHg exposure in newborns and infants that have to
take TCV.

Full Report
http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/103/2/414.long

Rheumatology International • April 2008

HBV vaccine and dermatomyositis:
is there an association?
Author information
Altman A1, Szyper-Kravitz M, Shoenfeld Y.
Center for Autoimmune Diseases and Department of Medicine
Beth Sheba Tel-Hashomer, Sackler Faculty of Medicine
Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Abstract
The etiology of dermatomyositis is unknown, but immune mechanisms play an important role. Several dermatological manifestations have been reported among carriers of hepatitis B surface
antigen, and after vaccination with the HBV vaccine. Almost all
the skin reactions described were peculiar skin eruptions suggestive of an immune complex reaction. Some authors described the
occurrence of dermatomyositis after BCG and influenza vaccination. We report a case of a 6-year-old child, who was vaccinated
for hepatitis B virus and developed a flu-like disease accompanied
by a skin rash, which had the typical features of dermatomyositis.
The association of vaccination with autoimmunity is discussed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18034245

“Several dermatological manifestations have
been reported among carriers of hepatitis B surface
antigen, and after vaccination with the HBV vaccine.
Some authors described the occurrence of
dermatomyositis after BCG and influenza vaccination.
The association of vaccination with autoimmunity is discussed.”

Clinical Rheumatology • May 2008

Polyglandular autoimmunity
with macrophagic myofasciitis
Author information
Theeler BJ1, Simper NB, Ney JP.
Department of Neurology
Madigan Army Medical Center
9040A Fitzsimmons Dr., Tacoma
WA 98431, USA
btheeler@hotmail.com

“This rare and recently
described muscle disorder

Abstract

is seen in patients exposed to

We report a man with chronic fatigue, multiple autoimmune disorders, and a muscle biopsy consistent with macrophagic myofasciitis. This rare and recently described muscle disorder is seen
in patients exposed to vaccinations with aluminum hydroxide
adjuvant. This case highlights the relationship between macrophagic myofasciitis and autoimmunity.

vaccinations with aluminum

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18180978

hydroxide adjuvant.”

Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry • June 2008

Hepatitis B triple series vaccine
and developmental disability in US children
aged 1–9 years
Author Information
Carolyn Gallaghera & Melody Goodmana
Abstract
This study investigated the association between vaccination with the
Hepatitis B triple series vaccine prior to 2000 and developmental disability in children aged 1–9 years (n = 1824), proxied by parental
report that their child receives early intervention or special education
services (EIS). National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
1999–2000 data were analyzed and adjusted for survey design by
Taylor Linearization using SAS version 9.1 software, with SAS callable SUDAAN version 9.0.1. The odds of receiving EIS were approximately nine times as great for vaccinated boys (n = 46) as for
unvaccinated boys (n = 7), after adjustment for confounders. This
study found statistically significant evidence to suggest that boys in
United States who were vaccinated with the triple series Hepatitis B
vaccine, during the time period in which vaccines were manufactured
with thimerosal, were more susceptible to developmental disability
than were unvaccinated boys.
http://www.fourteenstudies.com/pdf/hep_b.pdf
This report is also referenced [17] in
2008 United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
report under the subheading ‘New Evidence’

“The odds of receiving special education services were
approximately nine times as great for vaccinated boys
(n = 46) as for unvaccinated boys (n = 7), after
adjustment for confounders. This study found
statistically significant evidence to suggest that boys
in United States who were vaccinated with the triple
series Hepatitis B vaccine, during the time period in
which vaccines were manufactured with thimerosal,
were more susceptible to developmental disability
than were unvaccinated boys.”

United Nations Report: http://www.who.int/immunization/sage/meetings/2012/april/Pichichero_Update_on_safety.pdf

BMJ • June 2008

Effect of 50,000 IU vitamin A given with BCG vaccine
on mortality in infants in Guinea-Bissau:
randomised placebo controlled trial
Author information
Benn CS1, Diness BR, Roth A, Nante E, Fisker AB, Lisse IM,
Yazdanbakhsh M, Whittle H, Rodrigues A, Aaby P.
Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut
Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
cb@ssi.dk
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To investigate the effect of high dose vitamin A supplementation given with BCG vaccine
at birth in an African setting with high infant mortality.
DESIGN
Randomised placebo controlled trial. Setting Bandim Health Project’s demographic surveillance system in
Guinea-Bissau, covering approximately 90,000 inhabitants. Participants 4345 infants due to receive BCG.
INTERVENTION
Infants were randomised to 50,000 IU vitamin A or placebo and followed until age 12 months.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE
Mortality rate ratios.
RESULTS
174 children died during follow-up (mortality=47/1000 person-years). Vitamin A supplementation was not significantly associated with mortality; the mortality rate ratio was 1.07 (95% confidence interval 0.79 to 1.44). The
effect was 1.00 (0.65 to 1.56) during the first four months and 1.13 (0.75 to 1.68) from 4 to 12 months of age.
The mortality rate ratio in boys was 0.84 (0.55 to 1.27) compared with 1.39 (0.90 to 2.14) in girls (P for interaction=0.10). An explorative analysis revealed a strong interaction between vitamin A and season of administration.
CONCLUSIONS
Vitamin A supplementation given with BCG vaccine at birth had no significant benefit in this African setting.
Although little doubt exists that vitamin A supplementation reduces mortality in older children, a global recommendation of supplementation for all newborn infants may not contribute to better survival.
TRIAL REGISTRATION
Clinical trials NCT00168597.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2432170/

“Vitamin A supplementation
given with BCG vaccine at birth
had no significant benefit in this African setting.”

European Journal Of Internal Medicine • July 2008

“A 12 year-old girl, without a relevant previous history,

Status epilepticus and lymphocytic pneumonitis
following hepatitis B vaccination

taking no drugs, developed a seizure attack followed by

Author information
de Carvalho JF1, Shoenfeld Y.
Rheumatology Division
São Paulo University School of Medicine
São Paulo, Brazil
Abstract
The case reported refers to a patient who developed status epilepticus in the
day of her third dose of hepatitis B vaccination and we review the literature
on this subject. A 12 year-old girl, without a relevant previous history, taking no drugs, developed a seizure attack followed by unconsciousness, and
eventually died after three days of her third dose of hepatitis B (HB) vaccination. Autopsy study revealed cerebral edema with congestion and herniation
and diffuse interstitial type pneumonitis. There seem to be a straight forward
time relationship between the third HB vaccine, the event of convulsion and
the sudden death of the patient. We suggest that, in some cases, vaccination
may be the triggering factor for autoimmune and neurological disturbances
in genetically predisposed individuals and physicians should be aware of this
possible association.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18549949

unconsciousness, and eventually died after three days of
her third dose of hepatitis B (HB) vaccination. Autopsy
study revealed cerebral edema with congestion and
herniation and diffuse interstitial type pneumonitis.
There seem to be a straight forward time relationship
between the third HB vaccine, the event of convulsion and
the sudden death of the patient. We suggest that, in some
cases, vaccination may be the triggering factor for
autoimmune and neurological disturbances in genetically
predisposed individuals ...”

Forensic Science International • August 2008

Beta-tryptase and
quantitative mast-cell increase
in a sudden infant death
following hexavalent immunization
Author information
D’Errico S1, Neri M, Riezzo I, Rossi G,
Pomara C, Turillazzi E, Fineschi V.

“A fatal case of a 3-month-old female infant, who died

Department of Forensic Pathology, University of Foggia
Ospedale Colonnello D’Avanzo
Via degli Aviatori 1, 71100 Foggia, Italy

within 24 h of vaccination with hexavalent vaccine is

Abstract
The association between sudden infant death syndrome and immunization is frequently discussed. Serious adverse events following
vaccination have generally been defined as those adverse events that
result in permanent disability, hospitalization or prolongation of hospitalization, life threatening illness, congenital anomaly or death.
They are generally referred to the inherent properties of the vaccine
(vaccine reaction) or some error in the immunization process (programme error). The event could also be totally unrelated but only
temporally linked to immunization (coincidental event). A fatal case
of a 3-month-old female infant, who died within 24 h of vaccination
with hexavalent vaccine is presented. Clinical data, post-mortem
findings (acute pulmonary oedema, acute pulmonary emphysema),
quali-quantitative data collected from immunohistochemical staining (degranulating mast cells) and laboratory analysis with a high
level of beta-tryptase in serum, 43.3 microg/l, allows us to conclude
that acute respiratory failure likely due to post hexavalent immunization-related shock was the cause of death.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18538957

presented. Clinical data, post-mortem findings (acute
pulmonary oedema, acute pulmonary emphysema),
quali-quantitative data collected from immunohistochemical staining (degranulating mast cells) and laboratory analysis with a high level of beta-tryptase in
serum, 43.3 microg/l, allows us to conclude that acute
respiratory failure likely due to post hexavalent immunization-related shock was the cause of death.”

The Journal of Immunology • April 15, 2008

The Adjuvants Aluminum Hydroxide and MF59
Induce Monocyte and Granulocyte Chemoattractants
and Enhance Monocyte Differentiation toward Dendritic Cells
Author Information
Anja Seubert, Elisabetta Monaci,
Mariagrazia Pizza, Derek T. O’Hagan and Andreas Wack
Novartis Vaccines, Siena, Italy
Abstract
Aluminum hydroxide (alum) and the oil-in-water emulsion MF59 are widely used, safe and effective adjuvants, yet their mechanism of action is poorly understood. We assessed the effects of
alum and MF59 on human immune cells and found that both induce secretion of chemokines,
such as CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL3 (MIP-1∼), CCL4 (MIP-1∼), and CXCL8 (IL-8), all involved in
cell recruitment from blood into peripheral tissue. Alum appears to act mainly on macrophages
and monocytes, whereas MF59 additionally targets granulocytes. Accordingly, monocytes and
granulocytes migrate toward MF59-conditioned culture supernatants. In monocytes, both adjuvants lead to increased endocytosis, enhanced surface expression of MHC class II and CD86, and
down-regulation of the monocyte marker CD14, which are all phenotypic changes consistent with
a differentiation toward dendritic cells (DCs). When monocyte differentiation into DCs is induced
by addition of cytokines, these adjuvants enhanced the acquisition of a mature DC phenotype and
lead to an earlier and higher expression of MHC class II and CD86. In addition, MF59 induces
further up-regulation of the maturation marker CD83 and the lymph node-homing receptor CCR7
on differentiating monocytes. Alum induces a similar but not identical pattern that clearly differs
from the response to LPS. This model suggests a common adjuvant mechanism that is distinct
from that mediated by danger signals. We conclude that during vaccination, adjuvants such as
MF59 may increase recruitment of immune cells into the injection site, accelerate and enhance
monocyte differentiation into DCs, augment Ag uptake, and facilitate migration of DCs into tissue-draining lymph nodes to prime adaptive immune responses.
Full Report: http://www.jimmunol.org/content/180/8/5402.full

“Aluminum hydroxide (alum)
and the oil-in-water emulsion MF59 [squalene]
are widely used, safe and effective adjuvants, yet
their mechanism of action is poorly understood.”

Autoimmunity Review • October 2008

Chronic fatigue syndrome with autoantibodies—
the result of an augmented adjuvant effect of
hepatitis-B vaccine and silicone implant

“... the changes induced by MF59
and alum share common features …”

Author information
Nancy AL1, Shoenfeld Y.
Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Department of Medicine Beth Sheba Medical Center
Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
Background
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) that defines by prolonged fatigue and other manifestations, was recently integrated into a spectrum of central sensitivity syndromes including
several diseases as fibromylagia. CFS etiology is multi-factorial commonly triggered by
infectious agents. Vaccines, induce an immune response similarly to infections, and may
trigger just like infections autoimmune diseases, CFS and fibromyalgia. Furthermore vaccines contain an adjuvant which enhances their immune stimulation.
Case Presentation
A 56-year-old woman was diagnosed with CFS accompanied by fibromyalgia, demyelination and autoantibodies. Her illness begun following the 2nd dose of hepatitis-B vaccine,
and was aggravated by the 3rd vaccination. She underwent silicone breast implantation 6
years before vaccination with no adverse events. However, between the 2nd and 3rd vaccination she suffered a breast injury with local inflammation. Upon explanation of her breast
implants silicone leak was observed.
Discussion
Vaccines have been reported to precede CFS mainly following exposure to multiple vaccinations (e.g. the Gulf war syndrome), or as an adverse response to the vaccine adjuvant
(e.g. the macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome). Silicone is considered an adjuvant to the immune system, and may induce “the adjuvant disease”. Silicone implant, especially silicone
leak relationship with autoimmunity and CFS has been the focus of considerable debates.
Conclusion
Our patient illness started following hepatitis-B vaccine, suggesting that it was caused or
accelerated by vaccination. In parallel to vaccination our patient suffered from breast injury, which might represent the time of silicone leak. The exposure to the adjuvant, silicone,
might have augmented her immune response to the vaccine. To the best of our knowledge
this is the first case of combined adverse effect to vaccine and silicone. Vaccine safety in
individuals with silicone implants requires further studies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725327

“Vaccines have been reported
to precede Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
mainly following exposure
to multiple vaccinations
(e.g. the Gulf war syndrome),
or as an adverse response
to the vaccine adjuvant
(e.g. the macrophagic
myofasciitis syndrome).”

Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal • October 2008

Mumps epidemiology and immunity:
the anatomy of a modern epidemic
Author information
Anderson LJ1, Seward JF.
Division of Viral Diseases
National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
lja2@cdc.gov
Abstract
The success of the measles, mumps, and rubella 2-dose vaccination program led public health
officials in 1998 to set a goal to eliminate endemic transmission of mumps virus by 2010 in the
United States. The large outbreak of mumps in the spring of 2006 has led public health officials
to re-evaluate this goal and to recognize that the transmission and epidemiology of mumps in
highly vaccinated populations may be different than anticipated. During 2006, a total of 6584
confirmed and probable cases of mumps were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention and most of these, 5865, occurred between January 1 and July 31. The peak of the
outbreak was in April and seemed to be focused on college campuses in 9 midwestern states
with Iowa having the highest attack rate. College campuses with mumps outbreaks included
ones with 77% to 97% of students having had 2 doses of a mumps vaccine. Diagnosing mumps
proved to be problematic in vaccinated persons (ie, laboratory tests seemed to be insensitive
and some apparent mumps cases had mild nonclassic illness). The outbreak demonstrated that
mumps can sometimes transmit efficiently in highly vaccinated populations and the clinical
and laboratory diagnosis of mumps in vaccinated persons is more difficult than in naive persons. The reason for this mumps outbreak is not clear but probably results from multiple factors
contributing to an overall increase in susceptibility and/or transmission.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18820583

“The outbreak demonstrated that
mumps can sometimes transmit efficiently
in highly vaccinated populations and the clinical
and laboratory diagnosis of mumps in vaccinated
persons is more difficult than in naive persons.”

Vaccine • November 2008

Vaccine immunogenetics:
bedside to bench to population
Author information
Poland GA1, Ovsyannikova IG, Jacobson RM.
Mayo Vaccine Research Group
The Program in Translational Immunovirology and Biodefense
Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
poland.gregory@mayo.edu
Abstract
The immunogenetic basis for variations in immune response to
vaccines in humans remains largely unknown. Many factors can
contribute to the heterogeneity of vaccine-induced immune responses, including polymorphisms of immune response genes. It
is important to identify those genes involved directly or indirectly
in the generation of the immune response to vaccines. Our previous work with measles reveals the impact of immune response
gene polymorphisms on measles vaccine-induced humoral and
cellular immune responses. We demonstrate associations between
genetic variations (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) in
HLA class I and class II genes, cytokine, cell surface receptor,
and toll-like receptor genes and variations in immune responses
to measles vaccine. Such information may provide further understanding of genetic restrictions that influence the generation
of protective immune responses to vaccines, and eventually the
development of new vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18598732

“The immunogenetic basis for
variations in immune response
to vaccines in humans remains
largely unknown.”

Alternative Therapies In Health And Medicine • November 2008

The history of vaccinations
in the light of the autism epidemic
Author information
Cave SF
Cypress Integrative Medicine
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
Abstract
Autism has been characterized as a behavioral disorder since it was first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. The number of autistic children has increased
over the last decade. The incidence of autism was 1 in 10000 before the 1970s
and has steadily increased to 1 in 150 in 2008 with a male:female predominance
of 4:1. The cause of this epidemic has remained unknown, but several hypotheses have been studied. Many of these suggest an environmental trigger, such
as the ethyl mercury contained in the preservative thimerosal, which has been
used in vaccines since 1931. Other possible triggers associated with vaccinations are chemical toxins and live viruses. James has published studies suggesting a genetic predisposition in the families of autistic children, exposing them
to a deficiency in glutathione and an inability to detoxify heavy metals. Vargas
has shown autism to encompass ongoing inflammation in the brains of autistic
children. The Hannah Poling vaccine decision was a landmark case. Poling’s
family was awarded funds for ongoing medical care of an autistic child who
was found to have mitochondrial dysfunction exacerbated by vaccines that left
her with autistic behavior and seizures. Several studies have emerged supporting the fact that a significant number of autistic children do have mitochondrial
dysfunction. The impact that the Poling case will have on the ability of parents
of autistic children to gain access to funds to enable them to properly care for
their children remains to be seen.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19043939

“Poling’s family was awarded funds
for ongoing medical care of an autistic child
who was found to have mitochondrial dysfunction
exacerbated by vaccines that left her with autistic behavior
and seizures. Several studies have emerged supporting the fact
that a significant number of autistic children do have
mitochondrial dysfunction. The impact that the Poling
case will have on the ability of parents of autistic children
to gain access to funds to enable them to properly care
for their children remains to be seen.”

European Journal Of Internal Medicine • December 2008

Systemic polyarteritis nodosa
following hepatitis B vaccination
Author information
de Carvalho JF1, Pereira RM, Shoenfeld Y.
Rheumatology Division
São Paulo University School of Medicine
São Paulo, Brazil
Abstract
The authors report a patient who developed systemic polyarteritis nodosa two months after hepatitis B vaccination and review
the literature concerning this vaccination and the development
of autoimmune conditions, mainly vasculitis. A 14-year-old boy
who had no relevant previous history and who was not taking any
drugs presented with a livedo reticularis, fever, loss of weight,
testicular pain, and paresthesias two months after receiving the
third dose of a hepatitis B vaccination. Inflammatory parameters
(ESR and CRP) were high. The patient met the ACR diagnostic
criteria for polyarteritis nodosa. He received corticosteroids and
immunosuppressants and showed improvement. After reviewing
the 27 cases of vasculitis after hepatitis B vaccination reported in
the current literature, the authors suggest that, in some cases, vaccination may be the triggering factor for vasculitis in individuals
with a genetic predisposition. Physicians should be aware of this
possible association.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19046721

“After reviewing the 27 cases of vasculitis
after hepatitis B vaccination reported in the
current literature, the authors suggest that,
in some cases, vaccination may be the
triggering factor for vasculitis in individuals
with a genetic predisposition.”

“There are currently over 100 human diseases
that are considered to be autoimmune or chronic inflammatory affecting
5-10% of the world population and spanning through all medical specialties.”
Journal Of Autoimmunity • December 2008

The autoimmunologist:
geoepidemiology, a new center of gravity,
and prime time for autoimmunity
Author information
Shoenfeld Y1, Selmi C, Zimlichman E, Gershwin ME.
Department of Medicine B,
Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center
Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
There are currently over 100 human diseases that are considered to be autoimmune or chronic inflammatory affecting 5-10% of the world population and spanning through all medical specialties. As a result, health care costs
are enormous and the clinical management is often challenging, particularly considering the comorbidity rates
and the multi-organ involvement of each condition. We herein propose the creation of a new specialist, coined the
autoimmunologist, to overcome the current limitations in the diagnostic process and clinical follow-up of patients
with autoimmune diseases. More importantly, we also propose the creation of regional centers of excellence in
autoimmunity where clinical research and management, as well as basic research may be united and interact in
ideal synergy to ultimately create real translational research and provide better health care.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18838248

“In our study Oral Polio Virus at birth
had a sex-differential effect on mortality.”

PLoS ONE • 2008

Sex-Differential Effect on Infant Mortality
of Oral Polio Vaccine Administered with BCG
at Birth in Guinea-Bissau—A Natural Experiment
Christine Stabell Benn,1,* Ane Bærent Fisker,2
Amabelia Rodrigues,2 Henrik Ravn,1 Erliyani Sartono,3 Hilton Whittle,4
Maria Yazdanbakhsh,3 and Peter Aaby2
1. Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
2. Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
3. Department of Immunoparasitology, Leiden University Medical Centre
4. The MRC Laboratories, Fajara, The Gambia
Beverley J. Shea, Editor
Abstract
Background
The policy to provide oral polio vaccine (OPV) at birth was introduced in low-income countries to increase coverage. The effect of OPV at birth on overall child
mortality was never studied. During a trial of vitamin A supplementation (VAS)
at birth in Guinea-Bissau, OPV was not available during several periods. We took
advantage of this “natural experiment” to test the effect on mortality of receiving
OPV at birth.

Methodology
Between 2002 and 2004, the VAS trial randomised normal-birth-weight infants to
50,000 IU VAS or placebo administered with BCG. Provision of OPV at birth was
not part of the trial, but we noted whether the infants received OPV or not. OPV
was missing during several periods in 2004. We used Cox proportional hazards
models to compute mortality rate ratios (MRR) of children who had received or not
received OPV at birth.
Principal Findings
A total of 962 (22.1%) of the 4345 enrolled children did not receive OPV at birth;
179 children died within the first year of life. Missing OPV at birth was associated
with a tendency for decreased mortality (adjusted MRR = 0.69 (95% CI = 0.46–1.03)),
the effect being similar among recipients of VAS and placebo. There was a highly
significant interaction between OPV at birth and sex (p = 0.006). Not receiving OPV
at birth was associated with a weak tendency for increased mortality in girls (1.14
(0.70–1.89)) but significantly decreased mortality in boys (0.35 (0.18–0.71)).
Conclusions
In our study OPV at birth had a sex-differential effect on mortality. Poliovirus is almost eradicated and OPV at birth contributes little to herd immunity. A randomised
study of the effect of OPV at birth on overall mortality in both sexes is warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2605256/

Medical Veritas • 2008

Current childhood vaccine programs: An overview
with emphasis on the Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine
and of its compromising of the mucosal immune system
Harold E. Buttram, MD
hbuttram1304@comcast.net
Abstract
Both common observation and official statistics confirm that there have been dramatic increases in chronic physical and mental illnesses in American children, such as autism, asthma, and allergies since the introduction of the
MMR vaccine in 1978. Government health officials have denied a relationship with vaccines, but U.S. Congressional hearings on vaccine safety (1999 to Dec. 2004) revealed a total absence of vaccine safety tests that would
meet current scientific standards, so that it can be assumed that many vaccine reactions are taking place unrecognized. Prior to the introduction of vaccines, the Th1 cellular immune system of the gastrointestinal and respiratory
systems served as the primary defense systems with the Th2 humoral immune system in the bone marrow, serving
a secondary role.
There is a school of thought that the “minor childhood diseases” of earlier times, including measles, mumps,
chicken pox, and rubella, which involved the epithelial tissues of skin, respiratory, and/or gastrointestinal tracts,
served a necessary purpose in challenging, strengthening, and establishing the dominance of Th1 cellular immune
system during early childhood. Current vaccines against these diseases, in contrast, being directed at stimulating
antibody production in the bone marrow, are bypassing the cellular immune system and thereby tending to reverse
the roles of the cellular and humoral systems, with the former suffering from a lack of challenge. In addition, the
cellular immune system is being further compromised by the powerfully immunosuppressive effects of the MMR
vaccine. The time is overdue to totally rethink and redirect our current childhood vaccine program.
Concerns about increasing incidence of childhood autism and related disorders
Many years ago in our medical practice we began asking teachers if, during their teaching careers, they had observed a change in children. Without exception, they replied that there had been a dramatic change, most notably
since the early 1980s. Steadily increasing numbers of children, they reported, were showing autistic-like behaviors, were restless, impulsive, less focused, less able to concentrate, and therefore less able to learn.
It has been documented that a sharp and persisting rise in the incidence of childhood autism commenced following the 1978 introduction of the MMR vaccine in the U.S.A. [1-2], a time when mercury-laced Hepatitis B and
Hemophilus influenza type b vaccines were also introduced. For a number of years previously the live measles,
mumps, and rubella vaccines had been administered separately with negligible increases in autism. It was only
after they were combined that the incidence of autism began soaring with 1 in 150 children up to eight years age,
according to U.S. multisite study in 2000 [3], as compared with 1 in 10,000 several generations ago. According
to more recent information, the incidence of autism may be even higher, with 1 in 88 military children in U.S.A.
having autism [4], and according to the Vaccine Autoimmune Project (VAP), one in 67 in U.S.A. and 1 in 86 in the
United Kingdom having autism [5]. Considering that the incidence of autism in boys is approximately four times
greater than in girls, the relative incidence of autism in boys would be even greater. Finally, as estimated by VAP,
the average lifetime cost of caring for autistic children will be about $3.2 million dollars per child.

In addition to the autism epidemic, in 2004 almost five million children were classified as learning disabled [6],
which represents a three-fold increase since 1976-7 according to the Digest of Education Statistics [7].
Comparable increases have taken place in attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), with four and one half
million children between ages 3 and 17 being diagnosed with this condition in 2004 [8].
In a bulletin sponsored by the American Academy of Pediatrics, January, 2004, entitled “AUTISM A.L.A.R.M.”,
in addition to an announcement of the increasing prevalence of autism at that time, it was announced that 1 in 6
American children were diagnosed with a developmental disorder and/or behavioral disorder.
In a similar fashion the incidence of asthma has increased from roughly two and a half million children, ages 0-17
years in 1979 [8] to nine million children 0-17 years in 2004 [8], (roughly 12% of that age group), a time period
in which this age-group population increased 114% compared to a 360% increase in asthma.
Autoimmune diseases are also increasing, including juvenile diabetes, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barre Syndrome, and Crohn’s inflammatory bowel disease. Based on the work of Vijendra Singh, who demonstrated marked
elevations of brain antibodies in the form of myelin basic protein antibodies in autistic children [9-10], autism
itself can be considered an autoimmune disorder.
Current studies implicating vaccines as primary causal agents of autism and related disorders
In what may be the most comprehensive publication to date on the pathophysiology of adverse vaccine reactions,
Russell Blaylock has compiled a mass of evidence that repeated stimulation of the systemic immune system
results in first priming of microglia of the developing brain, following by intense microglial reaction with each
successive series of vaccinations [16]
In explanation, microglia and astrocytes are first-line-immunological responder cells located in the brain which
defend against foreign infectious invaders. Normally this response, such as to a viral infection, is of limited duration and harmless to the brain. However, when the microcytes and astrocytes are overstimulated for prolonged periods, which vaccines are designed to bring about, this extended activation can be very destructive to the brain.
Because of the critical dependence of the developing brain on a timed sequence of cytokine and excitatory amino
acid fluctuation, according to Blaylock, sequential vaccinations can result in alterations of this critical process that
will not only result in synaptic and dendritic loss, but abnormal (nerve) pathway development. When microglia
are excessively activated by vaccines, especially chronically, they secrete a number of inflammatory cytokines,
free radicals, lipid peroxidation products, and the two excitotoxins, glutamate and quinolenic acid, which may
become highly destructive to the brain when these cells are excessively stimulated for prolonged periods. This
process was suggested as the central mechanism resulting in the pathological as well as clinical features of autism
[16].
Since the U.S. Congressional Hearings on issues of vaccine safety ended in December, 2004, credible and statistically significant studies have begun appearing that: a) meet the established criteria for effective safety tests and b)
without exception in my opinion, have implicated vaccines as central causal factors in today’s epidemic of autism
and related disorders. Several are listed below:
• As published in the Annals of Neurology [17], Diana Vargas and colleagues examined the brains from autopsies of 11 autistic patients, ranging in ages from 5 to 44 years, in which they found the presence of extensively
activated microglia and astrocytes along with elevations of cytokines and chemokines, which are immune system
proteins involved in inflammatory processes. As the first study of its kind, it tends to support Blaylock’s theory

that overstimulation of the brain’s microglia and astrocytes for excessively prolonged periods resulting from current vaccine programs plays a central causal role in today’s epidemic of childhood autism.

include albumin, several forms of aluminum, formaldehyde, various amino acids, DNA residues, egg protein,
gelatin, surfactants, monosodium glutamate(MSG), Thimerosal (50% ethyl mercury), and various antibiotics.

• Surveys from four widely separated geographic areas have shown higher rates of asthma in fully vaccinated
children as compared with those with limited or no vaccines [18-21].

• Contrary to public avowals as to the removal of mercury from vaccines, at time of this writing it is still present in
the USA as a preservative in the multi-dose vials of tetanus-toxoid booster vaccines, the Menomune vaccine, the
JE-Vax, and the inactivated influenza vaccines, including the “bird-flu” vaccine. Also it’s used in the manufacturing process of many vaccines to remove contaminants, which currently leaves trace residues of mercury in seven
other vaccine formulations. Even these trace amounts are potentially toxic because of the universally recognized
principle of toxicology, that combinations of toxins will increase toxicity exponentially; that is, two heavy metals will increase toxicity 10-fold, or three heavy metals increase toxicity 100-fold. In vaccines, the combinations
would be mercury and aluminum. The same principle applies in other forms of toxic chemicals [26-28].

• A study on primary immunization of 239 premature infants with gestational ages of less that 35 weeks was conducted by M. Pourcyrous et al. (Journal of Pediatrics [22], to determine the incidence of cardiorespiratory events
and abnormal C-reactive protein (CRP) levels associated with administration of a single vaccine or multiple vaccines simultaneously at or about two months age. (CRP is a standard blood test to measure body inflammation.)
CRP levels and cardiorespiratory events were monitored for three days following immunizations in a neonatal
intensive care unit sponsored by the University of Tennessee. Elevations of CRP levels occurred in 70% of infants administered single vaccines and in 85% of those given multiple vaccines, 43% of which reached abnormal
levels. Overall, 16% of infants had vaccine-associated cardiorespiratory events with episodes of apnea (cessation
of breathing) and bradycardia. Most important, 17% of those receiving single vaccines had intraventricular brain
hemorrhages, with an incidence of 24% of those receiving multiple vaccines. (This is the first study of its kind,
showing that brain hemorrhages can commonly take place in vulnerable infants, now being misdiagnosed as
Shaken Baby Syndrome in hospital emergency rooms.) It should be noted that each and every one of the preceding adverse manifestations could be attributed to vaccine-induced brain inflammation.
• Though long denied by health officials, the action of mercury in causing brain inflammation in autistic children
tends to be confirmed by Sajdel, Sulkowska, et al. [23]. Also the first of its kind, this study compared the cerebellar levels of the oxidative stress marker, 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), mercury (Hg), and the antioxidant, selenium (Se)
between autistic and normal children. Average cerebellar 3-NT levels were statistically elevated by 68% in autistic children, cerebellar Hg by 68%, and mercury levels relative to protective selenium by 75% in autistic cases in
comparison to controls.
• In a study along similar lines to the S. Sulkowska study above, X. Ming et al. [24] reviewed their animal model
of autism, showing that oxidative stress from methylmercury or valproic acid exposures in early postnatal life
of mice resulted in aberrant social, cognitive, and motor behavior. They also found that Trolox, a water-soluble
vitamin E derivative, was capable of attenuating a number of these adverse neurobehavioral side effects.
• A telephone survey commissioned by the nonprofit group, Generation Rescue, compared vaccinated with unvaccinated boys in nine counties of Oregon and California [25]. The survey included nearly 12,000 households with
children ranging in age from 4 to 17 years, including more than 17,000 boys among whom 991 were described
as being completely unvaccinated. The survey found that, compared to unvaccinated boys, vaccinated boys were
155% more likely to have a neurological disorder, 224% more likely to have ADHD, and 61% more likely to have
autism. For older vaccinated boys in the 11-17 age bracket, the results were even more pronounced, with 158%
more likely to have neurological disorders, 317% more likely to have ADHD, and 112% more likely to have autism.
• In October, 1998 the French government abandoned its mandatory hepatitis B vaccine program for school children after more than 15,000 law suits were filed for brain damage and autoimmune reactions including arthritis,
multiple sclerosis, and lupus.
Vaccine adjuvants—their role in inducing prolonged immune response to vaccines
and their potentially adverse consequences
• As reviewed by Blaylock [16], adjuvants are substances added to vaccine formulations during manufacturing
that are designed to boost the overall immune system response when the vaccine is injected. These substances

• A study that was conducted in Lima, Peru by J. Laurente and colleagues [29] should remove all doubts about the
potential dangers of mercury-containing thimerosal as a vaccine additive: To determine if thimerosal administration in amounts equivalent to vaccine content produces neurotoxic effects on the encephalon in postnatal hamsters
and on the experimentation animals’ development, three serial thimerosal injections were given on birth days 7,
9, and 11, with controls receiving only saline injection. Test animals subsequently showed statistically significant
reduction in both weight and stature compared with controls. Neurotoxic effects were also produced at encephalic
(brain) level at the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum. On tissue slides there was decrease in neuronal
density, neuronal necrosis, and axonal demyelinization in test animals.
• In vaccines, virtually insoluble polymeric aluminum hydroxy compounds serve to dramatically boost and prolong the immune reaction to the vaccination by prolonged activation of the macrophagic immune sub-system in
some people [30-35].
Ongoing mass (herd) immunizations – are they necessary?
• Vaccine proponents would have us believe that mass vaccine programs have been largely responsible for controlling virtually all of the former epidemics of killer childhood diseases in industrialized nations, In my opinion, with
the exception of small-pox and the possible exception of the polio vaccine, the facts do not bear this out. According to the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, from 1911 to 1935 the four leading causes of child- hood deaths
from infectious diseases in the USA were diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), scarlet fever, and measles. Yet,
by 1945 the combined death rates from these causes had declined by 95%, before implementation of mass vaccine
programs [39]. Other sources provided much the same pattern of information [40-41]. Furthermore, according
to a report in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, July 30, 1999, improvements in sanitation, water quality,
hygiene, and the introduction of antibiotics have been the most important factors in control of infectious disease
in the past century. Although vaccines were mentioned, they were not included among the major factors [42].
The MMR vaccine and childhood autism: a hypothetical model
• As mentioned earlier, it was only after the combination of the measles, mumps, and rubella live viruses into a
single vaccine in the USA in 1978 that the incidence of childhood autism showed a sharp and dramatic increase
1-2]. Prior to that time the three viral vaccines had been in use a number of years, but given separately without
significant increases in autism.
• In addition to the Blaylock model of microglial overstimulation, also undoubtedly playing a major role [16],
there are two plausible explanations for increases in autism following the MMR vaccine: First, protein sequences
in the measles virus have been found to have similarities to those in brain tissues [43], so that by process of mimicry, the formation of antibodies against the measles virus would tend to cross react adversely with the brain.

Second, and probably far more important, viruses are inherently immunosuppressive, in contrast to bacterial infections which stimulate the immune system, as reflected in the fact that viral infections generally lower white blood
counts in contrast to bacterial infections, which raise white counts. The measles virus is exceptionally potent in
this regard, being powerfully suppressive to cellular immunity [44-46], with the suppressive action of measles
largely attributed to its suppression of interleukin 12, on which cellular immunity is dependent [45]. Consequently
the combining of three viral vaccines into a single combination may substantially increase the immunosuppressive vital effect, bringing about, in varying degrees, an immune paralysis in the infant. Under these circumstances
the measles virus may spread into various tissues of the body. As with combinations of toxic chemicals that bring
exponential increases in toxicities [26-28], combinations in viral vaccines may bring exponential increases in
their toxic, immunosuppressive effects.
• In support of this hypothesis, Wakefield et al. have demonstrated live measles virus in the small intestinal lymph
nodes in children with the autistic-colitis syndrome, with the only possible source being from the live virus in the
MMR vaccine [47].
• In his various lectures in this country, Wakefield stressed that it was only following the introduction of the MMR
vaccine in the United Kingdom in 1987 that the rapid increase in childhood the colitis/autistic syndrome began to
be seen. This pattern was further confirmed by checking back into the records of public health departments of the
United Kingdom and finding reports of autism occurring among children contracting two such childhood diseases
simultaneously, such as chicken pox and measles, or mumps and measles.
• As reviewed by Blaylock [16], a number of studies have shown that live viruses used in vaccines can enter the
brain and reside there for a lifetime. One study, in which autopsied tissues from the elderly were examined for the
presence of the measles virus, found that 20% of brains had live measles virus and that 45% of other organs were
infested as well [48].
• As another study suggesting that active brain invasion by the measles virus in autistic children from the MMR
vaccination, Bradstreet et al. [49] examined cerebrospinal fluid from three autistic children, which revealed the
presence of measles virus genomic RNA.
• As to other viral vaccines, as reported by Bernard Rimland, the chicken pox vaccine is also playing a role in
these cases.

John B. Classen, M.D., and epidemiologic studies concerning a suspected causal relationship
between vaccines and the rising incidence of Insulin-Dependent Diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
• In 1998 John Classen, M.D. gave a presentation at a conference held by the American College of Medicine in
which he reviewed 32 published articles, five authored by himself, indicating a causal relationship between vaccines and the rising incidence of IDDM. Nations represented in the papers included New Zealand, Canada, the
United Kingdom, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, the U.S., and Holland. Single vaccines were used including haemophilus, hepatitis B, pertussis, BCG, and smallpox.
• A prototype was one conducted in Finland by Classen and reported in the British Medical Journal [58]. In this
study, from all children born in Finland between October 1, 1985 and August 31, 1987, approximately 116,000
were randomized as test subjects to receive four doses of haemophilus vaccine starting at three months of age, or
one dose starting at 24 months. 125,500 unvaccinated children served as controls. Each group was followed until
age 10 years for development of IDDM. The incidence at seven years for those receiving four doses, those receiving one dose, and those receiving none was 261, 237, and 207 respectively with relative risks of 1.2, 1.14, and 1
for those receiving no vaccine.
• In virtually all of the reports from other countries the results were very similar, indicating a slight but consistent
increase in IDDM following each of the single vaccines listed above. Classen interpreted these results as indicating that it was not the type of vaccination that mattered so much as the immunologic impact of vaccination itself.
Typically there was a delay of 3 to 5 years between vaccines and onset of IDDM.
Quotations by Classen during the 1998 conference included:
“Vaccinating every child against every disease is fundamentally unsound.”
“There is a 3.78-fold increased risk of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
in children from today’s vaccines.”
“All autoimmune diseases are increasing in incidence.
General immune (over) stimulation from vaccines is a cause of autoimmunity.”
Summary and conclusions

• “The federal government’s Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), which supposedly documents
adverse reactions to vaccines, received nearly 10,000 reports involving the chickenpox vaccine between March,
1995 and December, 1999. Some of these reactions included brain inflammation, neurological damage, immune
system abnormalities, seizures, and death. It is important to note, by the way, that since reporting adverse events
is not mandatory, only an estimated 1 to 10% of adverse events are reported to VAERS.”[50]
• In addition, articles by Gary Goldman seriously question the efficacy and advisability of universal varicella vaccination [51,52].
• Immunosuppressive effects have also been reported from the rubella vaccine. In a study of eighteen school girls,
ages 11 to 13 years by Pukhalsky et al., profound depression of interferon gamma (a key mediator of cellular immunity) was found 30 days following rubella vaccine [53].
Returning to the MMR vaccine, F. Imani and K. Kehoe found a previously unrecognized side effect by incubating the
MMR vaccine with a line of human plasma cells, which resulted in increase in the expression of allergy-related IgE
antibodies, and secondarily a decrease in protective IgG antibodies. Based on these findings, the authors concluded
that viral vaccines may be playing a role in the increasing incidence of asthma and other allergic diseases [54].

• Over eons of time nature has evolved two major branches of the immune system, the Th1 cellular system located
in the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems, and the Th2 humoral system, which
involves the production of antigen-specific antibodies by plasma cells in bone marrow. Both systems are incredibly complex both in the timing of their developments and their functions. Since a large majority of infectious
microorganisms enter the body through the mucous membranes, the cellular immune system has evolved as the
primary immune defense system of the body, with the humoral system serving as a secondary or backup role.
For these reasons, evolutionary challenges have required the cellular immune system to become more effective
in dealing with infectious micro-organisms, especially intracellular viral infections [57]. This is undoubtedly the
reason that vaccine-induced immunities to measles, mumps, chicken pox, and rubella, which bypass the cellular
immune system, are of limited duration requiring repeated vaccinations. The natural diseases of former times, in
contrast, were dealt with much more effectively by the cellular immune system, almost always conferring permanent immunity.
• The reader may well question that we have innumerable viruses passing around in the population today. Would
they not serve the same purposes as measles, chicken pox, mumps, and rubella? Perhaps, except that chicken pox,
mumps, rubella, and especially measles affect and challenge the epithelial tissues of the skin, respiratory (rubella),

and gastrointestinal tracts (measles, chicken pox, and mumps) in ways that few if any other viruses do.
• As reviewed above, a newborn infant comes into the world with a rudimentary immune system which requires a
series of challenges to bring it to full functional capacity, a process requiring approximately three years. In earlier
times these challenges were largely in the forms of the “minor childhood diseases” listed above. With time and
experience it is becoming evident that, in addition to those already mentioned, another flaw in today’s vaccine
programs is that the injectable vaccines, directed at stimulating antibody production in the bone marrow, are bypassing the cellular immune system, leaving it relatively unchallenged and therefore relatively weak and stunted
during the critical infant/childhood period. In addition, there are the powerfully immunosuppressive effects of the
MMR vaccine and other viral vaccines, to which the cellular immune system is uniquely vulnerable. These processes appear to be progressively undermining and eroding the cellular immune system, and unless discontinued
or changed, may lead to an immunological collapses. Perhaps it already has for some children.
• It is or should be manifestly apparent that the humoral antibody-producing system of the bone marrow can never
functionally replace the far more efficient cellular immune system.
• For this reason, in my opinion, any children’s vaccine program which does not allow the cellular (mucosal) immune system to develop unhampered in a natural way from natural challenges will be self-defeating. This would
necessarily require a delay of childhood vaccines until two or three years of age. With this delay, the minor childhood viral diseases might well return, but would this be a bad thing? The dangers of chicken pox and mumps have
been greatly exaggerated. Because of concerns for congenital rubella, the rubella vaccine could be delayed to later
years, as the infection itself is very mild. Historically, measles did have some serious consequences including encephalitis, blindness or death in about 1 in 150 cases. However, there are other answers. Nutrition has been one of
the missing links all along. In third world countries where measles has resulted in high mortality, this has usually
been associated with malnutrition. One example of nutritional intervention is vitamin A therapy, authorized by the
World Health Organization in developing nations, which has significantly reduced both mortality and morbidity
from measles.
• A study in Afghanistan which showed significantly greater morbidity and mortality from measles in children
administered aspirin and Tylenol than those not given these medications [62], so that these should be avoided with
measles.

• Then too, we now have antibiotics for secondary infections associated with measles, which they did not have in
the days when measles carried a small but significant rate of morbidities and mortality, much of which was from
secondary infections.
• All of the above lies in the future. For today’s parents the Autism Research Institute with headquarters in San
Diego, California (www.AutismResearchInstitute.com) has made the following safety recommendations in childhood vaccines:
• Never vaccinate a sick child, even if he or she just has a runny nose.
• Never give more than two vaccines simultaneously.
• Rather than the MMR vaccine, request that these viral vaccines be given separately,
preferably six months apart; give measles last; and do not give any other vaccines for at
least 1 year after measles. Some compounding pharmacies do provide these individual vaccines.
• Administer vitamins A, D and C before and after vaccines.
• Never allow a vaccine containing any level of the mercurial compound, Thimerosal.
At time of this writing in late 2008, 50 micrograms of Thimerosal is still present in each 0.5- mL dose of vaccine
from multi-dose vials of influenza vaccines and multi-dose vials of tetanus booster vaccines, but not in single dose
vials of these vaccines. A total of 17 vaccines formulations are still approved and available for use that contain
some level of Thimerosal; 10 of these 17 vaccine formulations contain a preservative level of Thimerosal.
• Any overview on vaccines would be incomplete without mention of the work of the highly published immunologist, H. H. Fudenberg, and his work in developing clinical applications of transfer factor, which is a low molecular
weight extract of lymphocytes, capable of enhancing or inducing cell-mediated immunity de novo (without immunizations) in an antigen specific fashion [63-64].
• Finally, in view of gross deficiencies of vaccine safety testings, as documented by the U.S. Congressional
Hearings on issues of vaccine safety (1999-December, 2004), the time is long overdue for a total rethinking and
redirecting of current childhood vaccine programs. Until the safety of such programs can be assured by thorough
and dependable safety testing, any further mandating of childhood vaccines will remain morally and ethically
untenable.
http://www.know-vaccines.org/PDF/MMRmucosalIS.pdf

Journal Of Infectious Disease • 2008

The Safety Profile of Varicella Vaccine:
A 10-Year Review
Susan A. Galea1, Ann Sweet1, Paul Beninger1, Sharon P. Steinberg2, Philip S. LaRussa2, Anne A. Gershon2 and Robert G. Sharrar1
1. Merck Research Laboratories, Clinical Risk Management and Safety Surveillance, North Wales, PA
2. Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY
Abstract Excerpts
Reports of breakthrough varicella
There were 5054 reports of breakthrough varicella, for a reporting rate of 0.9 reports/ 10,000 doses of
vaccine distributed. Fifty-one reports (1%) met the regulatory definition of “serious.”
Secondary transmission
The VZVIP confirmed 3 cases of secondary transmission of Oka VZV. The Oka VZV was present in
a 30-year-old pregnant woman who developed 100 vesicular lesions 16 days after her 1-year-old son
developed ∼30 vesicular lesions 24 days after varicella vaccination. She elected to have a therapeutic
abortion, and the products of conception were negative for VZV by PCR analysis [5]. In the second report, the Oka VZV strain was also present in a 4-month-old boy who developed 25 lesions 19 days after
his 1-year-old sibling developed 2 vesicular lesions 14 days after vaccination. The third case in which
Oka VZV was identified occurred in a 35-year-old father who developed >100 lesions 17 days after his
1-year-old son developed 12 vesicular lesions 17 days after vaccination. In each of the 3 confirmed secondary-transmission cases, the vaccine recipient had a postvaccination rash and had close, household
contact with the susceptible individual.
Additionally, there were 2 reported cases of possible secondary transmission, in which it was reported
that the presence of Oka VZV was identified by an outside laboratory [6, 7]. The specimens for these
cases were not analyzed through or confirmed by the VZVIP.
Neurologic AEs
Neurologic syndromes, such as encephalitis, aseptic meningitis, and cerebellar ataxia, have been reported in the postmarketing environment after administration of Varivax. There were 30 (CSF) specimens
analyzed by PCR (table 1) from patients with reports of such syndromes. The reported AEs associated
with these reports included encephalitis (12 patients), meningitis (5 patients), ataxia (5 patients), transverse myelitis (3 patients), seizures (3 patients), demyelinating disorder (1 patient), and hemiparesis (1
patient). The 5 meningitis reports associated with HZ listed in the “HZ” subsection above are different

from the cases of meningitis listed in this subsection and are not included here. None of the CSF specimens from these neurologic reports had Oka VZV identified by PCR analysis. Several of these reports
have been described elsewhere [1, 4].
Herpes Zoster
There were 697 reports of HZ occurring 1-3509 days (median, 362 days) after vaccination in patients
13 months to 68 years of age (median age, 3.4 years). Four hundred patients (65%) for whom age was
reported were <5 years of age. Table 2 compares the HZ reports in which PCR analysis identified Oka
VZV and wild-type VZV strains.
The site of HZ was more likely to correlate with the site of vaccine injection in reports in which Oka
VZV was identified. PCR was more likely to identify wild-type VZV than Oka VZV if the time to onset
was within 42 days of vaccination. However, 2 reports in which HZ was diagnosed within 42 days of
vaccination had specimens in which Oka VZV was identified. One of these reports was of a child with
acute lymphocytic leukemia diagnosed 10 days after vaccination with Varivax. The child eventually
developed HZ on 3 occasions: 23, 47, and 116 days after vaccination. PCR analysis of a specimen from
the last episode of HZ identified Oka VZV. In the second report, Oka VZV was present in a girl 5 years
of age who developed an HZ-like rash in the distribution of the second division of the trigeminal nerve
(right side of face and right eye) 25 days after receiving Varivax.
Five patients developed meningitis in association with HZ. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) specimens from
these patients were negative for VZV. The HZ rash specimens from 2 of the patients had Oka VZV
identified; however, in 1 of these reports, enterovirus was identified in the CSF analyzed at the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). A third patient had wild-type VZV identified from an HZ
rash specimen. Additionally, 1 child who received Varivax at 2-3 years of age had acute lymphocytic
leukemia diagnosed at 4 years of age. After treatment with 6-mercaptopurine weekly and methotrexate
monthly, he was hospitalized for HZ and mild meningeal signs. A CSF specimen had Oka VZV identified. The child recovered.

Potential conflicts of interest
S.A.G., A.S., P.B., and R.G.S. are salaried employees of Merck and possess stock and stock options in the company.
A.A.G. lectures and consults on varicella-zoster virus vaccines for Merck and GlaxoSmithKline when invited and receives research support from Merck. A
dditionally, P.S.L., S.P.S., and A.A.G. are in a contractual relationship with Merck through the Varicella Zoster Virus Identification Program.
Full Report:
http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/197/Supplement_2/S165.full

Simpsonwood Retreat Center • June 7-8, 2000

Simpsonwood • Scientific Review of Vaccine Safety Datalink Information
Norcross, Georgia
Quotes from and link to transcript with a
Discussion on the following page
“…the number of dose related relationships [between mercury and autism] are linear and statistically significant.
You can play with this all you want. They are linear. They are statistically significant.”
—Dr. William Weil, American Academy of Pediatrics. Simpsonwood, GA, June 7, 2000
“Forgive this personal comment, but I got called out at eight o’clock for an emergency call and my daughter-inlaw delivered a son by c-section. Our first male in the line of the next generation and I do not want that grandson
to get a Thimerosal containing vaccine until we know better what is going on. It will probably take a long time.
In the meantime, and I know there are probably implications for this internationally, but in the meanwhile I think
I want that grandson to only be given Thimerosal-free vaccines.”
—Dr. Robert Johnson, Immunologist, University of Colorado, Simpsonwood, GA, June 7, 2000
“But there is now the point at which the research results have to be handled, and even if this committee decides
that there is no association and that information gets out, the work has been done and through the freedom of information that will be taken by others and will be used in other ways beyond the control of this group. And I am
very concerned about that as I suspect that it is already too late to do anything regardless of any professional body
and what they say ... My mandate as I sit here in this group is to make sure at the end of the day that 100,000,000
are immunized with DTP, Hepatitis B and if possible Hib, this year, next year and for many years to come, and that
will have to be with thimerosal containing vaccines unless a miracle occurs and an alternative is found quickly
and is tried and found to be safe.”
—Dr. John Clements, World Health Organization, Simpsonwood, GA, June 7, 2000
“We are in a bad position from the standpoint of defending any lawsuits, this will be a resource to our very busy
plaintiff attorneys in this country.”
—Dr. Robert Brent, a pediatrician at the Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children in Delaware. “
“given the sensitivity of the information, we have been able to keep it out of the hands of, let’s say, less responsible hands.”
—Dr. Bob Chen, head of vaccine safety for the CDC
the study “should not have been done at all” the results “will be taken by others and will be used in ways beyond
the control of this group. The research results have to be handled.”
— Dr. John Clements, vaccines advisor at the World Health Organization
Link to Simpsonwood Document: http://thinktwice.com/simpsonwood.pdf

Medical Veritas • 2008

The truth behind the vaccine cover-up
Russell L. Blaylock, MD
www.russellblaylockmd.com
Abstract
On June 7-8, 2000 a secret conference was held at the Simpsonwood Conference Center in Norcross, Georgia to
discuss a study examining the link between increasing doses of Thimerosal and neurodevelopmental disorders.
The study was done using the Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) data-base, an official governmental data bank collecting patient vaccination information on the children from the health maintenance organizations (HMOs) being
paid to participate. Attending were 51 scientists, representatives of pharmaceutical vaccine manufacturing companies and a representative of the World Health Organization; the public and the media were unlawfully excluded.
The conclusions of this meeting were quite startling, since it confirmed a dose-response link between Thimerosal
and neurodevelopmental disorders that held up to rigorous statistical analyses.
In their discussion, they make plain why the meeting was held in secret: the conclusions would have destroyed
the public’s confidence in the vaccine program, and more importantly, their faith in vaccine authorities. When
the results of this study were published three years later in the journal Pediatrics, the “problem” had been fixed,
in that by adding another set of data from a third HMO, reorganizing the criteria for inclusion and restructuring
the patient groupings, a less than statistically significant link was demonstrated. In my analysis I discuss the more
outrageous statements made during the meeting and how accepted experts in the field of mercury neurotoxicity
were excluded from the meeting.
I was asked to write a paper on some of the newer mechanisms of vaccine damage to the nervous system, but in
the interim I came across an incredible document that should blow the lid off the cover-up being engineered by
the pharmaceutical companies in conjunction with powerful governmental agencies.
It all started when a friend of mine sent me a copy of a letter from Congressman David Weldon, M.D. to the director of the CDC, Dr Julie L. Gerberding, in which Congressman Weldon alludes to a study by a Doctor Thomas
Verstraeten, then representing the CDC, on the connection between infant exposure to Thimerosal-containing
vaccines and neurodevelopmental injury. In this shocking letter, Congressman Weldon refers to Dr. Verstraeten’s
study, which looked at the data from the Vaccine Safety Datalink and found a statistically significant correlation
between Thimerosal exposure via vaccines and several neurodevelopmental disorders including tics, speech and
language delays, and possibly ADD.
Congressman Weldon questions the CDC director as to why, following this meeting, Dr. Verstraeten published his
results almost four years later in the journal Pediatrics to show just the opposite, that is, that except for tics, there
was no statistically significant correlation to any neurodevelopmental problems related to Thimerosal exposure in
infants. In this letter, Congressman Weldon refers to a report of the minutes of this meeting held in 2000, which
exposes some incredible statements by the “experts” making up this study group. The group’s purpose was to
evaluate and discuss Dr. Verstraeten’s interim results and data and make recommendations that would eventually
lead to possible alterations in existing vaccine policy.
I contacted Congressman Weldon’s legislative assistant and he kindly sent me a complete copy of this report.
Now, as usual in these cases, the government did not give up this report willingly; it required a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit to pry it loose. Having read the report twice and having carefully analyzed it, I can see why

they did not want any outsiders to see it. It is a bombshell, as you shall see.
To help the reader understand the importance of this report, in this analysis I will not only describe and discuss
this report, but also will frequently quote their words directly and supply the exact page number so others can see
for themselves.
The official title of the meeting was the “Scientific Review of Vaccine Safety Datalink Information.” This conference, held on June 7-8, 2000, at Simpsonwood Retreat Center in Norcross, Georgia, assembled 51 scientists
and physicians, five of whom represented vaccine manufacturers. These included Smith Kline Beecham, Merck,
Wyeth, North American Vaccine and Aventis Pasteur.
During this conference, these scientists focused on the study of the Datalink material, whose main author was Dr.
Thomas Verstraesten and who identified himself as working at the National Immunization Program of the CDC.
It was discovered by Congressman Weldon that Dr. Verstraeten left the CDC shortly after this conference to work
for the Belgian operations of the pharmaceutical maker GlaxoSmithKline—a recurring regulated agency/regulated-industry pattern that has been given the name “a revolving door”. It is also interesting to note that GlaxoSmithKline was involved in several lawsuits over complications secondary to their vaccines.
To start off the meeting, Dr. Roger Bernier, Associate Director for Science in the National Immunization Program
(CDC), related some pertinent history. He stated that Congressional action in 1997 required that the FDA review
mercury being used in drugs and biologics (vaccines). To meet this mandate, the FDA called for all the registered
manufacturers of drugs, including vaccines, to submit the mercury information about their drug products. He
notes that a group of European regulators and manufacturers met on April 1999 and acknowledged the situation
but made no recommendations or changes. In other words, it was all for show.
At this point Dr. Bernier makes an incredible statement (page 12). He says, “In the United States there was a
growing recognition that cumulative exposure may exceed some of the guidelines.” By guidelines, he is referring
to guidelines for mercury exposure safety levels set by several regulatory agencies. The three guidelines were set
by the ATSDR (The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), the FDA (Food and Drug Administration), and the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The most consistently violated safety guideline was the
mercury-in-food limit set by the EPA. He further explains that he is referring to children being exposed to Thimerosal in vaccines.
Based on this realization that they were violating safety guidelines, he says that this then “resulted in a joint
statement of the Public Health Service (PHS) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) in July of last year
(1999), which stated that as a long term goal, it was desirable to remove mercury from vaccines because it was a
potentially preventable source of exposure.” (Page 12)
As an aside, one has to wonder, where was the Public Health Service and American Academy of Pediatrics during
all the years of mercury use in vaccines and why didn’t they know that, number one, they were exceeding regulatory safety levels and secondly, why weren’t they aware of the extensive literature showing deleterious effects on
the developing nervous system of babies? As we shall see, even these “experts” seem to be cloudy on the mercury
literature.
Dr. Bernier notes that in August 1999 a public workshop was held in the Lister Auditorium in Bethesda by the
National Vaccine Advisory Group and the Interagency Working Group on Vaccines to consider Thimerosal risk
in vaccine use. And based on what was discussed in that conference, Merck, one manufacturer of a U.S.-licensed
hepatitis B vaccine (HepB) moved to license a “no Thimerosal” formulation for young children but kept making and distributing its Thimerosal-preserved HepB formulation into the mid 2000s while GlaxoS- mithKline,

the other U.S.-licensed HepB maker apparently moved to license a reduced-Thimerosal formulation; apparently,
neither firm moved to recall the existing Thimerosal-preserved doses. It is interesting to note that the media took
very little interest in what was learned at that meeting and it may have been a secret meeting—probably because
it was also a meeting that was not, as required by law, announced publicly. As we shall see, there is a reason why
they struggle to keep the contents of all these meetings secret from the public.
Dr. Bernier then notes on page 13 that on October 1999 the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
(ACIP) “looked this situation over again and did not express a preference for any of the vaccines that were Thimerosal free.” In this discussion he further notes that the ACIP concluded that the Thimerosal-containing vaccines
could be used but the “long-term goal” is to try to remove Thimerosal as soon as possible.
Now, we need to stop and think about what has transpired. We have an important group here, the ACIP that essentially plays a role in vaccine policy affecting tens of millions of children every year. And, we have evidence
from the Thimerosal meeting in 1999 that the potential for serious injury to the infant’s brain is so serious that a
recommendation for removal becomes policy. In addition, they are all fully aware that tiny babies are receiving
mercury doses that exceed even EPA safety limits for adults, yet all they can say is that we must “try to remove
Thimerosal as soon as possible.” Do they not worry about the tens of millions of babies who will continue receiving Thimerosal-containing vaccines until they can get around to stopping the use of Thimerosal?
It should also be noted that it is a misnomer to say “removal of Thimerosal” since they are not removing anything.
They just plan to stop adding it to future vaccines once they use up existing stocks, which entails millions of doses.
And incredibly, the government allows them to do it. Even more incredibly, the American Academy of Pediatrics
and the American Academy of Family Practice similarly endorse this insane policy. In fact, they specifically state
that children should continue to receive the Thimerosal-containing vaccines until new Thimerosal-free vaccines
can be manufactured at the will of the manufacturers. It was disclosed that Thimerosal was in all influenza, HepB
and DPT vaccines, as well as most DtaP vaccines .
Had vaccine safety been their primary concern, as it should be, the most obvious solution was to recommend only
single-dose vials, which require no preservative, coupled with a ban on the use of any mercury compound in the
manufacture of all drugs. So, why didn’t they make this or at least a “no Thimerosal” recommendation? “Oh,”
they exclaim, “it would add to the cost of the vaccine.” Of course, we are only talking about a few dollars per vaccine at most, certainly worth the health of your child’s brain and future. They could use some of the hundreds of
millions of dollars they waste on vaccine promotion every year to cover the cost for the poor. Yet, that would cut
into some fat-cat’s profit and we can’t have that.
As they begin to concentrate on the problem at hand we first begin to learn that the greatest problem with the meeting is that they know virtually nothing about what they are doing. On page 15, for example, they admit that there
is very little pharmacokinetic data on ethylmercury, the form of mercury in Thimerosal. In fact, they say there is
no data on excretion and the data on toxicity is sparse; yet it is recognized to cause hypersensitivity, neurological
problems, and even death, and it is known to easily pass the blood-brain barrier and the placental barrier.
Therefore, what they are admitting is that we have a form of mercury that has been used in vaccines since the
1930s and no one has bothered to study the effects on biological systems, especially the brains of infants. Their
defense throughout this conference is “we just don’t know the effects of ethylmercury.” As a solution, they resort
to studies on methylmercury because there are thousands of studies on this form of mercury. The major source of
this form is seafood consumption.
It takes them awhile to get the two forms of mercury straight, since for several pages of the report they say methylmercury is in Thimerosal rather than ethylmercury. They can be forgiven for this. On page 16, Dr. Johnson, an
immunologist and pediatrician at the University of Colorado School of Medicine and the National Jewish Center

for Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, notes that he would like to see the incorporation of wide margins of
safety, that is 3 to 10-fold margins of safety to “account for data uncertainties.” What he means is that there are
so many things we do not know about this toxin that we had better use very wide margins of safety. For most
substances the FDA uses a 100-fold margin of safety.
The reason for this, which they do not mention, is that in a society of hundreds of millions of people, there are
groups of people who are much more sensitive to the toxin than others. For instance, the elderly, the chronically
ill, the nutritionally deficient, small babies, premature babies, those on certain medications and those with inborn
defects in detoxification, just to name a few. In fact, premature babies and low birth weight babies were excluded
from the main study since (1) some had the highest mercury levels, (2) these would be hard to study, and (3) they
had the most developmental problems possibly related to the mercury. In other words, including these babies
might endanger their claims of safety.
It should also be noted that all participants at this conference ignored the differences in total mercury exposure
among infants and small children living in different geographical areas. For example, a child’s mother who had
dental amalgams, who regularly eats high-methymercury-containing seafood and lives in an area with high atmospheric mercury levels will have much higher total mercury exposure than one exposed to little dietary, dental,
and environmental mercury.
Also on page 16, Dr. Johnson makes an incredible statement, one that defines the problem we have in this country
with the promoters of these vaccines. He states, “As an aside, we found a cultural difference between vaccinologist and environmental health people in that many of us in the vaccine arena have never thought about uncertainty
factors before. We tend to be relatively concrete in our thinking.” Then he says, “One of the big cultural events in
that meeting ... was when Dr. Clarkson repetitively pointed out to us that we just didn’t get it about uncertainty,
and he was actually quite right.”
This is an incredible admission. First, what is a “vaccinologist”? Do you go to school to learn to be one? How
many years of residency training are required to be a “vaccinologist”? Are there board exams? It’s an ill-defined
term used to describe people who are obsessed with vaccines, not that they actually study the effects of the vaccines, as we shall see throughout this meeting. Most important is the admission by Dr. Johnson that he and his
fellow “vaccinologists” are so blinded by their obsession with forcing vaccines on society that they never even
considered that there might be factors involved that could greatly affect human health, the so-called “uncertainties”. Further, he admits that he and his fellow “vaccinologists” like to think in concrete terms; that is, they are
very narrow in their thinking and wear blinders that prevent them from seeing the numerous problems occurring
with large numbers of vaccinations in infants and children. Their goal in life is to vaccinate as many people as
possible with an ever-growing number of vaccines.
On page 17 his “concrete thinking” once again takes over. He refers to the Bethesda meeting on Thimerosal safety
issues and says, “there was no evidence of a problem, only a theoretical concern that young infants’ developing
brains were being exposed to an organomercurial.” Of course, as I shall point out later, it is a lot more than a
“theoretical concern”. He then continues by saying, “We agree that while there was no evidence of a problem, the
increasing number of vaccine injections given to infants, was increasing the theoretical mercury exposure risk.”
It’s hard to conceive of a true scientist not seeing the incredible irony of these statements. The medical literature
abounds with studies on the deleterious effects of mercury on numerous enzymes, mitochondrial energy production,
synaptic function, dendritic function, neurotubule dissolution and excitotoxicity—yet he sees only a “theoretical
risk” associated with an ever increasing addition of Thimerosal-containing vaccines. It is also important to note that
these geniuses never even saw a problem in the first place, it was pressure from outside scientists, parents of affected
children, and groups representing them that pointed out the problem. They were, in essence, reacting to pressure from
outside the “vaccinologist club” and, therefore, had not discovered internally that a problem even “might” exist.

In fact, if these outside groups had not become involved, these “vaccinologists” would have continued to add
more and more mercury-containing vaccines to the list of required vaccines. Only when the problem became so
obvious, that is of epidemic proportion and the legal profession became involved, would they have even noticed
there was a problem. This is a recurring theme in the government’s regulatory agencies, as witnessed with fluoride, aspartame, MSG, dioxin and pesticides issues.

In fact, this statement is not based on any risk to U.S. children at all and he makes that plain when he states, “that
the potential impact on countries that have 10% to 15% newborn hepatitis B exposure risk was very distressing to
consider.” (page 18) In other words the risk is not to normal U.S. children but to children in developing countries.
In fact, hepatitis B is not a risk until the teenage years and after in this country. The only at-risk children are those
born to drug abusing parents, to mothers infected with hepatitis B, or to HIV infected parents.

It is also interesting that Dr. Johnson did admit that the greatest risk was among low birth weight infants and
premature infants. Now why would that be if there existed such a large margin of safety with mercury used in
vaccines? Could just a few pounds of body weight make such a dramatic difference? In fact, it does, but it also
means that normal birth weight children, especially those near the low range of normal birth weight, are also in
greater danger. It also would mean that children receiving doses of mercury higher than the 75 ug in this study
would be at high risk as well because their dose, based on body weight, would be comparable to that of the low
birth weight child receiving the lower dose. This is never even considered by these “vaccinologist” experts who
decide policy for your children.

Infectious disease authorities know that 90% of people infected with this virus either have a mild infection and
recover or have no symptoms at all. Even pregnant women infected with the virus have only a 20% chance of
transmitting the virus to their babies. According to statistics, the United States has one of the lowest rates of hepatitis B infection in the world, with only 53 cases of the infection being reported in children among 3.9 million
births. In fact, there were three times as many serious complications from the vaccine as there were children who
contracted the disease. The real reason for vaccinating the newborns is to capture them before they can escape the
vaccinologists’ vaccine program.

Now this next statement should shock everyone, but especially the poor who might believe that these “vaccinologist” experts have their best interest in mind. Dr. Johnson says on page 17, “We agree that it would be desirable to
remove mercury from U.S. licensed vaccines, but we did not agree that this was a universal recommendation that
we would make because of the issue concerning preservatives for delivering vaccines to other countries, particularly developing countries, in the absence of hard data that implied that there was in fact a problem.”
So, here you have it. The data is convincing enough that the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American
Academy of Family Practice, as well as the regulatory agencies and the CDC, all recommend its removal as
quickly as possible because of concerns of adverse effects of mercury on brain development, but not for the children in the developing countries. I thought the whole idea of child health programs in the United States directed
toward the developing world was to give poor children a better chance in an increasingly competitive world. This
policy being advocated would increase the neurodevelopmental problems seen in poor children of developing
countries and of this country, impairing their ability to learn and develop competitive minds. Remember, there
was a representative of the World Health Organization (WHO), Dr. John Clements, serving on this panel of “experts” who apparently never challenged this statement made by Dr. Johnson.
It also needs to be appreciated that children in developing countries are at a much greater risk of complications
from vaccinations and from mercury toxicity than children in developed countries. This is because of poor nutrition, concomitant parasitic and bacterial infections, and a high incidence of low birth weight in these children. We
are now witnessing a disaster in African countries caused by the use of older live virus polio vaccines that has now
produced an epidemic of vaccine related polio, that is, polio caused by the vaccine itself. In, fact, in some African
countries, polio was not seen until the vaccine was introduced.
The WHO and the “vaccinologist experts” from this country now justify a continued polio vaccination program
with this dangerous vaccine on the basis that now that they have created the epidemic of polio, they cannot stop
the program. In a recent article it was pointed out that this is the most deranged reasoning, since more vaccines
will mean more vaccine-related cases of polio. But then, “vaccinologists” have difficulty with these “uncertainties”. (Jacob JT. A developing country perspective on vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. Bulletin WHO
2004; 82:53-58. See commentary by D.M. Salisbury at the end of the article.)
Then Dr. Johnson again emphasizes the philosophy that the health of children is secondary to “the program” when
he says, “We saw some compelling data that delaying the birth dose of HepB vaccine would lead to significant
disease burden as a consequence of missed opportunity to immunize.” This implies that our children would be
endangered from the risk of hepatitis B should the vaccine program stop vaccinating newborns with the HepB
vaccine.

This is a tactic often used to scare mothers into having their children vaccinated. For example, vaccinologists say
that if children are not vaccinated against measles, millions of children could die during a measles epidemic. They
know this is nonsense. What they are using are examples taken from developing countries with poor nutrition and
poor immune function in which such epidemic death can occur. In the United States we would not see this because
of better nutrition, better health facilities and better sanitation. In fact, most deaths seen during measles outbreaks
in the United States occur in children in whom vaccination was contraindicated, when the vaccine did not work
or in children with chronic, immune-suppressing diseases.
In fact, most studies show that children catching the measles or other childhood diseases have been either fully
immunized or partially immunized. The big secret among “vaccinologists” is that anywhere from 20 to 50% of
children are not resistant to the diseases for which they have been vaccinated.
Also on page 18, Dr. Johnson tells the committee that it was Dr. Walter Orenstein who “asked the most provocative question which introduced a great deal of discussion. That was, should we try to seek neurodevelopmental
outcomes from children exposed to varying doses of mercury by utilizing the Vaccine Safety Datalink data from
one or more sites.” (page 18)
I take from this no one had ever even thought of looking at the data that had just been sitting there all these years
unreviewed. Children could have been dropping like flies or suffering from terrible neurodevelopmental defects
caused by the vaccine program and no one in the government would have known. In fact, that is exactly what the
data suggested was happening, at least as regards neurodevelopmental delays.
We should also appreciate that the government sponsored two conferences on the possible role of metals, aluminum and mercury, being use in vaccines, without any change in vaccine policy occurring after the meetings. These
meetings were held a year before this year’s 2000 meeting and before any examination of the data which was
being held tightly by the CDC (which was denied to other independent, highly qualified researchers). I will talk
more about what was discussed in the aluminum conference later. It is very important and is only briefly referred
to in this conference for a very good reason. If the public knew what was discussed at the aluminum meeting no
one would ever get a vaccination using the presently manufactured types of vaccines again.
Despite what was discussed in the aluminum meeting and the scientific literature on the neurotoxicity of aluminum, Dr. Johnson makes the following remark; “Aluminum salts have a very wide margin of safety. Aluminum
and mercury are often simultaneously administered to infants, both at the same site and at different sites.” Also on
page 20, he states, “However, we also learned that there is absolutely no data, including animal data, about the
potential for synergy, additively or antagonism, all of which can occur in binary metal mixtures...”

It is important here to appreciate a frequently used deception by those who are trying to defend an indefensible
practice. They use the very same language just quoted, that is, that there is no data to show, etc., etc. They intend
it to convey the idea that the issue has been looked at and studied thoroughly and no toxicity was found. In truth,
it means that no one has looked at this possibility and there have been no studies that would give us an answer
one way or the other.
In fact, we know that aluminum is a significant neurotoxin and that it shares many common mechanisms with
mercury as a neurotoxin. For example, they are both toxic to neuronal neurotubules, interfere with antioxidant
enzymes, poison DNA repair enzymes, interfere with mitochondrial energy production, block the glutamate reuptake proteins (GLT-1 and GLAST), bind to DNA and interfere with neuronal membrane function. Toxins that
share toxic mechanisms are almost always additive and frequently synergistic in their toxicity. So, Dr. Johnson’s
statement is sheer nonsense.
A significant number of studies have shown that both of these metals play a significant role in all of the neurodegenerative disorders. It is also important to remember, both of these metals accumulate in the brain and spinal
cord. This makes them accumulative toxins and therefore much more dangerous than rapidly excreted toxins.
To jump ahead, on page 23 Dr. Tom Sinks, Associate Director for Science at the National Center for Environmental Health at the CDC and the Acting Division Director for Division of Birth Defects, Developmental Disabilities
and Health, asks, “I wonder is there a particular health outcome that is related to aluminum salts that may have
anything that we are looking at today?” Dr. Martin Meyers, Acting Director of the National Vaccine Program
Office, answers, “No, I don’t believe there are any particular health concerns that were raised.” This is after an
aluminum conference held the previous year that did, indeed, find significant health concerns and extensive scientific literature showing aluminum to be of great concern.
On page 24 Dr. William Weil, a pediatrician representing the Committee on Environmental Health of the American Academy of Pediatrics, brings some sense to the discussion by reminding them that, “there are just a host
of neurodevelopmental data that would suggest that we’ve got a serious problem. The earlier we go, the more
serious the problem.” Here he means that the further back you go during the child’s brain development, the more
likely the damage to the infant. I must give him credit; at least he briefly recognized that a significant amount of
brain development does take place later—that is after birth. He also reminds his colleagues that aluminum produced severe dementia and death in dialysis cases. He concludes by saying, “To think there isn’t some possible
problem here is unreal.” (page 25)
Not to let it end there, Dr. Meyers adds, “We held the aluminum meeting in conjunction with the metal ions in biology and medicine meeting, we were quick to point out that in the absence of data we didn’t know about additive
or inhibitory activities.” Once again we see the “no data” ploy. There is abundant data on the deleterious effects
of aluminum on the brain, a significant portion of which came out in that very meeting.
Dr. Johnson also quotes Dr. Thomas Clarkson, who identifies himself as associated with the mercury program
at the University of Rochester, as saying that delaying the HepB vaccine for 6 months or so would not affect the
mercury burden (page 20). He makes the correct conclusion when he says, “I would have thought that the difference was in the timing. That is you are protecting the first six months of the developing central nervous system.”
Hallelujah, for a brief moment I thought that they had stumbled on one of the most basic concepts in neurotoxicology. Then Dr. Meyers dashed my hopes by saying that single, separated doses would not affect blood levels at all.
At this juncture, we need a little enlightenment. It is important to appreciate that mercury is a fat soluble metal.
That is, it is stored in the body’s fat. The brain contains 60% fat and therefore is a common site for mercury storage. Now, they establish in this discussion that about half of methylmercury is excreted over several months when
ingested. A recent study found that ethylmercury has a half-life of 7 days.

A significant proportion of the mercury will enter the brain (it has been shown to easily pass through the bloodbrain barrier) where it is stored in the phospholipids (fats). It should also be appreciated that when cleared from
the blood, the ethylmercury enters the bowel, where it is re-circulated many times over—each time depositing
more mercury in the child’s brain.
With each new vaccine dose, and remember, at the time of this conference, these children were receiving as many
as 36 doses of these vaccines by age 2 years, many of which contained mercury—another increment of mercury
is added to the brain storage depot. This is why we call mercury an accumulative poison. They never once, not
once, mention this vital fact throughout the entire conference. Not once. Moreover, they do so for a good reason;
it gives the unwary, those not trained in neuroscience, assurance that all that matters here is blood levels.
In fact, on page 163, Dr. Robert Brent, a developmental biologist and pediatrician at Thomas Jefferson University
and Dupont Hospital for Children, says that we don’t have data showing accumulation and “that with the multiple
exposures you get an increasing level, and we don’t know whether that is true or not.” He redeems himself somewhat by pointing out that some of the damage is irreversible and with each dose more irreversible damage occurs
and in that way it is accumulative.
On page 21 Dr. Thomas Clarkson makes the incredible statement implying that he knows of no studies that show
exposure to mercury after birth or at six months would have deleterious effects. Dr. Isabelle Rapin, a neurologist
for children at Albert Einstein College of Medicine, follows up by saying that “I am not an expert on mercury in
infancy” but she knows it can affect the nerves (peripheral nervous system). So, here is one of our experts admitting that she knows little about the effects of mercury on the infant. My question is: Why is she here? Dr. Rapin
is a neurologist for children at Albert Einstein College of Medicine who stated that she has a keen interest in
developmental disorders, in particular those involving language and autism, yet she knows little about the effects
of mercury on the infant brain.
This conference is concerned with the effects of mercury in the form of Thimerosal on infant brain development,
yet throughout this conference our experts, especially the “vaccinologists”, seem to know little about mercury
except limited literature that shows no toxic effects except at very high levels. None of the well known experts
were invited, such as Dr. Michael Aschner from Bowman Grey School of Medicine or Dr. Boyd Haley, who has
done extensive work on the toxic effects of low concentrations of mercury on the CNS (Central Nervous System).
They were not invited because they would be harmful to the true objective of this meeting, and that was to exonerate mercury in vaccines.
Several times throughout this conference, Dr. Brent reminds everyone that the most sensitive period for the developing brain is during the early stages of pregnancy. In fact, he pinpoints the 8th to 18th week as the period
of neuromaturation. In fact, the most rapid period of brain maturation, synaptic development and brain pathway
development, is during the last three months of pregnancy continuing until two years after birth. This is often
referred to as the “brain growth spurt”. This is also not mentioned once in this conference, again because if mothers knew that their child’s brain was busy developing for up to two years after birth, they would be less likely to
accept this safety of mercury nonsense these “vaccinologists” proclaim.
The brain develops over 100 trillion synaptic connections and tens of trillions of dendritic connections during this
highly sensitive period. Both dendrites and synapses are very sensitive, even to very low doses of mercury and
other toxins. It has also been shown that subtoxic doses of mercury can block the glutamate transport proteins that
play such a vital role in protecting the brain against excitotoxicity. Compelling studies indicate that damage to this
protective system plays a major role in most of the neurodegenerative diseases and abnormal brain development
as well.

Recent studies have shown that glutamate accumulates in the brains of autistic children, yet these experts seem to
be unconcerned about a substance (mercury) that is very powerful in triggering brain excitotoxicity.
It is also interesting to see how many times Dr. Brent emphasizes that we do not know the threshold for mercury
toxicity for the developing brain. Again, that is not true. We do know and the Journal of Neurotoxicology states
that anything above 10μg (micrograms) is neurotoxic. The WHO in fact states that there is no safe level of mercury.
On page 164 Dr. Robert Davis, Associate Professor of Pediatrics and Epidemiology at the University of Washington, makes a very important observation. He points out that in a population like the United States you have
individuals with varying levels of mercury from other causes (diet, living near coal-burning facilities, etc.) and
by vaccinating everyone you raise those with the highest levels even higher and bring those with median levels
into a category of higher levels. The “vaccinologists” with their problem of “concrete thinking” cannot seem to
appreciate the fact that not everyone is the same. That is, they fail to see these “uncertainties”.
To further emphasize this point, let’s consider a farming family that lives within three miles of a coal-burning
electrical plant. Since they also live near the ocean they eat seafood daily. The fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides
used on the crops contain appreciable levels of mercury. The coal-burning electrical plant emits high levels of
mercury in the air they breathe daily and the seafood they consume has levels of mercury higher than EPA safety
standards. This means that any babies born to these people will have very high mercury levels.
Once born, they are given numerous vaccines containing even more mercury, thereby adding significantly to their
already high mercury burden. Are these “vaccinologists” trying to convince us that these children don’t matter and
that they are to be sacrificed at the alter of “vaccine policy”?
Recent studies by neurotoxicologists have observed that as our ability to detect subtle toxic effects improves,
especially on behavior and other neurological functions, we lower the level of acceptable exposure. In fact, Dr.
Sinks brings up that exact point, using lead as an example. He notes that as our neurobehavioral testing improved,
we lowered the acceptable dose considerably and continue to do so. Dr. Johnson had the audacity to add, “The
smarter we get, the lower the threshold.” Yet, neither he, nor the other participants seem to be getting any smarter
concerning this issue.
Dr. Robert Chen, Chief of Vaccine Safety and Development at the National Immunization Program at the CDC,
then reveals why they refuse to act on this issue. He says, “the issue is that it is impossible, unethical to leave kids
unimmunized, so you will never, ever resolve that issue. So then we have to refer back from that.” (page 169) In
essence, immunization of the kids takes precedence over safety concerns with the vaccines. If the problem of vaccine toxicity cannot be solved, he seems to be saying, then we must accept that some kids will be harmed by the
vaccines. In fact, we are now seeing that the harm from the vaccines exceeds the benefit of disease prevention.
Dr. Brent makes the statement that he knows of no known genetic susceptibility data on mercury and therefore
assumes there is a fixed threshold of toxicity. That is, that everyone is susceptible to the same dose of mercury and
there are no genetically hypersensitive groups of people. In fact, a recent study found just such a genetic susceptibility in mice. In this study researchers found that mice susceptible to autoimmunity developed neurotoxic effects
to their hippocampus, including excitotoxicity, not seen in other strains of mice. They even hypothesize that the
same may be true in humans, since familial autoimmunity increases the likelihood of autism in offspring. (Hornig
M, Chian D, Lipkin WI. Neurotoxic effects of postnatal Thimerosal are mouse strain dependent. Mol Psychiatry
2004 Sep.;9(9):833–45).
For the next quotation you need a little discussion to be able to appreciate the meaning. They are discussing the
fact that in Dr. Verstraeten’s study frightening correlations were found between the higher doses of Thimerosal

and problems with neurodevelopment, including ADD and autism. The problem with the study was that there
were so few children that had been administered Thimerosal-free vaccines, that a true control group could not be
used. Instead they had to use children getting 12.5μg of mercury as the control and some even wanted to use the
control dose as 37.5μg. So the controls had mercury levels that could indeed cause neurodevelopmental problems.
Even with this basic flaw, a strong positive correlation was found between the dose of mercury given and these
neurodevelopmental problems.
It was proposed that a group of children receiving non-Thimerosal vaccines be compared to those who had Thimerosal. In fact, we later learn that a large group of children could have been used as a Thimerosal-free control. It
seems that for two years before this conference, the Bethesda Naval Hospital had been using unlicensed reducedThimerosal vaccines in place of the U.S.-licensed Thimerosal-preserved vaccines to immunize their outpatient
children. Unfortunately, in general, these children were too young for the symptoms of neurodevelopmental-regressive autism to be manifest when Verstraten began his studies in the late 1990s.
So, now to the quote: Dr. Braun responds to the idea of starting a new study using such Thimerosal-free controls
by saying, “Sure we will have the answer in five years. The question is what can we do now with the data we
have?” (page 170) Well, we have the answer to that, they simply covered this study up, declared that Thimerosal
is of no concern and continued the unaltered policy. That is, they can suggest that the pharmaceutical manufacturers of vaccines remove the Thimerosal but not make it mandatory or examine the vaccines to make sure they have
removed it.
Let us take a small peek at just how much we can trust the pharmaceutical manufacturers to do the right thing.
Several reports of major violations of vaccine manufacturing policy have been cited by the regulatory agencies.
This includes obtaining plasma donations without taking adequate histories on donors as to disease exposures and
previous health problems, poor record keeping on these donors, improper procedures, and improper handing of
specimens.
That these are not minor violations is emphasized by the discovery that a woman with variant Mad Cow Disease
was allowed to give plasma to be used in vaccines in England. In fact, it was learned only after the contaminated
plasma was pooled and used to make millions of doses of vaccines that her disease was discovered. British health
officials told the millions of vaccinated not to worry, since the “experts” have no idea if it will really spread the
disease.
Contamination of vaccines is a major concern in this country as well, as these regulatory violations make plain. It
is also important to note that no fines were given, just warnings.
Conclusions by the study group
At the end of the conference, a poll was taken asking two questions. One was, Do you think that there is sufficient
data to make a causal connection between the use of Thimerosal-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental
delays? Second, do you think further study is called for based on this study?
First, let us see some of the comments on the question of doing further studies. Dr. Paul Stehr-Green, Associate
Professor of Epidemiology at the University of Washington School of Public Health and Community Medicine,
who voted yes, gave as his reason, “The implications are so profound these should be examined further.” (page
180) Meanwhile, Dr. Brent interjects his concern that the lawyers will get hold of this information and begin filing
lawsuits. He says, “They want business and this could potentially be a lot of business.” (page 191)
Dr. Loren Koller, Pathologist and Immunotoxicologist at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, is to be congratulated for recognizing more is involved in the vaccine effects than just ethylmercury (page

192). He mentions aluminum and even the viral agents beings used as other possibilities. This is especially important in the face of Dr. R. K. Gherardi’s identification of macrophagic myofascitis, a condition causing profound
weakness and multiple neurological syndromes, one of which closely resembled multiple sclerosis.
Both human studies and animal studies have shown a strong causal relationship to the aluminum hydroxide or
aluminum phosphate used as vaccine adjuvants. More than 200 cases have been identified [1000s across the globe
since this report was written] in European countries and the United States and have been described as an “emerging condition”.
Here are some of the neurological problems seen with the use of aluminum hydroxide and aluminum phosphate
in vaccines. In two children aged 3 and 5 years, doctors at the All Children’s Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida
described chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction, urinary retention, and other findings indicative of a generalized
loss of autonomic nervous system function (diffuse dysautonomia). The 3-year old had developmental delay and
hypotonia (loss of muscle tone). A biopsy of the children’s vaccine injection site disclosed elevated aluminum
levels.
In a study of some 92 patients suffering from this emerging syndrome, eight developed a full-blown demyelinating Central Nervous System disorder (i.e., multiple sclerosis) [Authier FJ, Cherin P, et al. Central nervous system
disease in patients with macrophagic myofasciitis. Brain 2001;124:974–83]. This included sensory and motor
symptoms, visual loss, bladder dysfunction, cerebellar signs (loss of balance and coordination) and cognitive
(thinking) and behavioral disorders.
Dr. Gherardi, the French physician who first described the condition in 1998, has collected over 200 proven cases.
One third of these developed an autoimmune disease such as multiple sclerosis. Of critical importance is his
finding that even in the absence of obvious autoimmune disease there is evidence of chronic immune stimulation
caused by the injected aluminum, known to be a very powerful immune adjuvant.
The reason this is so important is that there is overwhelming evidence that chronic immune activation in the brain
(activation of microglial cells in the brain) is a major cause of damage in numerous degenerative brain disorders,
from multiple sclerosis to the classic neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s and ALS). In
fact, I have presented evidence that chronic immune activation of CNS microglia is a major cause of autism, attention deficit disorder and Gulf War Syndrome.
Dr. Gherardi emphasizes that once the aluminum is injected into the muscle, the immune activation persists for
years. In addition, we must consider the effect of the aluminum that travels to the brain itself. Numerous studies
have shown harmful effects when aluminum accumulates in the brain. A growing amount of evidence points to
high brain aluminum levels as a major contributor to Alzheimer’s disease and possibly Parkinson’s disease and
ALS (Lou Geherig’s disease). This may also explain the 10X increase in Alzheimer’s disease in those receiving
the flu vaccine 5 years in a row. (Dr. Hugh Fudenberg, in press, Journal of Clinical Investigation). It is also interesting to note that a recent study found that aluminum phosphate produced a 3X elevation in blood levels of
aluminum, as did aluminum hydroxide (Flarend RE, Hem SL, et al. In vivo absorption of aluminum-containing
vaccine adjuvants using 26Al. Vaccine 1997 Aug.-Sept.;15:1314–8).
Of course, in this conference, our illustrious experts tell us that there is “no data showing an additive or synergistic effect between mercury and aluminum.”
Dr. Rapin expressed her concern over public opinion when this information eventually gets out. She says (page
197), they are going to be captured by the public and we had better make sure that “(a) we counsel them carefully and (b) that we pursue this because of the very important public health and public implications of the data.”
Dr. Johnson adds, “the stakes are very high...” From this, how can one conclude anything other than the fact

that at least these scientists were extremely concerned by what was discovered by this study examining the Vaccine Safety Datalink material? They were obviously terrified that the information would leak out to the public.
Stamped in bold letters at the top of each page of the study were the words: “DO NOT COPY OR RELEASE”
and “CONFIDENTIAL”.
This is not the wording one would expect on a clinical study of vaccine safety; rather you would expect it on topsecret NSA or CIA files. Why was this information being kept secret? The answer is obvious—it might endanger
the vaccine program and indict the federal regulatory agencies for ignoring this danger for so many years. Our
society is littered with millions of children who have been harmed in one degree or another by this vaccine policy.
In addition, let us not forget the millions of parents who have had to watch helplessly as their children have been
destroyed by this devastating vaccine program.
Dr. Bernier on page 198 says, “the negative findings need to be pinned down and published.” Why was he so insistent that the “negative findings” be published? Because he said, “other less responsible parties will treat this as
a signal.” By that he means, a signal of a problem with Thimerosal-containing vaccines. From this, I assume he
wants a paper that says only that nothing was found by the study. As we shall see, he gets his wish.
In addition, on page 198, Dr. Rapin notes that a study in California found a 300X increase in autism following the
introduction of certain vaccines. She quickly attributes this to better physician recognition. Two things are critical
to note at this point. She makes this assertion on better physician recognition without any data at all, just her wishful thinking. If someone pointing out the dangers of vaccines were to do that, she would scream “junk science”.
Second, Dr. Weil on page 207, attacks this reasoning when he says, “the number of dose related relationships are
linear and statistically significant. You can play with this all you want. They are linear. They are statistically significant.” In other words, how can you argue with results that show a strong dose/response relationship between
the dose of mercury and neurodevelopmental outcomes? The higher the mercury levels in the children the greater
the number of neurological problems. He continues by saying that the increase in neurobehavioral problems is
probably real. He tells them that he works in a school system with special education programs and “I have to say
the number of kids getting help in special education is growing nationally and state by state at a rate not seen before. So there is some kind of increase. We can argue about what it is due to.” (page 207)
Dr. Johnson seems to be impressed by the findings as well. He says on page 199, “This association leads me to
favor a recommendation that infants up to two years old not be immunized with Thimerosal-containing vaccines
if suitable alternative preparations are available.” Incredibly, he quickly adds, “I do not believe the diagnosis
justifies compensation in the Vaccine Compensation Program at this point.” It is interesting to note that one of our
experts in attendance is Dr. Vito Caserta, the Chief Officer for the Vaccine Injury Compensation Program.
At this point Dr. Johnson tells the group of his concerns for his own grandchild. He says, (page 200) “Forgive
this personal comment, but I got called out at eight o’clock for an emergency call and my daughter-in-law delivered a son by C-section. Our first male in the line of the next generation and I do not want that grandson to get
a Thimerosal-containing vaccine until we know better what is going on. It will probably take a long time. In the
meantime, and I know there are probably implications for this internationally, but in the meanwhile I think I want
that grandson to only be given Thimerosal-free vaccines.”
So, we have a scientist sitting on this panel which will eventually make policy concerning all of the children in
this country, as well as other countries, who is terrified about his new grandson getting a Thimerosal-containing
vaccine but he is not concerned enough about your child to speak out and try to stop this insanity. He allows a
cover-up to take place after this meeting adjourns and remains silent.
It is also interesting to note that he feels the answers will be a long time coming, but in the mean time, his grandson
will be protected. The American Academy of Pediatrics, The American Academy of Family Practice, the AMA,

CDC and every other organization will endorse these vaccines and proclaim them to be safe as spring water, but
Dr. Johnson and some of the others will keep their silence.
It is only during the last day of the conference that we learn that most of the objections concerning the positive
relationship between Thimerosal-containing vaccines and ADD and ADHD were bogus. For example, Dr. Rapin
on page 200 notes that all children in the study were below age 6 and that ADD and ADHD are very difficult to
diagnose in pre-schoolers. She also notes that some children were followed for only a short period.
Dr. Stein adds that in fact the average age for diagnosis of ADHD was 4 years and 1 month, a very difficult diagnosis to make with the guidelines, as published by the American Academy of Pediatrics, limiting diagnosis to 6 to
12 year olds. Of course, he was implying that too many were diagnosed as ADHD. Yet, a recent study found that
the famous Denmark study that led to the announcement by the Institute of Medicine that there was no relationship between autism and the MMR vaccine, used the same tactic. They cut off the age of follow-up at age six.
It is known that many cases appear after this age group, especially with ADD and ADHD. In fact, most learning
problems appear as the child is called on to handle more involved intellectual material. Therefore, the chances are
that they failed to diagnose a number of cases by stopping the study too early.
Several of the participants tried to imply that autism was a genetic disorder and therefore could have nothing to do
with vaccines. Dr. Weil put that to rest with this comment, “We don’t see that kind of genetic change in 30 years.”
In other words, how can we suddenly see a 300% increase in a genetically related disorder over such a short period? It is also known that there are two forms of autism, one that is apparent at birth and one that develops later
in childhood. The former has not changed in incidence since statistics have been kept; the other is epidemic.
One interesting exchange, which involves two studies in children born to mothers consuming high intakes of mercury-contaminated fish, ends up providing their justification for the view that mercury is of no danger to children
vaccinated with vaccines containing Thimerosal. One study in the journal Neurotoxicology, examined children
living in the Republic of Seychelles. This study examined the effect of prenatal exposure to mercury through the
mother’s consumption of fish high in methylmercury.
A battery of developmental milestone tests were done and no adverse effects were reported in the study done by
Dr. Clarkson and co-workers, the very same person in this conference. He never mentions that a follow-up study
of these same children did find a positive correlation between methylmercury exposure and poor performance on
a memory test. In a subsequent study of children living on the Faroe Islands exposed to methylmercury, researchers also found impairments of neurodevelopment. This experiment was done by scientists from Japan.
Throughout the remainder of this discussion, Dr. Clarkson and others refer to these two studies. When they are
reminded that the Faroe study did find neurological injury to the children, they counter by saying that this was
prenatal exposure to mercury and not exposure following birth as would be seen with vaccination. The idea being
that prenatally the brain is undergoing neural formation and development making it more vulnerable. As I have
mentioned, this rapid brain growth and development continues for two years after birth and even at age 6 years
the brain is only 80% formed.
Dr. Clarkson keeps referring to the Seychelles study which demonstrated that the children reached normal neurodevelopmental milestones as shown by a number of tests. Dr Weil points out on page 216 that this tells us little
about these children’s future brain function. He says, “I have taken a lot of histories of kids who are in trouble
in school. The history is that developmental milestones were normal or advanced and they can’t read at second
grade, they can’t write at third grade, they can’t do math in the fourth grade and it has no relationship as far as
I can tell to the history we get of the developmental milestones. So I think this is a very crude measure of neurodevelopment.”

In other words, both of these studies tell us nothing about the actual development of these children’s brain function except that they reached the most basic of milestones. To put this another way, your child may be able to stack
blocks, recognize shapes and have basic language skills, but later in life she/he could be significantly impaired
when it came to higher math, more advanced language skills (comprehension) and ability to compete in a very
competitive intellectual environment, like college or advanced schooling. The future of such children would be
limited to the more mundane and intellectually limited jobs.
Postnatal brain development, that is from birth to age six or seven, involves the fine tuning of synaptic connections, dendritic development and pathway refinement, all of which prepare the brain for more complex thinking.
These brain elements are very sensitive to toxins and excessive immune stimulation during this period. This fact
is never mentioned at the conference.
In addition, it must be remembered that the children in these two studies were exposed only to methylmercury and
not the combined neurotoxic effect of mercury, aluminum and excessive and chronic activation of the brain’s immune system (microgia). This is what makes it so incredible, that several of these “vaccinologists” and so-called
experts would express doubt about the “biological plausibility” of Thimerosal or any vaccine component causing
neurodevelopmental problems. The medical literature is exploding with such studies. The biological plausibility
is very powerful.
Mercury, for example, even in low concentrations, is known to impair energy production by mitochondrial enzymes. The brain has one of the highest metabolic rates of any organ and impairment of its energy supply, especially during development, can have devastating consequences. In addition, mercury, even in lower concentrations,
is known to damage DNA and impair DNA repair enzymes, which again plays a vital role in brain development.
Mercury is known to impair neurotubule stability, even in very low concentrations. Neurotubules are absolutely
essential to normal brain cell function. Mercury activates microglial cells, which increases excitotoxicity and
brain free radical production as well as lipid peroxidation, central mechanisms in brain injury. In addition, even in
doses below that which can cause obvious cell injury, mercury impairs the glutamate transport system, which in
turn triggers excitotoxicity, a central mechanism in autism and other neurological disorders. Ironically, aluminum
also paralyzes this system.
On page 228, we see another admission that the government has had no interest in demonstrating the safety of
Thimerosal-containing vaccines despite over 2000 articles showing harmful effects of mercury. Here we see a
reference to the fact that the FDA “has a wonderful facility in Arkansas with hundreds of thousands of animals”
available for any study needed to supply these answers on safety. The big question to be asked is – So, why has
the government ignored the need for research to answer these questions concerning Thimerosal safety? You will
recall in the beginning the participants of this conference complained that there were just so few studies or no
studies concerning this “problem”.
Again, on page 229 Dr, Brent rails about the lawsuit problem. He tells the others that he has been involved in three
lawsuits related to vaccine injuries leading to birth defects and concluded, “If you want to see junk science, look
at those cases...” He then complains about the type of scientists testifying in these cases. He adds, “But the fact is
those scientist are out there in the United States.” In essence, he labels anyone who opposes the “official policy”
on vaccines as a junk scientists. We have seen in the discussion who the “junk scientists” really are.
Knowing that what they have found can cause them a great deal of problems he adds, “The medical/legal findings
in this study, causal or not, are horrendous.... If an allegation was made that a child’s neurobehavioral findings
were caused by Thimerosal-containing vaccines, you could readily find a junk scientist who will support the claim
with a reasonable degree of certainty.” On page 229 he then admits that they are in a bad position because they
have no data for their defense. Now, who are the junk scientists?

Is a “real scientist” one who has no data, just wishful thinking and a “feeling” that everything will be all right?
Are real scientists the ones who omit recognized experts on the problem in question during a conference because
it might endanger the “program”? Are they the ones who make statements that they don’t want their grandson to
get Thimerosal-containing vaccines until the problem is worked out, but then tell millions of parents that the vaccines are perfectly safe for their children and grandchildren?
Dr. Meyers on page 231 put it this way, “My own concern, and a couple of you said it, there is an association
between vaccines and outcomes that worries both parents and pediatricians.” He sites other possible connections
to vaccine-related neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental problems including the number of vaccines being
given, the types of antigens being used, and other vaccine additives.
Dr. Caserta tells the group that he attended the aluminum conference the previous year and learned that metals
could often act differently in biological systems when existing as an ion. This is interesting in the face of the
finding that fluoride when combined to aluminum forms a compound that can destroy numerous hippocampal
neurons at a concentration of 0.5 ppm in drinking water. It seems that aluminum readily combines with fluoride
to form this toxic compound. With over 60% of communities having fluoridated drinking water this becomes a
major concern.
It has also been learned that fluoroaluminum compounds mimic the phosphate and can activate G-proteins. Gproteins play a major role in numerous biological systems, including endocrine, neurotransmitters, and as cellular
second messengers. Some of the glutamate receptors are operated by a G- protein mechanism.
Over the next ten to fifteen pages, they discuss how to control this information so that it will not get out and if it
does how to control the damage. On page 248 Dr. Clements has this to say: “But there is now the point at which
the research results have to be handled, and even if this committee decides that there is no association and that
information gets out, the work has been done and through the freedom of information that will be taken by others
and will be used in other ways beyond the control of this group. And I am very concerned about that as I suspect
that it is already too late to do anything regardless of any professional body and what they say.”
In other words, he wants this information kept not only from the public but also from other scientists and pediatricians until they can be properly counseled. In the next statement he spills the beans as to why he is determined that
no outsider get hold of this damaging information. He says, “My mandate as I sit here in this group is to make sure
at the end of the day that 100,000,000 are immunized with DTP, Hepatitis B and if possible Hib, this year, next
year, and for many years to come, and that will have to be with Thimerosal-containing vaccines unless a miracle
occurs and an alternative is found quickly and is tried and found to be safe.”
This is one of the most shocking statements I have ever heard. In essence, he is saying, I don’t care if the vaccines
are found to be harmful and destroying the development of children’s brains, these vaccines will be given now
and forever. His only concern, by his own admission, is to protect the vaccine program even if it is not safe. Dr.
Brent refers to this as an “eloquent statement.”
On page 253, we again see that these scientists have a double standard when it comes to their children and grandchildren. Dr. Rapin raises the point about a loss of an IQ point caused by Thimerosal exposure. She says, “Can
we measure the IQ that accurately, that this one little point is relevant?” Then she answers her own question by
saying, “Even in my grandchildren, one IQ point I am going to fight about.” Yet, they are saying in unison, in essence—“To hell with your children”—to the rest of America.
It is also interesting that they bring up the history of lead as a neurobehavioral toxin. Dr. Weil noted that the neurotoxicologists and regulatory agencies have lowered the acceptable level from 10 to 5μg. In fact, some feel that
even lower levels are neurotoxic to the developing brain. Before the toxicologists began to look at lead as a brain

toxin in children most “experts” assumed it was not toxic even at very high levels. Again, it shows that “experts”
can be wrong and it is the public who pays the price.
Dr. Chen on page 256 expresses his concern about this information reaching the public. He remarks, “We have
been privileged so far that given the sensitivity of information, we have been able to manage to keep it out of, let’s
say, less responsible hands...” Dr. Bernier agrees and notes, “This information has been held fairly tightly.” Later
he calls it “embargoed information” and “very highly protected information.”
That they knew the implications of what they had discovered was illustrated by Dr. Chen’s statement on page 258.
He says, “I think overall there was this aura that we were engaged in something as important as anything else
we have ever done. So I think that this was another element to this that made this a special meeting.” You may
remember, Dr. Weil emphasized that the data analysis left no doubt that there was a strong correlation between
neurodevelopmental problems and exposure to Thimerosal-containing vaccines. So if they understood the importance of this finding and this was the most important thing they have ever dealt with, why was this being kept from
the public? In fact, it gets even worse.
Just so you will not doubt my statement that this audience of experts was not objective, I give you the words
of Dr. Walter Orenstein, Director of the National Immunization Program at the CDC, on page 259. He tells the
group, “I have seen him (Verstraeten) in audience after audience deal with exceedingly skeptical individuals...”
“Exceedingly skeptical individuals” does that sound like objective scientists who wanted to look at the data with
a clear mind, or were they scientists who were convinced before the meeting was held that there was no danger to
children from Thimerosal or any other vaccine component?
In one of the closing remarks (page 257) Dr. Bernier says, “the other thing I was struck by was the science,” meaning the science expressed by the attendees of the meeting. Then Dr, Orenstein adds, “I would also like to thank
Roger Bernier who pulled off this meeting in rather short notice...” Here is a meeting that has been called one of
the most important they have ever dealt with and we learn that it was “pulled off” on short notice. In addition, we
were told that the results of this meeting would lead to eventual vaccine policy. He then has the nerve to add: “In
a sense this meeting addresses some of the concerns we had last summer when we were trying to make policy in
the absence of a careful scientific review. I think this time we have gotten it straight.”
Well, I hate to be the one to break the news, but he didn’t get it straight. There was little or no science in this meeting; rather it was composed of a lot of haggling and nit picking over epidemiological methodology and statistical
minutia in an effort to discredit the data, all without success. In fact, the so-called mercury experts admitted they
had to do some quick homework to refresh their memories and learn something about the subject.
Conclusions
This top secret meeting was held to discuss a study done by Dr. Thomas Verstraeten and his co-workers using Vaccine Safety Datalink data as a project collaboration between the CDC’s National Immunization Program (NIP)
and four HMOs. The study examined the records of 110,000 children. Within the limits of the data, they did a very
thorough study and found the following:
1. Exposure to Thimerosal-containing vaccines at one month was associated significantly with the misery and
unhappiness disorder that was dose related. That is, the higher the child’s exposure to Thimerosal the higher the
incidence of the disorder. This disorder is characterized by a baby that cries uncontrollably and is fretful more so
than that seen in normal babies.
2. A nearly significant increased risk of ADD with 12.5μg exposure at one month.

3. With exposure at 3 months, they found an increasing risk of neurodevelopmental disorders, including speech
disorders, with increasing exposure to Thimerosal. This was statistically significant.
It is important to remember that the control group was not children without Thimerosal exposure but, rather, those
at 12.5μg exposure. This means that there is a significant likelihood that even more neurodevelopmental problems would have been seen had they used a real control population. No one disagreed that these findings were
significant and troubling. Yet, when the final study was published in the journal Pediatrics, Dr. Verstraeten and
co-workers reported that no consistent associations were found between Thimerosal-containing vaccine exposure
and neurodevelopmental problems. In addition, he lists himself as an employee of the CDC, not disclosing the fact
that at the time the article was accepted, he worked for GlaxoSmithKline, a vaccine manufacturing company.
So how did they do this bit of prestidigitation? They simply added another HMO to the data: the Harvard Pilgrimage. (Additionally there were other manipulations, e.g., altering inclusion criteria, discarding children receiving
the highest total dose, splitting children into separate groups, using only one HMO’s data in some cases, expressing effects ratios in terms of per dose of mercury.) Congressman Dave Weldon noted in his letter to the CDC Director that this HMO had been in receivership by the state of Massachusetts because its records were in shambles.
Yet, this study was able to make the embarrassing data from Dr. Verstraeten’s previous study disappear. Attempts
by Congressman Weldon to force the CDC to release the data to an independent researcher, Dr. Mark Geier, a
researcher with impeccable credentials and widely published in peer-reviewed journals, have failed and the CDC
now claims that the original data-sets Verstraeten et al. used have been “lost”.
It is obvious that a massive cover-up is in progress, as we have seen with so many other scandals, such as fluoride,
food-based excitotoxins, pesticides, aluminum, and now vaccines. I would caution those critical of the present
vaccine policy not to put all their eggs in one basket, that is, with Thimerosal as being the main culprit. There is
no question that it plays a significant role, but there are other factors that are also critical, including aluminum,
fluoroaluminum complexes, and chronic immune activation of brain microglia. I believe that repeated, closely
spaced, sequential vaccinations given during the most active period of brain development is the major cause of
autism.
In fact, excessive, chronic microglial activation can explain many of the effects of excessive vaccine exposure as
I point out in two recently published articles. One property of both aluminum and mercury is microglial activation. With chronic microglial activation, large concentrations of excitotoxins are released as well as neurotoxic
cytokines. These have been shown to destroy synaptic connections, dendrites and cause abnormal pathway development in the developing brain as well as in the adult brain.
In essence, too many vaccines are being given to children during the brain’s most rapid growth period. Known
toxic metals are being used in vaccines, interfering with brain metabolism and antioxidant enzymes, damaging
DNA and DNA repair enzymes and triggering excitotoxicity. Removing the mercury will help but will not solve
the problem because overactivation of the brain’s immune system will cause varying degrees of neurological
damage to the highly-vulnerable developing brain.
Full Report With References:
www.vacinfo.org/man1714_1726.pdf

DNA Repair Amsterdam • January 2009

DNA Repair
Modulates The Vulnerability
Of The Developing Brain To Alkylating Agents
Author Information
G.E. Kisby,*,1 A. Olivas,1 T. Park,1 M. Churchwell,2
D. Doerge,2 L. D. Samson,3 S.L. Gerson,4 and M.S. Turker1
1. Center for Research on Occupational and Environmental Toxicology (CROET)
Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, OR 97201
2. NCTR, Jefferson, AR
3. Biological Engineering Division, Center for Environmental Health Sciences
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
4. Case Western Reserve University, Case Comprehensive Cancer Center
10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106
Abstract
Neurons of the developing brain are especially vulnerable to environmental agents that
damage DNA (i.e., genotoxicants), but the mechanism is poorly understood. The focus of
the present study is to demonstrate that DNA damage plays a key role in disrupting neurodevelopment. To examine this hypothesis, we compared the cytotoxic and DNA damaging
properties of the methylating agents methylazoxymethanol (MAM) and dimethyl sulfate
(DMS) and the mono- and bifunctional alkylating agents chloroethylamine (CEA) and nitrogen mustard (HN2), in granule cell neurons derived from the cerebellum of neonatal
wild type mice and three transgenic DNA repair strains. Wild type cerebellar neurons were
significantly more sensitive to the alkylating agents DMS and HN2 than neuronal cultures
treated with MAM or the half-mustard CEA. Parallel studies with neuronal cultures from
mice deficient in alkylguanine DNA glycosylase (Aag-/-) or O6-methylguanine methyltransferase (Mgmt-/-), revealed significant differences in the sensitivity of neurons to all
four genotoxicants. Mgmt-/- neurons were more sensitive to MAM and HN2 than the other
genotoxicants and wild type neurons treated with either alkylating agent. In contrast, Aag/- neurons were for the most part significantly less sensitive than wild type or Mgmt-/- neurons to MAM and HN2. Aag-/- neurons were also significantly less sensitive than wild type
neurons treated with either DMS or CEA. Granule cell development and motor function
were also more severely disturbed by MAM and HN2 in Mgmt-/- mice than in comparably treated wild type mice. In contrast, cerebellar development and motor function were
well preserved in MAM treated Aag-/- or MGMT overexpressing (MgmtTg+) mice, even
as compared with wild type mice suggesting that AAG protein increases MAM toxicity,
whereas MGMT protein decreases toxicity. Surprisingly, neuronal development and motor
function were severely disturbed in MgmtTg+ mice treated with HN2. Collectively, these
in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate that the type of DNA lesion and the efficiency of
DNA repair are two important factors that determine the vulnerability of the developing
brain to long-term injury by a genotoxicant.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2692311/

“Neurons of the developing brain are especially
vulnerable to environmental agents that damage
DNA (i.e., genotoxicants), but the mechanism is poorly
understood. Collectively, these in vitro and in vivo
studies demonstrate that the type of DNA lesion and
the efficiency of DNA repair are two important factors
that determine the vulnerability of the developing brain
to long-term injury by a genotoxicant.”

“Of these 1162 cases, 1105 were considered to be related to the vaccination ...”
European Journal of Pediatrics • January 2009

Discolored leg syndrome
after vaccination—descriptive epidemiology
Jeanet M. Kemmeren , Patricia E. Vermeer-de Bondt, Nicoline A. T. van der Maas
Abstract
Discoloration of the leg following vaccination is a relatively unknown entity. We carried out a study of discolored
leg syndrome (DLS) during a 10-year consecutive period with the objective of characterizing DLS in infants
following vaccination received in the Dutch National Vaccination Program as well as its occurrence and association with different vaccines. Discolored leg syndrome was defined as an even or patchy red, blue or purple
discoloration of the leg(s) and/or leg petechiae with or without swelling. All reports of adverse events following
immunization that were made to the passive surveillance system between 1994 and 2003 were included—a total
of 1162 identified cases. Red, blue, purple discoloration and isolated petechiae were reported in 39, 19, 27 and
14% of these cases, respectively. Of these 1162 cases, 1105 were considered to be related to the vaccination,
based on a predefined risk window with symptom onset after vaccination (48 h for discolorations and 2 weeks for
petechiae). Of the 1105 cases, about 50% occurred after DTP-IPV+Hib1 vaccinations, and 30% occurred after
DTP-IPV+Hib2 vaccinations. Discolored leg syndrome was frequently accompanied by fierce crying (78%). The
median time interval between vaccination and the occurrence of DLS was 3.8 ± 46.7 h, and the median duration
was short (2 ± 61.7 h). Advancing the vaccination schedule from 3 to 2 months of age caused a small increase in
DLS. Discolored leg syndrome manifested mainly after the first and/or second vaccination. In addition to dose,
the occurrence of DLS may be slightly age-dependent and self-limiting. The pathophysiology is unknown but
may be the result of a vasomotor reaction. Future studies should elucidate the recurrence rate, identify risk factors
and assess late outcomes.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00431-008-0707-0

“... Triton X-100 (TX)-induced apoptosis.”
Biochemical And Biophysical Research Communications • January 2009

Differential roles for Bak in Triton X-100and deoxycholate-induced apoptosis
Author information
Sawai H1, Domae N.
Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Dental University
8-1 Kuzuhahanazonocho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-1121, Japan
Abstract
We recently reported that Bax activation occurs downstream of caspase activation
in Triton X-100 (TX)-induced apoptosis. Here, Bak was found to be activated in
TX-induced apoptosis. Although z-VAD-fmk completely suppressed Bax activation, it only partially attenuated TX-induced Bak activation. Moreover, activation
of both Bak and Bax was detected in apoptosis induced by deoxycholate, a physiological detergent in bile. z-VAD-fmk completely suppressed deoxycholate-induced
Bak as well as Bax activation. Furthermore, Bak siRNA attenuated TX- but not deoxycholate-induced caspase activation. These results suggest that Bak activation
may occur upstream of caspase activation in TX- but not deoxycholate-induced
apoptosis and that the mechanism of TX-induced apoptosis may differ from that of
deoxycholate-induced apoptosis at least with regard to the role for Bak.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19041633

Journal Of Neuroimmunology • February 2009

Elevated immune response
in the brain of autistic patients
Author information
Li X1, Chauhan A, Sheikh AM, Patil S,
Chauhan V, Li XM, Ji L, Brown T, Malik M.
Abstract
This study determined immune activities in the brain of ASD patients
and matched normal subjects by examining cytokines in the brain tissue. Our results showed that proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha,
IL-6 and GM-CSF), Th1 cytokine (IFN-gamma) and chemokine (IL8) were significantly increased in the brains of ASD patients compared with the controls. However the Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and
IL-10) showed no significant difference. The Th1/Th2 ratio was also
significantly increased in ASD patients.
Conclusion
ASD patients displayed an increased innate and adaptive immune response through the Th1 pathway, suggesting that localized brain inflammation and autoimmune disorder may be involved in the pathogenesis of ASD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2770268/

“ASD patients displayed an increased
innate and adaptive immune response
through the Th1 pathway, suggesting
that localized brain inflammation and
autoimmune disorder may be involved
in the pathogenesis of ASD.”

“... these occurrences support an association between
receipt of aluminium adjuvant and sterile abscesses in susceptible patients.”
BMJ Case Reports • March 2009
Findings that shed new light on the possible pathogenesis of a disease or an adverse effect

Recurrent sterile abscesses
following aluminium adjuvant-containing vaccines
Author Information
Nicola P Klein1, Kathryn M Edwards3, Robert C Sparks3, Cornelia L Dekker2,
on behalf of the Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) Network
1. Kaiser PermanenteVaccine Study Center, 16th Floor, One Kaiser Plaza, Oakland, California 94612, USA
2. Stanford University School of Medicine, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, California, USA
3. Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Vanderbilt Vaccine Research Program, Department of Pediatrics
1211 Medical Center Drive, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA

Nicola Klein, Nicola.Klein@kp.org
Summary
Abscess formation following immunisation is a previously reported complication, generally associated with microbial contamination of the vaccine. Less commonly, such abscesses have been sterile. Here we describe two
children evaluated in the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)-funded Clinical Immunization Safety
Assessment (CISA) network who developed recurrent sterile abscesses after administration of vaccines containing aluminium adjuvant, either individually or in combination. Although the abscesses healed without sequelae,
these occurrences support an association between receipt of aluminium adjuvant and sterile abscesses in susceptible patients. For patients with similar symptoms, clinicians may wish to choose a vaccine formulation containing
the least amount of aluminium adjuvant.
http://casereports.bmj.com/content/2009/bcr.09.2008.0951.long

Mutation Research • March 2009

Formaldehyde exposure and leukemia:
a new meta-analysis and potential mechanisms
Author information
Zhang L1, Steinmaus C, Eastmond DA, Xin XK, Smith MT.
School of Public Health
50 University Hall
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720-7356, USA
luoping@berkeley.edu
Abstract
Formaldehyde is an economically important chemical, to which more than 2
million U.S. workers are occupationally exposed. Substantially more people
are exposed to formaldehyde environmentally, as it is generated by automobile engines, is a component of tobacco smoke and is released from household
products, including furniture, particleboard, plywood, and carpeting. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recently classified formaldehyde as a human carcinogen that causes nasopharyngeal cancer and also
concluded that there is “strong but not sufficient evidence for a causal association between leukemia and occupational exposure to formaldehyde”. Here, we
review the epidemiological studies published to date on formaldehyde-exposed
workers and professionals in relation to lymphohematopoietic malignances. In
a new meta-analysis of these studies, focusing on occupations known to have
high formaldehyde exposure, we show that summary relative risks (RRs) were
elevated in 15 studies of leukemia (RR=1.54; confidence interval (CI), 1.182.00) with the highest relative risks seen in the six studies of myeloid leukemia
(RR=1.90; 95% CI, 1.31-2.76). The biological plausibility of this observed association is discussed and potential mechanisms proposed. We hypothesize that
formaldehyde may act on bone marrow directly or, alternatively, may cause
leukemia by damaging the hematopoietic stem or early progenitor cells that
are located in the circulating blood or nasal passages, which then travel to the
bone marrow and become leukemic stem cells. To test these hypotheses, we
recommend that future studies apply biomarkers validated for other chemical
leukemogens to the study of formaldehyde.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=18674636

“formaldehyde may act on
bone marrow directly or, alternatively,
may cause leukemia by damaging the
hematopoietic stem or early progenitor
cells that are located in the circulating
blood or nasal passages, which then travel to
the bone marrow and become leukemic stem cells.”

Journal Of Neurochemistry • March 2009

Vaccination alone or
in combination with pyridostigmine
promotes and prolongs activation of
stress-activated kinases induced by s
tress in the mouse brain
Author information
Wang D1, Perides G, Liu YF.
1Department of Pharmacology
Boston University School of Medicine
Massachusetts 02118, USA
Abstract
Gulf war illnesses (GWI) are currently affecting thousands of veterans. To date, the molecular
mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of these illnesses remain unknown. During Gulf war
I, military personnel were exposed to multiple stressors, one or more vaccines, pyridostigmine
(PY), and other chemicals. In our previous studies, we found that stress induces activation of
mitogen activated protein-kinase kinase 4 (MKK4) and c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) in the
mouse brain (Liu et al. 2004). Our working hypothesis is that stress, vaccination, and PY may
synergistically induce activation of MKK4 and JNK in the brain, leading to over-activation of
these kinases and neurological injuries. To test our hypothesis, we examined the effect of keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) immunization alone or in combination with PY on activation of
MKK4 and JNK induced by stress. We found that KLH immunization alone had a small effect
on MKK4 or JNK activity but it significantly enhanced and prolonged activation of these kinases
induced by stress, from a few hours to several days. Additionally, KLH immunization caused activation of p38MAPK. PY treatment further enhanced and prolonged activation of these kinases
induced by stress in combination with KLH immunization and triggered activation of caspase-3.
Our current studies suggest that stress, vaccination, and PY may synergistically act on multiple
stress-activated kinases in the brain to cause neurological impairments in GWI.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15857404
Full Report: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03093.x/full

“Gulf war illnesses (GWI) are currently
affecting thousands of veterans. Our current
studies suggest that stress, vaccination, and
pyridostigmine may synergistically act on multiple
stress-activated kinases in the brain to cause
neurological impairments in Gulf war illnesses.”

Deutsches Arzteblatt International • April 2009

Correspondence (letter to the editor):
Long Term Side Effects Due to
Vaccination And Pharmacovigilance
Maurice Pich,* Arno Köster,* and Andreas Klement, Dr.
Institut für Allgemeinmedizin
Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg
06112 Halle/Saale, Germany
We thank the authors for their clear overview of vaccine sceptics’ common
objections, which are helpful for everyday clinical practice.
Most vaccinations and vaccination advice in Germany are given by general
practitioners and pediatricians. Appropriate and responsible advice includes
providing information to those about to receive the vaccine and their parents,
about rare but possible side effects. These include the possible occurrence
of Guillain-Barré syndromes after flu vaccinations (1), for example; the
possible association between recombinant hepatitis B vaccine and multiple
sclerosis (2), which is still under discussion in current publications; and the
unexplained possible association of multiple vaccinations with neurodegenerative disorders in connection with aluminum hydroxide, which to date is
the most common vaccine adjuvant in use (3).
Long term side effects due to vaccination can be detected to a sufficiently
high quality standard only by means of long term, active pharmacovigilance
conducted through independent and sufficiently equipped monitoring systems. To assess the long term safety of vaccines, passive post-vaccination
observation by notification of vaccination complications by primary care
physicians is not enough: possible causal associations with developing disorders—for example, neurodegenerative disorders—are difficult to state in
individual cases years after the vaccine was given.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689587/

“... the possible occurrence of Guillain-Barré syndromes
after flu vaccinations, for example; the possible
association between recombinant hepatitis B vaccine
and multiple sclerosis, which is still under discussion
in current publications; and the unexplained possible
association of multiple vaccinations with neurodegenerative
disorders in connection with aluminum hydroxide,
which to date is the most common vaccine adjuvant in use ...”

Journal Of Environmental Monitoring • May 2009

JEM spotlight:
metal speciation related to
neurotoxicity in humans
Author information
Michalke B1, Halbach S, Nischwitz V.
Helmholtz Zentrum München
Institute of Ecological Chemistry, 85764
Neuherberg, Germany
bernhard.michalke@helmholtz-muenchen.de
Abstract
Improved living conditions have led to a steady increase in the life expectancy of humans in most countries. However, this is accompanied by an
increased probability of suffering from neurodegenerative diseases like
Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease. Unfortunately, the therapeutic
possibilities for curing these diseases are very limited up to now. Many
studies indicate that a variety of environmental factors contribute to the initiation and promotion of neurodegenerative diseases. For example, the role
of metal exposure and disturbance of metal homeostasis in the brain is discussed in this respect. However, most studies focus on the neurological and
toxicological aspects but not on a detailed characterisation of the species of
the involved metals. Therefore, this review summarizes the neurotoxic effects of selected metals on humans and focuses on contributions from trace
element speciation analysis with relevance to neuroscientific research. In
spite of the advance in instrumentation and methodology of speciation analysis there are few applications for matrices like cerebrospinal fluid which
is due to limited access to these samples and analytical challenges caused
by matrix interferences, low concentrations and limited stability of many
trace element species of interest. The most relevant neurotoxic metals aluminium, lead, manganese and mercury are reviewed in detail while further
metals like cadmium, arsenic, bismuth and tin are briefly discussed. Current
results indicate that knowledge on trace element speciation can contribute
to a better understanding of the transport of metals across the neural barriers
and potentially of their role in diseased human brains.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19436852

“The most relevant neurotoxic metals
aluminium, lead, manganese and mercury
are reviewed in detail while further metals
like cadmium, arsenic, bismuth and tin are
briefly discussed. Current results indicate
that knowledge on trace element speciation
can contribute to a better understanding of
the transport of metals across the neural
barriers and potentially of their role in
diseased human brains.”

American Journal of Epidemiology • May 2009

Re: Determinants Of The Incidence Of Childhood Asthma: A Two-Stage Case-Control Study
Author Information
José G. Dórea
Faculty of Health Sciences
Universidade de Brasilia
70919-970 Brasilia, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
In a recent article, Martel et al. (1) took into consideration 47 variables
that could influence children’s asthma incidence but missed one that has
been significantly researched—vaccines. The Quebec, Canada, children
enrolled in the study were born between 1990 and 2002. During this time,
Canada underwent major changes in types of vaccines and the calendar
of immunization for infants and children: Thimerosal was withdrawn
from infants’ vaccines, some of the vaccines were combined, some new
vaccines were introduced, and still others underwent changes in their
starting date and subsequent calendar; this without counting parental
preference for administration of multiple shots at a single clinical visit.
Some vaccines can contain thimerosal, which is a recognized sensitizer
in children (2); additionally, a polymorphism in the glutathione S-transferase gene can alter its metabolism in children. Indeed, glutathione Stransferase M1 deficiency was found to be significantly more frequent
among patients who had been sensitized to thimerosal (3). Thyssen et al.
(4) speculated that the decrease in allergy in the general population of
Denmark could be due to thimerosal’s no longer being used as a vaccine
preservative in that country. Although contact allergy due to thimerosal
is not a contraindication for receipt of vaccines, these reactions are expected to be fewer in the future because of changes in current vaccine
formulations (5).
Fombonne et al. (6) have described changes in vaccine formulations
and schedules taking place in Canada from 1985 to 2006. The measlesmumps-rubella vaccines were officially incorporated in 1976 and were
recommended for use at age 1 year in Quebec; as of 1996, 2 doses of
measles-mumps-rubella vaccine were being given at ages 12 and 18
months. A combined diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine was recommended at ages 2, 4, 6, and 18 months and ages 4–6 years; this vaccine contained 50 μg of thimerosal and was used from 1985 to 1987. In
1988, a Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine (which also contained
thimerosal) was added to the schedule at 18 months of age. As of 1992,

the H. influenzae type b vaccines were also administered at ages 2, 4, 6,
and 18 months. The poliomyelitis vaccine was administered separately
at ages 2, 4, and 18 months and ages 4–6 years from 1987 to 1995. With
the exception of the measles-mumps-rubella and poliomyelitis vaccines,
all of the vaccines contained 50 μg of thimerosal. Estimated cumulative
exposure to thimerosal was 200 μg by age 2 years until 1988; it then increased to 250 μg by 1990. Therefore, as of 1992, cumulative exposure
to thimerosal by age 2 years reached 400 μg (6).
Because of mass immunization against meningococcal disease (occurring in 1993), there was additional exposure to thimerosal. Following
Fombonne et al.’s (6) reasoning, there could have been different cumulative thimerosal exposures of 300 μg in children born between March
1990 and December 1991 and 450 μg in children born between January
1992 and September 1992. However, both the poliomyelitis and H. influenzae type b vaccines were combined with the diphtheria-pertussis
(cellular)-tetanus vaccine in a thimerosal-free formulation in 1996; this
pentavaccine was administered at ages 2, 4, 6, and 18 months, with a
poliomyelitis-pertussis (cellular)-tetanus booster (thimerosal-free) being given at ages 4–6 years. In 1998, the cellular pertussis vaccine was
replaced by the acellular vaccine in the pentavaccine. From 1996 onward, all immunizations were thimerosal-free. Nevertheless, there is 1
additional challenge that has been overlooked (or is difficult to track) by
almost all epidemiologic studies that have addressed the issue of vaccines and asthma: multiple applications of different vaccines at a single
immunization visit (7).
A study carried out in Canada indicated a negative association between
delay in administration of the first dose of diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus
vaccine and the development of asthma; a greater association was shown
with delays in the first 3 doses (8). De Serres et al. (9) also reported oculorespiratory syndrome as an adverse event that occurred with influenza
vaccines used in Canada (2000–2003).

http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/169/12/1532.long

“Thyssen et al.
speculated that the
decrease in allergy in
the general population
of Denmark could be due
to thimerosal’s no longer
being used as a vaccine
preservative in that country.”

Archives Of Diseases In Childhood • Fetal & Neonatal Edition • July 2009

Toxic additives in medication for preterm infants
Author information
Whittaker A1, Currie AE, Turner MA,
Field DJ, Mulla H, Pandya HC.
Department of Infection
Immunity & Inflammation, University of Leicester Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building
Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester LE2 7LX, UK
hp28@le.ac.uk
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Little is known about exposure of preterm infants to excipients during routine clinical care.
OBJECTIVE
To document excipient exposure in vulnerable preterm babies in a single centre, taking into account chronic lung
disease (CLD) as a marker of illness severity.
DESIGN
Excipient exposure after treatment with eight oral liquid medications was determined by retrospectively analysing
the drug charts of infants admitted to a neonatal unit.
SETTING
The Leicester Neonatal Service.
PARTICIPANTS
38 infants born between June 2005 and July 2006 who were less than 30 weeks’ gestation and 1500 g in weight
at birth and managed in Leicester to discharge.
RESULTS
The 38 infants represented 53% of the eligible target group; 7/38 infants had CLD. During their in-patient stay,
infants were exposed to over 20 excipients including ethanol and propylene glycol, chemicals associated with
neurotoxicity. Infants with CLD were exposed to higher concentrations of these toxins. Infants were also exposed
to high concentrations of sorbitol, with some infants being exposed to concentrations in excess of recommended
guidelines for maximum exposure in adults.
CONCLUSIONS
Preterm infants are commonly exposed to excipients, some of which are potentially toxic. Strategies aimed at
reducing excipient load in preterm infants are urgently required.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19158148

“Preterm infants
are commonly exposed
to excipients, some of which
are potentially toxic.”

North American Journal Of Medical Science • July 2009

What is regressive autism and why does it occur?
Is it the consequence of multi-systemic dysfunction
affecting the elimination of heavy metals and
the ability to regulate neural temperature?
Graham E. Ewing, Director
Montague Healthcare
Mulberry House, 6 Vine Farm Close
Cotgrave, Nottingham NG12 3TU, United Kingdom
Abstract
There is a compelling argument that the occurrence of regressive autism is attributable to genetic and chromosomal abnormalities, arising from the overuse of
vaccines, which subsequently affects the stability and function of the autonomic
nervous system and physiological systems. That sense perception is linked to the
autonomic nervous system and the function of the physiological systems enables
us to examine the significance of autistic symptoms from a systemic perspective. Failure of the excretory system influences elimination of heavy metals and
facilitates their accumulation and subsequent manifestation as neurotoxins: the
long-term consequences of which would lead to neurodegeneration, cognitive
and developmental problems. It may also influence regulation of neural hyperthermia. This article explores the issues and concludes that sensory dysfunction
and systemic failure, manifested as autism, is the inevitable consequence arising
from subtle DNA alteration and consequently from the overuse of vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3364648/

“This article explores the issues and concludes
that sensory dysfunction and systemic failure,
manifested as autism, is the inevitable consequence
arising from subtle DNA alteration and
consequently from the overuse of vaccines.”

Neuropediatrics • August 2009

Macrophagic myofasciitis plus
(distinct types of muscular dystrophy)
Author information
Müller HD1, Landeghem FK,
Schmidt PF, Sommer C, Goebel HH.
Department of Neuropathology
University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
Mainz, Germany
mueller@neuropatho.klinik.uni-mainz.de
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is a well-known lesion following vaccination
with aluminium-containing vaccines. It has abundantly been reported in adults and
several times in children, often in single patients or in rather small cohorts. Only
few of these published reports on children have shown distinct myopathology of
another neuromuscular disease except for MMF. Indications for biopsy often were
nondescript clinical features in children, such as hypotonia or delay in motor development but, apparently, never that of suspected MMF. Thus, in previous reports
as well as in our two patients, encountering MMF in the biopsied tissue specimens
was coincidental. Our two unrelated patients with MMF also had two separate
types of muscular dystrophy, a merosinopathy and dystrophinopathy, showing a
combination of myopathologically well-defined neuromuscular diseases, muscular
dystrophies and MMF. Detecting such a combination of two separate conditions
may, in the future, be rare when non-invasive techniques, e. g., genetic, will have
replaced muscle biopsy in ascertaining hereditary neuromuscular conditions, especially in children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20135575

“Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is a well-known lesion
following vaccination with aluminium-containing
vaccines. It has abundantly been reported in adults and
several times in children, often in single patients or in
rather small cohorts. Our two unrelated patients with
MMF also had two separate types of muscular dystrophy,
a merosinopathy and dystrophinopathy, showing a
combination of myopathologically well-defined
neuromuscular diseases, muscular dystrophies and MMF.”

Emerging Infectious Diseases • August 2009

Bordetella pertussis strains with increased toxin production
associated with pertussis resurgence
Author information
Mooi FR1, van Loo IH, van Gent M, He Q, Bart MJ, Heuvelman KJ,
de Greeff SC, Diavatopoulos D, Teunis P, Nagelkerke N, Mertsola J.
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
Bilthoven, the Netherlands
frits.mooi@rivm.nl
Abstract
Before childhood vaccination was introduced in the 1940s, pertussis was a major cause of
infant death worldwide. Widespread vaccination of children succeeded in reducing illness
and death. In the 1990s, a resurgence of pertussis was observed in a number of countries with
highly vaccinated populations, and pertussis has become the most prevalent vaccine-preventable disease in industrialized countries. We present evidence that in the Netherlands the dramatic increase in pertussis is temporally associated with the emergence of Bordetella pertussis
strains carrying a novel allele for the pertussis toxin promoter, which confers increased pertussis toxin (Ptx) production. Epidemiologic data suggest that these strains are more virulent in
humans. We discuss changes in the ecology of B. pertussis that may have driven this adaptation. Our results underline the importance of Ptx in transmission, suggest that vaccination may
select for increased virulence, and indicate ways to control pertussis more effectively.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19751581

“We present evidence that
in the Netherlands the dramatic increase in pertussis
is temporally associated with the emergence of Bordetella
pertussis strains carrying a novel allele for the pertussis
toxin promoter, which confers increased pertussis toxin (Ptx)
production. Epidemiologic data suggest that these strains
are more virulent in humans.”

Acta Paediatrica • August 2009

Breastfeeding is an essential complement to vaccination
Author information
Dòrea JG.
Department of Nutrition
Universidade de Brasília
70919-970 Brasília, DF, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
AIM:
This article explores the role of breastfeeding in different aspects of vaccination in the
first 6 months when infants are still developing: (1) pain management; (2) immunomodulation of infants’ vaccine responses; (3) metabolism of thimerosal.
METHODS:
Major databases were searched for studies that addressed outcomes of related issues.
RESULTS:
Studies reveal that breastfeeding can: (1) help mothers and infants to cope with the stressful situations that accompany parenteral vaccines; (2) improve response to vaccines in
the still maturing immunologic and enterohepatic systems of infants; (3) influence physiologic parameters that can change metabolism of ethylmercury derived from some vaccines.
CONCLUSION:
Health promotion that supports vaccinations should also emphasize early initiation and
maintenance of exclusive breastfeeding up until 6 months for maximum protection of
the infants with a possible beneficial effect on the vaccine response. Paediatric professionals should inform mothers of the proven benefits of breastfeeding and its importance
in complementing vaccination and lowering stress and the risk of untoward reactions on
susceptible infants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19594471

“Health promotion that
supports vaccinations should
also emphasize early initiation
and maintenance of exclusive
breastfeeding up until 6 months
for maximum protection of the
infants with a possible beneficial
effect on the vaccine response.”

“This study demonstrates
a significant positive association between
the severity of autism and the
relative body burden of toxic metals.”

Journal Of Toxicology • August 2009

The Severity of Autism
Is Associated with Toxic Metal Body Burden and
Red Blood Cell Glutathione Levels
J. B. Adams,1,* M. Baral,2 E. Geis,3 J. Mitchell,1 J. Ingram,3 A. Hensley,3 I. Zappia,3 S. Newmark,4 E.
Gehn,3 R. A. Rubin,5 K. Mitchell,3 J. Bradstreet,2, 6 and J. M. El-Dahr7
1. Division of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine, Tempe, AZ 85282, USA
2. Department of Pediatric Medicine, Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine, Tempe, AZ 85282, USA
3. Autism Research Institute, San Diego, CA 92116-2599, USA
4. Center for Integrative Pediatric Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85711, USA
5. Department of Mathematics, Whittier College, Whittier, CA 90601-4413, USA
6. International Child Development Resource Center, Phoenix, AZ, USA
7. Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA

	
J. B. Adams: Email: ∼ude.usa@smada.mij

Abstract
This study investigated the relationship of children’s autism symptoms with their toxic metal body burden and
red blood cell (RBC) glutathione levels. In children ages 3–8 years, the severity of autism was assessed using
four tools: ADOS, PDD-BI, ATEC, and SAS. Toxic metal body burden was assessed by measuring urinary excretion of toxic metals, both before and after oral dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). Multiple positive correlations
were found between the severity of autism and the urinary excretion of toxic metals. Variations in the severity
of autism measurements could be explained, in part, by regression analyses of urinary excretion of toxic metals
before and after DMSA and the level of RBC glutathione (adjusted R2 of 0.22–0.45, P < .005 in all cases). This
study demonstrates a significant positive association between the severity of autism and the relative body burden
of toxic metals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2809421/

“... vaccination is depicted as playing an important role in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome onset.”
Annals Of The New York Academy Of Science • September 2009

Infection, vaccination, and autoantibodies
in chronic fatigue syndrome, cause or coincidence?
Author information
Ortega-Hernandez OD1, Shoenfeld Y.
Department of Internal Medicine B and Research for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a heterogeneous syndrome of unknown etiology and physiopathology. CFS patients complain about disabling fatigue, depression, difficulty with memory, and concomitant skeletal and muscular
pain. Interestingly enough, there is certain overlap between CFS symptoms, autoimmune rheumatic disease, and
infectious diseases. Certain neuroendocrine-immune abnormalities have also been described, and autoantibodies
commonly described in some autoimmune diseases have been found in CFS patients as well. An increasing number
of autoantibodies, mainly directed against other nuclear cell components, have been illustrated. Likewise, an association between some infectious agents, antibody production, and later CFS onset has been reported. Similarly,
vaccination is depicted as playing an important role in CFS onset. Recently, a case report pointed toward a causal
association between silicone breast linkage, hepatitis B virus vaccination, and CFS onset in a previous healthy
woman. Such findings suggest that there is a likely deregulation of the immune system influenced by specific
agents (infections, vaccination, and products, such as silicone). Evidence suggests that CFS is a complex disease in
which several risk factors might interact to cause its full expression. Thus, although different alterations have been
found in CFS patients, undoubtedly the main feature is central nervous system involvement with immunological
alterations. Therefore, a new term neuro-psycho-immunology must be quoted. New studies based on this concept
are needed in order to investigate syndromes, such as CFS, in which immunological alterations are thought to be
associated with concomitant psychological and health disturbances.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19758205

Lupus • November 2009

Transverse myelitis
and vaccines:
a multi-analysis
Author information
Agmon-Levin N1, Kivity S,
Szyper-Kravitz M, Shoenfeld Y.
Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center
Tel-Hashomer, Israel

“We have disclosed 37 reported cases of transverse
myelitis associated with different vaccines including
those against hepatitis B virus, measles-mumps-rubella,
diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis and others, given to infants,
children and adults. Although vaccines harbor a major

Abstract
Transverse myelitis is a rare clinical syndrome in which an immune-mediated
process causes neural injury to the spinal cord. The pathogenesis of transverse
myelitis is mostly of an autoimmune nature, triggered by various environmental
factors, including vaccination. Our aim here was to search for and analyze reported cases of transverse myelitis following vaccination. A systematic review of
PubMed, EMBASE and DynaMed for all English-language journals published
between 1970 and 2009 was preformed, utilizing the key words transverse myelitis, myelitis, vaccines, post-vaccination, vaccination and autoimmunity. We
have disclosed 37 reported cases of transverse myelitis associated with different vaccines including those against hepatitis B virus, measles-mumps-rubella,
diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis and others, given to infants, children and adults. In
most of these reported cases the temporal association was between several days
and 3 months, although a longer time frame of up to several years was also suggested. Although vaccines harbor a major contribution to public health in the
modern era, in rare cases they may be associated with autoimmune phenomena
such as transverse myelitis. The associations of different vaccines with a single
autoimmune phenomenon allude to the idea that a common denominator of
these vaccines, such as an adjuvant, might trigger this syndrome.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19880568

contribution to public health in the modern era, in rare
cases they may be associated with autoimmune
phenomena such as transverse myelitis. The associations
of different vaccines with a single autoimmune
phenomenon allude to the idea that a common
denominator of these vaccines, such as an adjuvant,
might trigger this syndrome.”

Lupus • November 2009

Ten cases of systemic lupus erythematosus
related to hepatitis B vaccine
Author information
Agmon-Levin N1, Zafrir Y, Paz Z,
Shilton T, Zandman-Goddard G, Shoenfeld Y.
Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
The objective of this article is to identify common and atypical
features of systemic lupus erythematosus diagnosed following
hepatitis B vaccination. We analyzed retrospectively the medical
records of 10 systemic lupus erythematosus patients from different
centers, who developed the disease following hepatitis B vaccination and determined the prevalence of different manifestations and
the time association to vaccination. In this case series, 80% of the
patients were female, mean age 35 +/- 9 years, of which 20% received one inoculation, 20% received two doses and 60% received
all three inoculations. The mean latency period from the first hepatitis B virus immunization and onset of autoimmune symptoms
was 56.3 days. All patients were diagnosed with systemic lupus
erythematosus, according to the American College of Rheumatology revised criteria within 1 year. The prevalence of some systemic lupus erythematosus manifestations was typical and included
involvement of the joints (100%), skin (80%), muscles (60%) and
photosensitivity (30%). Other symptoms differed in this unique
group of systemic lupus erythematosus patients such as low rate of
kidney and hematologic involvement, and a relatively high rate of
hepatitis (20%). Neurological (80%) and pulmonary (70%) symptoms were also common in this group. Data from this case-series,
and previously documented cases in the literature could only show
a temporal relation between hepatitis B vaccination and the appearance of systemic lupus erythematosus. Systemic lupus erythematosus related to vaccine may differ from idiopathic systemic
lupus erythematosus in its clinical presentation and may resemble
drug-induced systemic lupus erythematosus. Thus, physicians
should be alerted to this potential association, its possible long
latency period and unique presentations, and be encouraged to report and analyze these cases.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19880567

“Other symptoms differed
in this unique group of
systemic lupus erythematosus
patients such as low rate of kidney
and hematologic involvement, and
a relatively high rate of hepatitis (20%).
Neurological (80%) and pulmonary (70%)
symptoms were also common in this group.
Systemic lupus erythematosus related
to vaccine may differ from idiopathic
systemic lupus erythematosus in its clinical
presentation and may resemble drug-induced
systemic lupus erythematosus.”

“Owing to the adverse effects exerted by adjuvants, there is no doubt that safer adjuvants
need to be developed and incorporated into future vaccines.”
Lupus • November 2009

Adjuvants and autoimmunity
Author information
Israeli E1, Agmon-Levin N,
Blank M, Shoenfeld Y.
Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center
Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
Some adjuvants may exert adverse effects upon injection or, on the other hand, may not trigger a full immunological
reaction. The mechanisms underlying adjuvant adverse effects are under renewed scrutiny because of the enormous
implications for vaccine development. In the search for new and safer adjuvants, several new adjuvants were developed by pharmaceutical companies utilizing new immunological and chemical innovations. The ability of the immune system to recognize molecules that are broadly shared by pathogens is, in part, due to the presence of special
immune receptors called toll-like receptors (TLRs) that are expressed on leukocyte membranes. The very fact that
TLR activation leads to adaptive immune responses to foreign entities explains why so many adjuvants used today
in vaccinations are developed to mimic TLR ligands. Alongside their supportive role, adjuvants were found to inflict
by themselves an illness of autoimmune nature, defined as ‘the adjuvant diseases’. The debatable question of silicone
as an adjuvant and connective tissue diseases, as well as the Gulf War syndrome and macrophagic myofaciitis which
followed multiple injections of aluminium-based vaccines, are presented here. Owing to the adverse effects exerted
by adjuvants, there is no doubt that safer adjuvants need to be developed and incorporated into future vaccines. Other
needs in light of new vaccine technologies are adjuvants suitable for use with mucosally delivered vaccines, DNA
vaccines, cancer and autoimmunity vaccines. In particular, there is demand for safe and non-toxic adjuvants able to
stimulate cellular (Th1) immunity. More adjuvants were approved to date besides alum for human vaccines, including MF59 in some viral vaccines, MPL, AS04, AS01B and AS02A against viral and parasitic infections, virosomes
for HBV, HPV and HAV, and cholera toxin for cholera. Perhaps future adjuvants occupying other putative receptors
will be employed to bypass the TLR signaling pathway completely in order to circumvent common side effects of
adjuvant-activated TLRs such as local inflammation and the general malaise felt because of the costly whole-body
immune response to antigen.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19880572

National Reviews In Rheumatology • November 2009

Vaccines and autoimmunity
Author information
Agmon-Levin N1, Paz Z, Israeli E, Shoenfeld Y.
Center for Autoimmune Diseases and Department of Medicine B
Sheba Medical Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
Abstract
Vaccines have been used for over 200 years and are the most effective way
of preventing the morbidity and mortality associated with infections. Like
other drugs, vaccines can cause adverse events, but unlike conventional medicines, which are prescribed to people who are ill, vaccines are administered to
healthy individuals, thus increasing the concern over adverse reactions. Most
side effects attributed to vaccines are mild, acute and transient; however, rare
reactions such as hypersensitivity, induction of infection, and autoimmunity
do occur and can be severe and even fatal. The rarity and subacute presentation of post-vaccination autoimmune phenomena means that ascertaining
causality between these events can be difficult. Moreover, the latency period
between vaccination and autoimmunity ranges from days to years. In this article, on the basis of published evidence and our own experience, we discuss
the various aspects of the causal and temporal interactions between vaccines
and autoimmune phenomena, as well as the possible mechanisms by which
different components of vaccines might induce autoimmunity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19865091

“Most side effects attributed to vaccines are mild,
acute and transient; however, rare reactions such as
hypersensitivity, induction of infection, and autoimmunity
do occur and can be severe and even fatal. Moreover, the
latency period between vaccination and autoimmunity
ranges from days to years.”

Lupus • November 2009

Vaccination of healthy subjects and autoantibodies:
from mice through dogs to humans
Author information
Toplak N1, Avcin T.
1. Department of Allergology
Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology
University Children’s Hospital
University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Slovenia
natasa.toplak@kclj.si
Abstract
Vaccination against pathogenic microorganisms is one of the major achievements of modern medicine, but due to an increasing number of reports of
adverse reactions the vaccination procedure has induced also considerable debate. It is well known that certain infections are involved in triggering the production of autoantibodies, which could lead to autoimmune adverse reactions
in genetically predisposed subjects. Based on these findings it was assumed
that vaccinations might induce similar autoimmune reactions. At present there
is no clear-cut evidence that vaccinations are associated with overt autoimmune diseases but it has been demonstrated that in genetically predisposed
persons vaccination can trigger the production of autoantibodies and autoimmune adverse reactions. The first studies investigating the production of
autoantibodies following vaccination were done in dogs and mice. Several
studies investigated the production of autoantibodies following vaccination
in patients with autoimmune diseases, but there are only limited data on the
autoimmune responses after vaccinations in apparently healthy humans. This
review summarizes current evidence on the vaccination-induced autoantibodies in apparently healthy subjects including studies in animals and humans.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19880566

“due to an increasing number
of reports of adverse reactions
the vaccination procedure has
induced also considerable debate ...
it has been demonstrated that in
genetically predisposed persons
vaccination can trigger the production
of autoantibodies and autoimmune
adverse reactions.”

Lupus • November 2009

Vaccines as a trigger for myopathies
Author information
Orbach H1, Tanay A.
Department of Medicine B
Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
orbach@wolfson.health.gov.il
Abstract
Vaccines are considered to be among the greatest medical discoveries,
credited with the virtual eradication of some diseases and the consequent improved survival and quality of life of the at-risk population.
With that, vaccines are among the environmental factors implicated
as triggers for the development of inflammatory myopathies. The sporadic reports on vaccine-induced inflammatory myopathies include
cases of hepatitis B virus, bacillus Calmette-Guérin, tetanus, influenza,
smallpox, polio, diphtheria, diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus, combination
of diphtheria with scarlet fever and diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus with
polio vaccines. However, a significant increase in the incidence of dermatomyositis or polymyositis after any massive vaccination campaign
has not been reported in the literature. In study patients with inflammatory myopathies, no recent immunization was recorded in any of the
patients. Moreover, after the 1976 mass flu vaccination, no increase
in the incidence of inflammatory myopathies was observed. Although
rare, macrophagic myofasciitis has been reported following vaccination and is attributed to the aluminium hydroxide used as an adjuvant in
some vaccines. Prospective multicenter studies are needed to identify
potential environmental factors, including vaccines, as potential triggers for inflammatory myopathies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19880571

“... macrophagic myofasciitis
has been reported following vaccination
and is attributed to the aluminium hydroxide
used as an adjuvant in some vaccines.”

PLoS One • December 2009

Self-organized criticality theory of autoimmunity
Author information
Tsumiyama K1, Miyazaki Y, Shiozawa S.
Department of Biophysics
Kobe University Graduate School of Health Science
Kobe, Japan
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The cause of autoimmunity, which is unknown, is investigated from a different angle, i.e., the defect in immune ‘system’, to explain the cause of autoimmunity.
METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS
Repeated immunization with antigen causes systemic autoimmunity in mice
otherwise not prone to spontaneous autoimmune diseases. Overstimulation
of CD4(+) T cells led to the development of autoantibody-inducing CD4(+)
T (aiCD4(+) T) cell which had undergone T cell receptor (TCR) revision and
was capable of inducing autoantibodies. The aiCD4(+) T cell was induced
by de novo TCR revision but not by cross-reaction, and subsequently overstimulated CD8(+) T cells, driving them to become antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). These CTLs could be further matured by antigen
cross-presentation, after which they caused autoimmune tissue injury akin to
systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE
Systemic autoimmunity appears to be the inevitable consequence of overstimulating the host’s immune ‘system’ by repeated immunization with antigen, to the levels that surpass system’s self-organized criticality.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20046868

“Systemic autoimmunity appears to be the
inevitable consequence of over-stimulating the
host’s immune ‘system’ by repeated immunization
with antigen, to the levels that surpass system’s
self-organized criticality.”

Infection, Genetics And Evolution • January 2010

Bordetella pertussis and vaccination:
the persistence of a genetically monomorphic pathogen
Author information
Mooi FR.
Lab for Infectious Diseases and Screening
Netherlands Centre for Infectious Diseases Control
Natl Institute for Public Health and the Environment
RIVM, PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, Netherlands
frits.mooi@rivm.nl
Abstract
Before childhood vaccination was introduced in the 1950s, pertussis or whooping cough
was a major cause of infant death worldwide. Widespread vaccination of children was
successful in significantly reducing morbidity and mortality. However, despite vaccination, pertussis has persisted and, in the 1990s, resurged in a number of countries with
highly vaccinated populations. Indeed, pertussis has become the most prevalent vaccinepreventable disease in developed countries with estimated infection frequencies of 1-6%.
Recently vaccinated children are well protected against pertussis disease and its increase
is mainly seen in adolescents and adults in which disease symptoms are often mild. The
etiologic agent of pertussis, Bordetella pertussis, is extremely monomorphic and its ability to persist in the face of intensive vaccination is intriguing. Numerous studies have
shown that B. pertussis populations changed after the introduction of vaccination suggesting adaptation. These adaptations did not involve the acquisition of novel genes but small
genetic changes, mainly SNPs, and occurred in successive steps in a period of 40 years.
The earliest adaptations resulted in antigenic divergence with vaccine strains. More recently, strains emerged with increased pertussis toxin (Ptx) production. Here I argue that
the resurgence of pertussis is the compound effect of pathogen adaptation and waning immunity. I propose that the removal by vaccination of naïve infants as the major source for
transmission was the crucial event which has driven the changes in B. pertussis populations. This has selected for strains which are more efficiently transmitted by primed hosts
in which immunity has waned. The adaptation of B. pertussis to primed hosts involved
delaying an effective immune response by antigenic divergence with vaccine strains and
by increasing immune suppression through higher levels of Ptx production. Higher levels
of Ptx may also benefit transmission by enhancing clinical symptoms. The study of B.
pertussis populations has not only increased our understanding of pathogen evolution,
but also suggests way to improve pertussis vaccines, underlining the public health significance of population-based studies of pathogens.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19879977

“despite vaccination,
pertussis has persisted and, in the 1990s,
resurged in a number of countries with highly vaccinated
populations. Here I argue that the resurgence of pertussis
is the compound effect of pathogen adaptation
and waning immunity.”

[resurgence is not a result of the unvaccinated]

Medical Hypotheses • January 2010

Revisiting the possibility of serious adverse events
from the whole cell pertussis vaccine:
were metabolically vulnerable children at risk?
Author information
Wilson K1, Potter B, Manuel D, Keelan J, Chakraborty P.
Department of Medicine, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute
University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
kwilson@ohri.ca
Abstract
In the early 1980’s concerns about the safety of the whole cell pertussis vaccine
in the United States resulted in declining vaccination rates and the withdrawal of
multiple vaccine providers from the market. While the possibility of inflammation
and febrile reactions to the vaccine were acknowledged by public health authorities,
parents also claimed the vaccine was associated with sudden infant death syndrome
and encephalopathy. Epidemiological studies examining this question, however,
consistently failed to identify an association. We argue that these reactions may have
occurred in metabolically vulnerable children, specifically those with defects in fatty
acid oxidation. In these children the combination of anorexia and fever that could
be caused by the vaccine may have resulted in hypoglycemic episodes and possibly
death. We believe that this association was not detected because these conditions
were not recognized at the time and because these conditions are uncommon. Nevertheless, at a population level, enough events could have occurred to cause concern
amongst parents.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19660877

“We argue that these reactions may have occurred
in metabolically vulnerable children, specifically those
with defects in fatty acid oxidation. In these children the
combination of anorexia and fever that could be caused by
the vaccine may have resulted in hypoglycemic episodes
and possibly death. We believe that this association was not
detected because these conditions were not recognized
at the time and because these conditions are uncommon.
Nevertheless, at a population level, enough events could
have occurred to cause concern amongst parents.”

Pediatrics, Volume 125 / Issue 2 • February 2010

Sibling Transmission
of Vaccine-Derived Rotavirus (RotaTeq)
Associated With Rotavirus Gastroenteritis
Daniel C. Payne, Kathryn M. Edwards,
Michael D. Bowen, Erin Keckley, Jody Peters,
Mathew D. Esona, Elizabeth N. Teel, Diane Kent,
Umesh D. Parashar, Jon R. Gentsch

“Although rotavirus vaccines
are known to be shed in stools, transmission of
vaccine-derived virus to unvaccinated contacts
resulting in symptomatic rotavirus gastroenteritis
has not been reported to our knowledge.

Abstract
Although rotavirus vaccines are known to be shed in stools, transmission of vaccine-derived virus to unvaccinated contacts resulting in
symptomatic rotavirus gastroenteritis has not been reported to our
knowledge. We document here the occurrence of vaccine-derived rotavirus (RotaTeq [Merck and Co, Whitehouse Station, NJ]) transmission from a vaccinated infant to an older, unvaccinated sibling, resulting in symptomatic rotavirus gastroenteritis that required emergency
department care. Results of our investigation suggest that reassortment between vaccine component strains of genotypes P7[5]G1 and
P1A[8]G6 occurred during replication either in the vaccinated infant
or in the older sibling, raising the possibility that this reassortment
may have increased the virulence of the vaccine-derived virus. Both
children remain healthy 11 months after this event and are without
underlying medical conditions.
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/2/e438

We document here the occurrence of
vaccine-derived rotavirus
(RotaTeq, Merck and Co, Whitehouse Station, NJ)
transmission from a vaccinated infant to an older,
unvaccinated sibling, resulting in symptomatic
rotavirus gastroenteritis that required emergency
department care.”

Discovery Medicine • February 2010

Vaccines and autoimmune diseases of the adult
Author information
Orbach H1, Agmon-Levin N, Zandman-Goddard G.
Department of Medicine B
Wolfson Medical Center
Holon, Israel
Abstract
Infectious agents contribute to the environmental factors involved in the
development of autoimmune diseases possibly through molecular mimicry
mechanisms. Hence, it is feasible that vaccinations may also contribute to
the mosaic of autoimmunity. Evidence for the association of vaccinations and
the development of these diseases is presented in this review. Infrequently reported post-vaccination autoimmune diseases include systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory myopathies, multiple sclerosis,
Guillain-Barré syndrome, and vasculitis. In addition, we will discuss macrophagic myofasciitis, aluminum containing vaccines, and the recent evidence
for autoimmunity following the use of human papillomavirus vaccine.

“Hence, it is feasible that vaccinations may also contribute
to the mosaic of autoimmunity. Evidence for the association of
vaccinations and the development of these diseases is presented in
this review. In addition, we will discuss macrophagic myofasciitis,
aluminum containing vaccines, and the recent evidence for
autoimmunity following the use of human papillomavirus vaccine.”

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20193633
Full Report
http://www.discoverymedicine.com/Hedi-Orbach/2010/02/04/vaccines-and-autoimmune-diseases-of-the-adult/

Discovery Medicine • February 2010

Vaccines and Autoimmune Diseases
of the Adult
Author: Hedi Orbach
Specialty: Immunology, Rheumatology, Microbiology, Infectious Diseases
Institution: Department of Medicine B, Wolfson Medical Center
Author: Nancy Agmon-Levin
Specialty: Immunology, Rheumatology, Microbiology, Infectious Diseases
Institution: Center for Autoimmune Diseases. Sheba Medical Center
Author: Gisele Zandman-Goddard
Specialty: Immunology, Rheumatology, Microbiology, Infectious Diseases
Institution: Department of Medicine C, Wolfson Medical Center

Abstract
Infectious agents contribute to the environmental factors involved in the development of autoimmune diseases
possibly through molecular mimicry mechanisms. Hence, it is feasible that vaccinations may also contribute to
the mosaic of autoimmunity. Evidence for the association of vaccinations and the development of these diseases
is presented in this review. Infrequently reported post-vaccination autoimmune diseases include systemic lupus
erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory myopathies, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and
vasculitis. In addition, we will discuss macrophagic myofasciitis, aluminum containing vaccines, and the recent
evidence for autoimmunity following human papilloma virus vaccine.
Introduction
Systemic and organ-specific autoimmune diseases are known to develop following infectious triggers. Recently
we have suggested that certain autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) may result due to
specific viral agents. Furthermore, the spectrum of disease may be influenced by a certain microbial agent in the
genetically predisposed individual (Zandman-Goddard et al., 2009).
Vaccines are a prototypic source for natural immune stimulation, but may be involved in pathogenic disease in the
setting of aberrant immune system function. Possibly, the burden on the immune system resulting from simultaneous multiple vaccines and even the different types of vaccines may also be an overwhelming challenge in the autoimmune prone individual (Shoenfeld et al., 2008). In this review, we discuss the evidence for the development
of autoimmune diseases following infections and vaccinations.
While vaccinations are generally safe, warranted and have virtually eradicated endemic diseases and probably
lessened morbidity and mortality, a question arises regarding the evaluation of possible autoimmune phenomena
in vaccinated individuals.
Reported post-vaccination autoimmune diseases in the adult include SLE, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), inflammatory myopathies, multiple sclerosis (MS), Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), and vasculitis. Evidence for the association of vaccinations and the development of these diseases is presented in this review. In addition, we will
discuss macrophagic myofasciitis, post aluminum containing vaccines and the recent support for autoimmunity
following human papilloma virus vaccine.
http://www.discoverymedicine.com/Hedi-Orbach/2010/02/04/vaccines-and-autoimmune-diseases-of-the-adult/

“Vaccines are a prototypic source for natural immune
stimulation, but may be involved in pathogenic disease
in the setting of aberrant immune system function.
Possibly, the burden on the immune system resulting
from simultaneous multiple vaccines and even the
different types of vaccines may also be an overwhelming challenge in the autoimmune prone individual
(Shoenfeld et al., 2008).

Reported post-vaccination autoimmune diseases
in the adult include SLE, rheumatoid arthritis (RA),
inflammatory myopathies, multiple sclerosis (MS),
Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), and vasculitis.
Evidence for the association of vaccinations and the
development of these diseases is presented in this
review. In addition, we will discuss macrophagic
myofasciitis, post aluminum containing vaccines
and the recent support for autoimmunity following
human papilloma virus vaccine.”

BMJ • March 2010

Effect of revaccination with BCG in early
childhood on mortality: randomised trial in
Guinea-Bissau
Adam Edvin Roth, clinician,1,2
Christine Stabell Benn, senior researcher,3
Henrik Ravn, senior statistician,3
Amabelia Rodrigues, research director,1
Ida Maria Lisse, senior registrar,4
Maria Yazdanbakhsh, professor,5
Hilton Whittle, professor,6 and
Peter Aaby, professor1,3
1. Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
2. Department of Medical Microbiology, Lund University, 205 02 Malmö, Sweden
3. Bandim Health Project, Danish Epidemiology Science Centre, Statens Serum Institut,
Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
4. Department of Pathology, Herlev University Hospital, 2730 Herlev, Denmark
5. Department of Parasitology, Leiden University, Netherlands
6. MRC Laboratories, Fajara, POB 273, Gambia

Abstract
Objective
To determine whether BCG revaccination at 19 months
of age reduces overall child mortality.
Design
Randomised trial, with follow-up to age 5.
Setting
A health project in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, which
maintains a health and demographic surveillance system in an
urban area with 90,000 inhabitants.

Participants
2871 children aged 19 months to 5 years
with low or no reactivity to tuberculin and who were
not severely sick on the day of enrolment.
Intervention
BCG vaccination or no vaccination (control).
Main outcome measure
Hazard ratios for mortality.
Results
77 children died during follow-up. Compared with controls, the
BCG revaccinated children had a hazard ratio of 1.20 (95% confidence interval 0.77 to 1.89). Two hundred and fifty children were
admitted to hospital for the first time between enrolment and the
end of the study, with an incidence rate ratio for BCG revaccinated
children versus controls of 1.04 (0.81 to 1.33). The trial was stopped
prematurely because of a cluster of deaths in the BCG arm of the
study. This increase in mortality occurred at a time when many children had received missing vaccinations or vitamin A or iron supplementation; the hazard ratio for BCG revaccinated children compared with controls was 2.69 (1.05 to 6.88) in the period after these
campaigns. Throughout the trial, the effect of BCG revaccination
on mortality was significantly different (P=0.006) in children who
had received diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) booster vaccination
before enrolment (hazard ratio 0.36, 0.13 to 0.99) and children who
had not received the booster before enrolment (1.78, 1.04 to 3.04).
Conclusions
There was no overall beneficial effect of being revaccinated
with BCG. The effect of BCG revaccination on mortality
might depend on other health interventions.
“77 of 2871 children died during follow-up”
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839082/

“77 children died
during follow-up.
Two hundred and fifty children
were admitted to hospital
for the first time.
There was no overall
beneficial effect of
being revaccinated
with BCG. ”

Cutaneous And Ocular Toxicology • March 2010

Hepatitis B vaccine and uveitis:
an emerging hypothesis suggested by
review of 32 case reports
Author information
Fraunfelder FW1, Suhler EB, Fraunfelder FT.
Casey Eye Institute
Portland, Oregon 97239, USA
fraunfel@ohsu.edu
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To report a possible association between hepatitis B vaccine and uveitis.
METHODS
Spontaneous reports from the National Registry of Drug-Induced Ocular Side Effects,
the World Health Organization, and the Food and Drug Administration were collected
on hepatitis B vaccine associated with uveitis between 1982 and 2009. In addition, we
performed a Medline literature search using the keywords of uveitis, iritis, or vitritis, in
combination with vaccines and hepatitis B vaccine. Data garnered from the spontaneous
reports included age, gender, adverse drug reaction, temporal association of uveitis with
vaccine doses, concomitant drugs, other systemic disease, recovery, and recurrence after
repeat dosage.
RESULTS
Thirty-two case reports of uveitis occurring after hepatitis B vaccine were reported to
the spontaneous reporting databases. The mean age of the patients was 29 years (1-57
years), with 8 male and 24 female patients. The mean number of days until uveitis was
reported after vaccination was 3 days (1-15 days). The uveitis was reported to occur
after the first vaccination in 15 patients, after the second vaccination in 3 patients, and
after the third vaccination in 3 patients; the duration of time to occurrence of uveitis was
not reported for 9 patients. One patient had recurrent uveitis after both the second and
third doses of vaccine. One patient had recurrent uveitis after the first and second doses
of vaccine.
CONCLUSION
Hepatitis B vaccine may have a possible association with the development of uveitis
in some patients. Immune complex deposition and adjuvant effects are potential pathogenic mechanisms.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19947819

“Hepatitis B vaccine
may have a possible association
with the development of uveitis
in some patients. Immune complex
deposition and adjuvant effects are
potential pathogenic mechanisms.”

Cell Biology And Toxicology • April 2010

Induction of metallothionein
in mouse cerebellum and cerebrum
with low-dose thimerosal injection
Author information
Minami T1, Miyata E,
Sakamoto Y, Yamazaki H, Ichida S.
Department of Life Sciences
Kinki University, Higashi-osaka
Osaka, Japan
minamita@life.kindai.ac.jp
Abstract
Thimerosal, an ethyl mercury compound, is used worldwide as a vaccine preservative. We previously observed that the mercury concentration in mouse brains did
not increase with the clinical dose of thimerosal injection, but the concentration increased in the brain after the injection of thimerosal with lipopolysaccharide, even
if a low dose of thimerosal was administered. Thimerosal may penetrate the brain,
but is undetectable when a clinical dose of thimerosal is injected; therefore, the
induction of metallothionein (MT) messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein was observed in the cerebellum and cerebrum of mice after thimerosal injection, as MT is
an inducible protein. MT-1 mRNA was expressed at 6 and 9 h in both the cerebrum
and cerebellum, but MT-1 mRNA expression in the cerebellum was three times
higher than that in the cerebrum after the injection of 12 microg/kg thimerosal. MT2 mRNA was not expressed until 24 h in both organs. MT-3 mRNA was expressed
in the cerebellum from 6 to 15 h after the injection, but not in the cerebrum until 24
h. MT-1 and MT-3 mRNAs were expressed in the cerebellum in a dose-dependent
manner. Furthermore, MT-1 protein was detected from 6 to 72 h in the cerebellum after 12 microg/kg of thimerosal was injected and peaked at 10 h. MT-2 was
detected in the cerebellum only at 10 h. In the cerebrum, little MT-1 protein was
detected at 10 and 24 h, and there were no peaks of MT-2 protein in the cerebrum.
In conclusion, MT-1 and MT-3 mRNAs but not MT-2 mRNA are easily expressed
in the cerebellum rather than in the cerebrum by the injection of low-dose thimerosal. It is thought that the cerebellum is a sensitive organ against thimerosal. As a
result of the present findings, in combination with the brain pathology observed
in patients diagnosed with autism, the present study helps to support the possible
biological plausibility for how low-dose exposure to mercury from thimerosal-containing vaccines may be associated with autism.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19357975

“It is thought that the cerebellum
is a sensitive organ against thimerosal.
As a result of the present findings,
in combination with the brain pathology
observed in patients diagnosed with autism,
the present study helps to support the possible
biological plausibility for how low-dose
exposure to mercury from thimerosal
containing vaccines may be associated with autism.”

Disability & Health Journal • April 2010

Sex differences in the evaluation and diagnosis
of autism spectrum disorders among children
Author information
Giarelli E1, Wiggins LD, Rice CE,
Levy SE, Kirby RS, Pinto-Martin J, Mandell D.
University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing, Philadelphia, 19104, USA
giarelli@nursing.upenn.edu
Abstract
BACKGROUND
One of the most consistent features of the autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) is the predominance among males, with approximately four males to every female. We sought to examine sex differences among children who met case definition for ASD in
a large, population-based cohort with respect to age at first developmental evaluation, age of diagnosis, influence of cognitive
impairment on these outcomes, and sex-specific behavioral characteristics.
METHODS
We conducted a secondary analysis of data collected for a population-based study of the prevalence of ASD. The sample comprised 2,568 children born in 1994 who met the case definition of ASD as established by the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network for ASD surveillance. Children who had a history of developmental disability and behavioral
features consistent with the DSM-IV-TR criteria for autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified in existing evaluation records were classified as ASD cases via two paths: streamlined and nonstreamlined. Streamlined reviews were conducted if there was an ASD diagnosis documented in the records. Data were collected
in 13 sites across the United States through the ADDM Network, funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
RESULTS
Males constituted 81% of the sample. There were no differences by sex in average age at first evaluation or average age of diagnosis among those with an existing documented chart diagnosis of an ASD. Girls were less likely than boys to have a documented
diagnosis (odds ratio [OR] = 0.76, p = .004). This analysis was adjusted for cognitive impairment status. In the logistic model,
with the interaction term for sex and cognitive impairment, girls with IQ of 70 or less were less likely than boys with IQ of 70 or
less to have a documented diagnosis (OR = 0.70, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.50-0.97, p = .035). Boys with IQ greater than
70 were less likely than boys with IQ of 70 or less to have a documented diagnosis (OR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.49-0.74, p < .001).
This finding (less likely to have a documented diagnosis) was also true for girls with IQ greater than 70 (OR = 0.45, 95% CI =
0.32-0.66, p < .001). Girls were more likely to have notations of seizure-like behavior (p < .001). Boys were more likely to have
notations of hyperactivity or a short attention span and aggressive behavior (p < .01).
CONCLUSIONS
Girls, especially those without cognitive impairment, may be formally identified at a later age than boys. This may delay referral for early intervention. Community education efforts should alert clinicians and parents to the potential of ASDs in boys and
girls.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21122776

“One of the most consistent features
of the autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
is the predominance among males, with
approximately four males to every female.
We sought to examine sex differences among
children who met case definition for ASD ...”

PLoS One • May 2010

Oral polio vaccine
influences the immune response to BCG vaccination
A natural experiment
Author information
Sartono E1, Lisse IM, Terveer EM, van de Sande PJ,
Whittle H, Fisker AB, Roth A, Aaby P, Yazdanbakhsh M, Benn CS.
Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center
Leiden, The Netherlands
E.Sartono@lumc.nl
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Oral polio vaccine (OPV) is recommended to be given at birth together with BCG vaccine. While we were conducting two trials including low-birth-weight (LBW) and normal-birth-weight (NBW) infants in Guinea-Bissau,
OPV was not available during some periods and therefore some infants did not receive OPV at birth, but only
BCG. We investigated the effect of OPV given simultaneously with BCG at birth on the immune response to BCG
vaccine.

“Worryingly, the results indicate that

METHODS AND FINDINGS
We compared the in vitro and the in vivo response to PPD in the infants who received OPV and BCG with that of
infants who received BCG only. At age 6 weeks, the in vitro cytokine response to purified protein derivate (PPD)
of M. Tuberculosis was reduced in LBW and NBW infants who had received OPV with BCG. In a pooled analysis
receiving OPV with BCG at birth was associated with significantly lower IL-13 (p = 0.041) and IFN-gamma (p
= 0.004) and a tendency for lower IL-10 (p = 0.054) in response to PPD. Furthermore, OPV was associated with
reduced in vivo response to PPD at age 2 months, the prevalence ratio (PR) of having a PPD reaction being 0.75
(0.58-0.98), p = 0.033, and with a tendency for reduced likelihood of having a BCG scar (0.95 (0.91-1.00), p =
0.057)). Among children with a scar, OPV was associated with reduced scar size, the regression coefficient being
-0.24 (-0.43-0.05), p = 0.012.

Bacille Calmette-Guerin [BCG - tuberculosis] vaccine

CONCLUSIONS
This study is the first to address the consequences for the immune response to BCG of simultaneous administration with OPV. Worryingly, the results indicate that the common practice in low-income countries of administering OPV together with BCG at birth may down-regulate the response to BCG vaccine.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873948/

the common practice in low-income countries
of administering Oral polio vaccine together with

at birth may down-regulate the response to
Bacille Calmette-Guerin [BCG - tuberculosis] vaccine.”

Medical Science Monitor • May 2010

The relative toxicity of compounds
used as preservatives in vaccines and biologics
Author information
Geier DA1, Jordan SK, Geier MR.
CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
In vaccines/biologics, preservatives are used to prevent microbial growth.
MATERIAL/METHODS
The present study examined: (1) the comparative toxicities of commonly used preservatives in US licensed vaccines to human neurons; and (2) the relative toxicity index
of these compounds to human neurons in comparison to bacterial cells.
RESULTS
Using human neuroblastoma cells, the relative cytotoxicity of the levels of the compounds commonly used as preservative in US licensed vaccines was found to be phenol <2-phenoxyethanol < benzethonium chloride < Thimerosal. The observed relative
toxicity indices (human neuroblastoma cells/bacterial cells) were 2-phenoxyethanol
(4.6-fold) < phenol (12.2-fold) < Thimerosal (>330-fold). In addition, for the compounds tested, except for 2-phenoxyethanol, the concentrations necessary to induce
significant killing of bacterial cells were significantly higher than those routinely present in US licensed vaccine/biological preparations.
CONCLUSIONS
None of the compounds commonly used as preservatives in US licensed vaccine/biological preparations can be considered an ideal preservative, and their ability to fully
comply with the requirements of the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) for preservatives is in doubt. Future formulations of US licensed vaccines/biologics should
be produced in aseptic manufacturing plants as single dose preparations, eliminating
the need for preservatives and an unnecessary risk to patients.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20424565

“None of the compounds commonly used as
preservatives in US licensed vaccine/biological
preparations can be considered an ideal preservative,
and their ability to fully comply with the requirements
of the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) for
preservatives is in doubt.”

BMJ • June 2010

Ramifications of adverse events in children in Australia
Author information
Peter Collignon,
infectious diseases physician and microbiologist1
Peter Doshi, program in history, anthropology, science,
technology and society2
Tom Jefferson, coordinator3
1. School of Clinical Medicine, Australian National University
PO Box 11, Woden, ACT 2607, Australia
2. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
3. Cochrane Vaccines Field, Rome, Italy
peter.collignon@act.gov.au
Many serious adverse reactions to this year’s seasonal influenza vaccine have occurred across Australia,
and its use remains suspended in children aged 5 years and under.1 2 3 Data released on 1 June 2010
show that 1 in every 110 young children vaccinated with the CSL vaccine had a febrile seizure.3
A previous H1N1 vaccine study published earlier this year showed that a large proportion of children
developed fevers after vaccination: between three and six in every 10 children under 3 years, depending
on dose.4 The study was, however, underpowered to detect febrile convulsions at the current rates in
Australia because it included only 162 children under 3 years.
Fever is the most important risk factor for febrile convulsions. The vaccine manufacturer CSL, which
sponsored the trial, and Australia’s regulatory body, the Therapeutic Goods Administration, which used
these data in approving the vaccine for children, were presumably aware of these important findings.4
But the authors did not discuss the high incidence of fever associated with vaccination,4 and most data
were reported without comment in the online only supplementary tables.4
The many children with adverse effects and the subsequent suspension of the vaccine challenge the
assumption that regulators are ensuring the safety and efficacy of all marketed therapeutics. Influenza
vaccine is said to have “an established record of safety in all age groups.”2 However, published data on
the effects of vaccinating young children against influenza are comparatively few.5 Some manufacturers have even withheld data from public scrutiny amid general indifference.2 5
Last winter the likelihood that a child without risk factors would die from swine flu was less than one
in a million.2 When such a high proportion of children develop moderate to severe febrile reactions to
the influenza vaccine, more harm than good seems likely from vaccinating them.
Report available for purchase. I accessed this report using a 14-day free trial:
http://www.bmj.com/content/340/bmj.c2994.long

“... the likelihood that a child without risk factors would die
from swine flu was less than one in a million. When such a
high proportion of children develop moderate to severe
febrile reactions to the influenza vaccine, more harm than
good seems likely from vaccinating them.”

BMJ • June 2010

Australian government says healthy under 5s should not be given seasonal flu jab
Moynihan R.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20530085

Discovery Medicine • July 2010

Prophylactic HPV vaccines:
current knowledge of impact on
gynecologic premalignancies
Author information
Harper DM1, Williams KB.
University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine
7900 Lee’s Summit Road, Kansas City, Missouri 64139, USA
diane.m.harper@gmail.com

“Screening still remains the

Abstract
Approaches for cervical cancer prevention are changing. Screening still remains the most effective method for cervical cancer
prevention. Guidelines are moving to an older group of women
to be screened less frequently with combinations of technologies
that include biomarkers and cytology. HPV vaccination is an appropriate option for this older group of women as well, should
the woman not wish to make her decision about vaccination until
21 years of age, the age of screening. Parents making decisions
about HPV vaccination for their young adolescent daughters
need to be fully informed that only continued screening prevents
cervical cancer. HPV vaccination reduces the possibility of their
daughter having an abnormal Pap test by 10% if the vaccines
have not waned by the time the young adolescent becomes sexually active. HPV vaccine efficacy must last at least 15 years to
contribute to the prevention of cervical cancers. At this time, protection against cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2/3 (CIN
2/3) is 5 years for Gardasil and 8.4 years for Cervarix. The value
of the current protection HPV vaccines offer will be viewed differently by different women. Physicians’ ethical duties are to
provide full explanation of the risks and benefits of adding HPV
vaccination to the ongoing screening programs, and to support
women in their personal choice for cervical cancer prevention.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20670593

most effective method for
cervical cancer prevention.
HPV vaccination reduces the
possibility of their daughter
having an abnormal Pap test
by 10% if the vaccines
have not waned by the time
the young adolescent
becomes sexually active.”

Reviews Of Environmental Contamination And Toxicology • July 2010
.

The toxic effects of formaldehyde
on the nervous system
Author information
Songur A1, Ozen OA, Sarsilmaz M.
Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine
University of Kocatepe, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey
asongur55@yahoo.com
Abstract
Formaldehyde (FA) is found in the polluted atmosphere of cities, domestic air (e.g.,
paint, insulating materials, chipboard and plywood, fabrics, furniture, paper), and
cigarette smoke, etc.; therefore, everyone and particularly susceptible children may
be exposed to FA. FA is also widely used in industrial and medical settings and as
a sterilizing agent, disinfectant, and preservative. Therefore, employees may be
highly exposed to it in there settings. Of particular concern to the authors are anatomists and medical students, who can be highly exposed to formaldehyde vapor
during dissection sessions. Formaldehyde is toxic over a range of doses; chances
of exposure and subsequent harmful effects are increased as (room) temperature
increases, because of FA’s volatility. Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the effects of FA during systemic and respiratory exposures in rats. This review
compiles that literature and emphasizes the neurotoxic effects of FA on neuronal
morphology, behavior, and biochemical parameters. The review includes the results of some of the authors’ work related to FA neurotoxicity, and such neurotoxic
effects from FA exposure were experimentally demonstrated. Moreover, the effectiveness of some antioxidants such as melatonin, fish omega-3, and CAPE was
observed in the treatment of the harmful effects of FA. Despite the harmful effects
from FA exposure, it is commonly used in Turkey and elsewhere in dissection
laboratories. Consequently, all anatomists must know and understand the effects of
this toxic agent on organisms and the environment, and take precautions to avoid
unnecessary exposure. The reviewed studies have indicated that FA has neurotoxic
characteristics and systemic toxic effects. It is hypothesized that inhalation of FA,
during the early postnatal period, is linked to some neurological diseases that occur
in adults. Although complete prevention is impossible for laboratory workers and
members of industries utilizing FA, certain precautions can be taken to decrease
and/or prevent the toxic effects of FA.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19957118

“The reviewed studies have indicated
that Formaldehyde has neurotoxic
characteristics and systemic toxic effects.”

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • 2010

Hepatitis B vaccination
of male neonates and autism diagnosis
NHIS 1997-2002
Author information
Gallagher CM1, Goodman MS.
PhD Program in Population Health and Clinical Outcomes Research
Stony Brook University Medical Center
State University of New York at Stony Brook
Stony Brook, New York, USA
cmgallagher@notes.cc.sunysb.edu
Abstract
Universal hepatitis B vaccination was recommended for U.S. newborns in 1991; however, safety findings are
mixed. The association between hepatitis B vaccination of male neonates and parental report of autism diagnosis
was determined. This cross-sectional study used weighted probability samples obtained from National Health
Interview Survey 1997-2002 data sets. Vaccination status was determined from the vaccination record. Logistic
regression was used to estimate the odds for autism diagnosis associated with neonatal hepatitis B vaccination
among boys age 3-17 years, born before 1999, adjusted for race, maternal education, and two-parent household.
Boys vaccinated as neonates had threefold greater odds for autism diagnosis compared to boys never vaccinated
or vaccinated after the first month of life. Non-Hispanic white boys were 64% less likely to have autism diagnosis
relative to nonwhite boys. Findings suggest that U.S. male neonates vaccinated with the hepatitis B vaccine prior
to 1999 (from vaccination record) had a threefold higher risk for parental report of autism diagnosis compared to
boys not vaccinated as neonates during that same time period. Nonwhite boys bore a greater risk.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21058170

“Findings suggest that U.S. male neonates vaccinated
with the hepatitis B vaccine prior to 1999 (from
vaccination record) had a threefold higher risk for
parental report of autism diagnosis compared to boys
not vaccinated as neonates during that same time period.
Nonwhite boys bore a greater risk.”

Acta Neurobiologiea Experimentalis • 2010

Influence of pediatric vaccines
on amygdala growth and opioid ligand binding
in rhesus macaque infants: A pilot study
Author information
Hewitson L1, Lopresti BJ, Stott C, Mason NS, Tomko J.
1Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
Pittsburgh, PA, USA
lch1@pitt.edu
Abstract
This longitudinal, case-control pilot study examined amygdala growth
in rhesus macaque infants receiving the complete US childhood vaccine
schedule (1994-1999). Longitudinal structural and functional neuroimaging was undertaken to examine central effects of the vaccine regimen on
the developing brain. Vaccine-exposed and saline-injected control infants
underwent MRI and PET imaging at approximately 4 and 6 months of age,
representing two specific timeframes within the vaccination schedule. Volumetric analyses showed that exposed animals did not undergo the maturational changes over time in amygdala volume that was observed in unexposed animals. After controlling for left amygdala volume, the binding
of the opioid antagonist [(11)C]diprenorphine (DPN) in exposed animals
remained relatively constant over time, compared with unexposed animals,
in which a significant decrease in [(11)C]DPN binding occurred. These results suggest that maturational changes in amygdala volume and the binding capacity of [(11)C]DPN in the amygdala was significantly altered in
infant macaques receiving the vaccine schedule. The macaque infant is a
relevant animal model in which to investigate specific environmental exposures and structural/functional neuroimaging during neurodevelopment.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20628439

“This longitudinal, case-control pilot study
examined amygdala growth in rhesus macaque
infants receiving the complete US childhood
vaccine schedule (1994-1999). These results
suggest that maturational changes in amygdala
volume and the binding capacity of [(11)C]DPN
in the amygdala was significantly altered in
infant macaques receiving the vaccine schedule.”

“The decrease in the collapse pressure of the monolayer film caused by coated nanoparticles,
in vitro, was associated with an acute pulmonary toxicity in vivo.”
American Association Of Pharmaceutical Sciences • September 2010

Pulmonary Toxicity of Polysorbate-80-coated
Inhalable Nanoparticles; In vitro and In vivo Evaluation
M. H. D. Kamal Al-Hallak, Shirzad Azarmi, Chris Sun, Patrick Lai,
Elmar J. Prenner, Wilson H. Roa, and Raimar Löbenberg
Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 3126 Dentistry/Pharmacy Centre
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2N8 Canada
Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Damascus University, Damascus, Syria
Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta Canada
Cross Cancer Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta Canada
CONCLUSION
The presented in vitro model for studying the surface pressure-area isotherms is an early screening tool to assess
the biophysical compatibility of selected drug carriers with lung surfactant films. The decrease in the collapse
pressure of the monolayer film caused by coated NPs, in vitro, was associated with an acute pulmonary toxicity
in vivo. This in vivo toxicity was not observed when uncoated nanoparticles were used. Therefore, the dosage
from toxicity of colloidal carriers intended for pulmonary delivery is mainly determined by their final composition rather than their individual components. More investigations are required to set different cut-off points for
the collapse pressure to correlate them with different stages of pulomary toxicity in vivo. The outcomes of this
study should not be generalized for all surfactants or bi-block polymers. Other surfactants with different hydrophilic-lipophilic properties might interact differently with lung surfactant films. This method may be useful to
establish upper deposition limits for inhalable dry powders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2895437/

Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The USA • September 2010

Triton X-100 concentration
effects on membrane permeability
of a single HeLa cell by
scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM)
Author information
Koley D1, Bard AJ.
Center for Electrochemistry
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
University of Texas at Austin
1 University Station, A5300
Austin, TX 78712-0165, USA

“Permeability of the cell membrane
to the otherwise impermeable, highly charged

Abstract
Changes in HeLa cell morphology, membrane permeability, and viability caused by the
presence of Triton X-100 (TX100), a nonionic surfactant, were studied by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). No change in membrane permeability was found at
concentrations of 0.15 mM or lower during an experimental period of 30 to 60 min. Permeability of the cell membrane to the otherwise impermeable, highly charged hydrophilic
molecule ferrocyanide was seen starting at concentrations of TX100 of about 0.17 mM.
This concentration level of TX100 did not affect cell viability. Based on a simulation
model, the membrane permeability for ferrocyanide molecules passing though the live
cell membrane was 6.5 ± 2.0 × 10(-6) m/s. Cells underwent irreversible permeabilization
of the membrane and structural collapse when the TX100 concentration reached the critical micelle concentration (CMC), in the range of 0.19 to 0.20 mM. The impermeability
of ferrocyanide molecules in the absence of surfactant was also used to determine the
height and diameter of a single living cell with the aid of the approach curve and probe
scan methods in SECM.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20837548

hydrophilic molecule ferrocyanide was seen
starting at concentrations of TX100 of about 0.17 mM. Cells
underwent irreversible permeabilization of the
membrane and structural collapse when the TX100
concentration reached the critical micelle concentration
(CMC), in the range of 0.19 to 0.20 mM.”

Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Science • September 2010

Triton X-100 concentration effects
on membrane permeability of a single HeLa cell
by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM)
Dipankar Koley and Allen J. Bard1
Center for Electrochemistry
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station
A5300, Austin, TX 78712-0165
ABSTRACT
Changes in HeLa cell morphology, membrane permeability, and viability caused by
the presence of Triton X-100 (TX100), a nonionic surfactant, were studied by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). No change in membrane permeability
was found at concentrations of 0.15 mM or lower during an experimental period
of 30 to 60 min. Permeability of the cell membrane to the otherwise impermeable,
highly charged hydrophilic molecule ferrocyanide was seen starting at concentrations of TX100 of about 0.17 mM. This concentration level of TX100 did not affect
cell viability. Based on a simulation model, the membrane permeability for ferrocyanide molecules passing though the live cell membrane was 6.5 ± 2.0 × 10-6 m/
s. Cells underwent irreversible permeabilization of the membrane and structural
collapse when the TX100 concentration reached the critical micelle concentration (CMC), in the range of 0.19 to 0.20 mM. The impermeability of ferrocyanide
molecules in the absence of surfactant was also used to determine the height and
diameter of a single living cell with the aid of the approach curve and probe scan
methods in SECM.
DISCUSSION
When the concentration of TX100 is below the CMC range (i.e. 0.17 mM and
less) the surfactant may act as a permeabilizing agent depending on the dose and
duration of exposure to cells. This is a good range for transfection of the cell with
an added agent, but prolonged exposure to cells even at these low concentrations
can lead to some cell death. When concentrations of TX100 in the CMC range,
> 0.18 mM, are used, the cell membrane disintegrated causing a collapse of the
entire cell structure and cell death within a few minutes.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2947864/

“When concentrations of TX100 in the
CMC range, > 0.18 mM, are used, the cell
membrane disintegrated causing a collapse
of the entire cell structure and cell death
within a few minutes.”

Yao Xue Xue Bao • Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica • October 2010

Polysorbate-80 modified
neurotoxin nanoparticle with its
transport and cytotoxicity against
blood-brain barrier
Author information
Zhao YM1, Xia AX, Wei YH, Ruan YP, Li FZ.
College of Pharmaceutical Science
Zhejiang Chinese Medical University
Hangzhou 310053, China
Abstract
This study was aimed at the transport across blood-brain barrier
(BBB) of polysorbate-80 modified neurotoxin loaded polybutylcyanoacrylate nanoparticle (P-80-NT-NP) and its cytotoxicity. An
in vitro model of BBB using rat brain microvascular endothelial
cells (rBMECs) was established. The cytotoxicity of P-80-NTNP was measured by the MTT assays, where neurotoxin (NT),
nanoparticle (NP), neurotoxin nanoparticle (NT-NP) as control,
and the permeability of P-80-NT-NP was determined by using of
Millicell insert coculture with rBMECs and fluorescence spectrophotometry. MTT results showed that NT, NP, NT-NP and P80-NT-NP were avirulent to rBMECs when the concentration of
NT was lower than 200 ng x mL(-1). But the cytotoxicity of NP,
NT-NP and P-80-NT-NP would be augmented accordingly as concentration increased (P < 0.01), causing obvious reductions of cell
survival rate, with no significant difference between them (P >
0.05). When the concentration of NT was 150 ng x mL(-1), the
permeability on rBMECs of P-80-NT-NP and NT-NP were both
significantly higher than that of NT (P < 0.01), and the permeability of P-80-NT-NP was greater than that of NT-NP (P < 0.05).
In conclusion, polysorbate-80 modified neurotoxin nanoparticles
can transport across the BBB, while concentration of NT is greater
than 200 ng x mL(-1), P-80-NT-NP has a little cytotoxicity against
rBMECs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21348312

“... polysorbate-80 modified
neurotoxin nanoparticles
can transport across the Blood Brain Barrier ...”

Vaccine • January 2011

Diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine
administered simultaneously with measles vaccine
is associated with increased morbidity and poor growth in girls
A randomised trial from Guinea-Bissau
Author information
Agergaard J1, Nante E, Poulstrup G, Nielsen J, Flanagan KL, Østergaard L, Benn CS, Aaby P.
Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Apartado 861, 1004 Bissau Codex, Guinea-Bissau
heja@dadlnet.dk
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Combined vaccination with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) and measles vaccine (MV) has been associated with increased mortality in observational studies.
Among children missing MV and a dose of DTP and oral
polio vaccine (OPV), we conducted a randomised trial of
providing MV+DTP+OPV simultaneously, as currently
recommended, or MV+OPV only, and examined the effect on morbidity and growth. We hypothesised that the
MV+OPV group would experience less morbidity and
grow better. Due to previous observations of sex differences in the non-specific effects of vaccinations, we analysed all data stratified by sex.
METHODS
At the Bandim Health Project in Guinea-Bissau, 568 children who were due to receive MV and who were missing
either DTP3 or DTP booster were enrolled in the study.
A subgroup of 332 children was followed intensively to
register adverse events and infections in the first month
after vaccination. A subgroup of 276 children was followed every third month for a year to monitor growth.
All children were followed for one year for infectious
diseases, consultations, and hospitalisations.
RESULTS
As expected, adverse events were more common in the
MV+DTP+OPV group; diarrhoea and use of medication

were increased among girls but not among boys (both
p=0.02, test of interaction between DTP and sex). Febrile disease with vesicular rash, as well as consultations
and hospitalisations tended to be more common in the
MV+DTP+OPV group than in the MV+OPV group;
the hazard ratio (HR) for febrile disease with vesicular rash was 1.86 (1.00; 3.47). The strongest tendencies for more febrile diseases and hospitalisations in
the MV+DTP+OPV group were found in girls. Overall,
growth did not differ by randomisation group. However,
results differed by sex. Girls in the MV+DTP+OPV group
had a consistent pattern of worse z-scores for weight,
height, and mid-upper-arm-circumference (MUAC) than
girls in the MV+OPV group. The effect was opposite for
boys, with boys in the MV+OPV group faring worse
than those in the MV+DTP+OPV group, the interaction
test for sex and DTP being significant for weight at 6 and
9 months, for MUAC at 12 months and for weight-forheight at 3 and 9 months after randomisation.
CONCLUSION
This is the first randomised trial of the non-specific effects of DTP and supports that these effects may be sexdifferential and of clinical and anthropometric importance. Combined vaccination with DTP+MV+OPV may
be detrimental for girls.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21093496

“This is the first randomised trial
of the non-specific effects of DTP and
supports that these effects may be sex-differential
and of clinical and anthropometric importance.
Combined vaccination with DTP+MV+OPV
may be detrimental for girls.”

Nucleic Acids Research • January 2011

Protegen:
a web-based protective antigen database and analysis system
Author information
Yang B1, Sayers S, Xiang Z, He Y.
Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine
University of Michigan Medical School
Center for Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
Abstract
Protective antigens are specifically targeted by the acquired immune response of the host and
are able to induce protection in the host against infectious and non-infectious diseases. Protective antigens play important roles in vaccine development, as biological markers for disease
diagnosis, and for analysis of fundamental host immunity against diseases. Protegen is a webbased central database and analysis system that curates, stores and analyzes protective antigens. Basic antigen information and experimental evidence are curated from peer-reviewed
articles. More detailed gene/protein information (e.g. DNA and protein sequences, and COG
classification) are automatically extracted from existing databases using internally developed
scripts. Bioinformatics programs are also applied to compute different antigen features, such
as protein weight and pI, and subcellular localizations of bacterial proteins. Presently, 590 protective antigens have been curated against over 100 infectious diseases caused by pathogens
and non-infectious diseases (including cancers and allergies). A user-friendly web query and
visualization interface is developed for interactive protective antigen search. A customized
BLAST sequence similarity search is also developed for analysis of new sequences provided
by the users. To support data exchange, the information of protective antigens is stored in the
Vaccine Ontology (VO) in OWL format and can also be exported to FASTA and Excel files.
Protegen is publically available at http://www.violinet.org/protegen.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3013795/

“Protegen is a web-based central database
and analysis system that curates, stores and
analyzes protective antigens. Presently,
590 protective antigens have been curated against
over 100 infectious diseases caused by pathogens
and non-infectious diseases (including cancers and allergies).”

Journal Of Autoimmunity • February 2011

Autoimmune or auto-inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants (ASIA):
old truths and a new syndrome?
Author information
Meroni PL1.
Division of Rheumatology, Istituto G. Pini, Milan, Italy
pierluigi.meroni@unimi.it
Abstract
There has been considerable interest in the role of environmental factors
and the induction of autoimmunity and the ways by which they facilitate
loss of tolerance. Clearly both genetic and environmental factors are incriminated, as evidenced by the lack of concordance in identical twins and
the relatively recent identification of the shared epitope in rheumatoid arthritis. In this issue a new syndrome called ‘Asia’-autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants has been proposed. It is an
intriguing issue and one that is likely to be provocative and lead to further
biologic and molecular investigations.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21051205

“In this issue a new syndrome called
‘Asia’-autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants has been proposed. It is an
intriguing issue and one that is likely to be
provocative and lead to further biologic
and molecular investigations.”

Journal Of Autoimmunity • February 2011

‘ASIA’
autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants
Author information
Shoenfeld Y1, Agmon-Levin N.
The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Department of Medicine B’ Sheba Medical Center
Tel-Hashomer, Israel
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
The role of various environmental factors in the pathogenesis of
immune mediated diseases is well established. Of which, factors
entailing an immune adjuvant activity such as infectious agents,
silicone, aluminium salts and others were associated with defined
and non-defined immune mediated diseases both in animal models and in humans. In recent years, four conditions: siliconosis,
the Gulf war syndrome (GWS), the macrophagic myofasciitis
syndrome (MMF) and post-vaccination phenomena were linked
with previous exposure to an adjuvant. Furthermore, these four
diseases share a similar complex of signs and symptoms which
further support a common denominator. Thus, we review herein
the current data regarding the role of adjuvants in the pathogenesis of immune mediated diseases as well as the amassed data
regarding each of these four conditions. Relating to the current
knowledge we would like to suggest to include these comparable
conditions under a common syndrome entitled ASIA, “Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory) Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants”.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20708902

“Relating to the current knowledge
we would like to suggest to include these
comparable conditions under a common syndrome
entitled ASIA, “Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory)
Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants”.”

“By means of a study including 300 unexplained sudden unexpected deaths (uSUD),
a 16-fold risk increase [in death] after the 4th dose could be detected with a power of at least 90 per cent.
A general 2-fold risk increase after vaccination could be detected with a power of 80 per cent.”
Statistics In Medicine • March 2011

A modified self-controlled case series method
to examine association between multidose vaccinations and death
Author information
Kuhnert R1, Hecker H, Poethko-Müller C, Schlaud M,
Vennemann M, Whitaker HJ, Farrington CP.
Robert Koch-Institute
Division for Health of Children and Adolescents
Prevention Concepts, Postfach 650261
13353 Berlin, Germany
KuhnertR@rki.de
Abstract
The self-controlled case series method (SCCS) was developed to analyze the association between a time-varying exposure and an
outcome event. We consider penta- or hexavalent vaccination as the exposure and unexplained sudden unexpected death (uSUD)
as the event. The special situation of multiple exposures and a terminal event requires adaptation of the standard SCCS method.
This paper proposes a new adaptation, in which observation periods are truncated according to the vaccination schedule. The
new method exploits known minimum spacings between successive vaccine doses. Its advantage is that it is very much simpler
to apply than the method for censored, perturbed or curtailed post-event exposures recently introduced. This paper presents a
comparison of these two SCCS methods by simulation studies and an application to a real data set. In the simulation studies, the
age distribution and the assumed vaccination schedule were based on real data. Only small differences between the two SCCS
methods were observed, although 50 per cent of cases could not be included in the analysis with the SCCS method with truncated
observation periods. By means of a study including 300 uSUD, a 16-fold risk increase after the 4th dose could be detected with
a power of at least 90 per cent. A general 2-fold risk increase after vaccination could be detected with a power of 80 per cent.
Reanalysis of data from cases of the German case-control study on sudden infant death (GeSID) resulted in slightly higher point
estimates using the SCCS methods than the odds ratio obtained by the case-control analysis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21337361

Mutation Research • March 2011

Genotoxicity biomarkers in occupational exposure to formaldehyde
the case of histopathology laboratories
Author information
Ladeira C1, Viegas S, Carolino E, Prista J, Gomes MC, Brito M.
Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde de Lisboa
Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal
carina.ladeira@estesl.ipl.pt
Abstract
Formaldehyde, classified by the IARC as carcinogenic in humans and experimental animals, is a chemical
agent that is widely used in histopathology laboratories. The exposure to this substance is epidemiologically linked to cancer and to nuclear changes detected by the cytokinesis-block micronucleus test (CBMN).
This method is extensively used in molecular epidemiology, since it provides information on several
biomarkers of genotoxicity, such as micronuclei (MN), which are biomarkers of chromosomes breakage
or loss, nucleoplasmic bridges (NPB), common biomarkers of chromosome rearrangement, poor repair
and/or telomere fusion, and nuclear buds (NBUD), biomarkers of elimination of amplified DNA. The aim
of this study is to compare the frequency of genotoxicity biomarkers, provided by the CBMN assay in
peripheral lymphocytes and the MN test in buccal cells, between individuals occupationally exposed and
non-exposed to formaldehyde and other environmental factors, namely tobacco and alcohol consumption.
The sample comprised two groups: 56 individuals occupationally exposed to formaldehyde (cases) and 85
unexposed individuals (controls), from whom both peripheral blood and exfoliated epithelial cells of the
oral mucosa were collected in order to measure the genetic endpoints proposed in this study. The mean
level of TWA(8h) was 0.16±0.11 ppm (<detection limit until 0.51 ppm) and the mean of ceiling values
was 1.14±0.74 ppm (0.18-2.93 ppm). All genotoxicity biomarkers showed significant increases in exposed
workers in comparison with controls (Mann-Whitney test, p<0.002) and the analysis of confounding factors showed that there were no differences between genders. As for age, only the mean MN frequency in
lymphocytes was found significantly higher in elderly people among the exposed groups (p=0.006), and
there was also evidence of an interaction between age and gender with regards to that biomarker in those
exposed. Smoking habits did not influence the frequency of the biomarkers, whereas alcohol consumption
only influenced the MN frequency in lymphocytes in controls (p=0.011), with drinkers showing higher
mean values. These results provide evidence of the association between occupational exposure to formaldehyde and the presence of genotoxicity biomarkers.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21256246

“These results provide evidence
of the association between occupational exposure
to formaldehyde and the presence of
genotoxicity biomarkers.”

Medical Journal of Australia • April 2011
Medicine and the law

Vaccination, consent and multidose vials
Mark R Diamond, PhD, Research Psychologist
Angela O’Brien-Malone, PhD, Research Psychologist
School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS
Correspondence: diamondm@utas.edu.au
Abstract
• Multidose vials (MDVs) for injectable therapeutic agents, including vaccines, pose a risk of
infection to injected patients as a result of contamination of the vials.
• The Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) distributed the vaccine against pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza in MDVs. The distribution was accompanied
by consent forms.
• The consent forms provided an inadequate basis for a discussion with patients about the
risks associated with the use of MDVs.
• The High Court of Australia has previously held that medical practitioners who fail to explain the material risks of medical procedures to their patients might be held liable in negligence for any adverse sequelae of the procedures, even if the risks are very low.
• Medical practitioners, nurses, medical indemnity insurers and the DoHA should prepare
now for the probable future use of MDVs by developing a consent form that would provide a
solid foundation for a discussion of material risks with patients seeking vaccination.
Full Report
https://www.mja.com.au/system/files/issues/194_08_180411/dia10882_fm.pdf

“The consent forms provided an inadequate basis for a discussion with patients
about the risks associated with the use of Multi-dose Vials.”

Evidence Based Complementary Alternative Medicine • April 2011

Revisiting the Sham:
Is It all Smoke and Mirrors?
Author information
Horn B1, Balk J, Gold JI.
Eastern Center for Complementary Medicine, PC
Los Angeles, California, USA
Abstract
The misuse of sham controls in examining the efficacy or effectiveness of
Complementary and Alternative Medicine has created numerous problems.
The theoretical justification for incorporating a sham is questionable. The
sham does not improve our control of bias and leads to relativistic data that,
in most instances, has no appropriate interpretation with regards to treatment
efficacy. Even the concept of a sham or placebo control in an efficacy trial is
inherently paradoxical. Therefore, it is prudent to re-examine how we view
sham controls in the context of medical research. Extreme caution should be
used in giving weight to any sham-controlled study claiming to establish efficacy or safety.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3137704/

Clinical And Experimental Pharmacology And Physiology • April 2011

Formaldehyde induces neurotoxicity
to PC12 cells involving inhibition of paraoxonase-1
expression and activity
Tang XQ1, Ren YK, Chen RQ,
Zhuang YY, Fang HR, Xu JH, Wang CY, Hu B.
Author information
Department of Physiology, Medical College
University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
Abstract
1. Formaldehyde (FA) has been found to cause toxicity to neurons. However, its neurotoxic mechanisms have not yet been clarified. Increasing evidence has shown that
oxidative damage is one of the most critical effects of formaldehyde exposure. Paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) is a pivotal endogenous anti-oxidant. Thus, we hypothesized that
FA-mediated downregulation of PON1 is associated with its neurotoxicity.
2. In the present work, we used PC12 cells to study the neurotoxicity of FA and explore
whether PON-1 is implicated in FA-induced neurotoxicity.
3. We found that FA has potent cytotoxic and apoptotic effects on PC12 cells. FA induces an accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species along with downregulation of Bcl-2 expression, as well as increased cytochrome c release. FA significantly
suppressed the expression and activity of PON-1 in PC12 cells. Furthermore, H(2)S,
an endogenous anti-oxidant gas, antagonizes FA-induced cytotoxicity as well as 2-hydroxyquinoline, a specific inhibitor of PON-1, which also induces cytotoxicity to PC12
cells.
4. The results of the present study provide, for the first time, evidence that the inhibitory effect on PON-1 expression and activity is involved in the neurotoxicity of FA,
and suggest a promising role of PON-1 as a novel therapeutic strategy for FA-mediated
toxicity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21261675

“The results of the present study provide,
for the first time, evidence that the inhibitory
effect on Paraoxonase-1 expression and
activity is involved in the neurotoxicity
of Formaldehyde ...”

British Journal of Dermatology • May 2011

Biologic-induced urticaria due to polysorbate 80:
usefulness of prick test
L. Pérez-Pérez, J. García-Gavín, B. Piñeiro andA. Zulaica
Department of Dermatology
University Complex Hospital of Vigo
C/ Porriño 5, 36209 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain
Report Available For Purchase Only:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2011.10220.x/abstract

Virology Journal • June 2011

Genetic drift evolution under vaccination pressure
among H5N1 Egyptian isolates
Author information
Abdel-Moneim AS1, Afifi MA, El-Kady MF.
Department of Virology
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
asa@bsu.edu.eg
Abstract
Background
The highly pathogenic H5N1 is a major avian pathogen that intensively affects the poultry industry in Egypt even
in spite of the adoption of vaccination strategy. Antigenic drift is among the strategies the influenza virus uses to
escape the immune system that might develop due to the pressure of extensive vaccination. H5N1 mutates in an
intensified manner and is considered a potential candidate for the possible next pandemic with all the catastrophic
consequences such an eventuality will entail.
Methods
H5N1 was isolated from the pooled organ samples of four different affected flocks in specific pathogen free embryonated chicken eggs (SPF-ECE). A reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed
to the haemagglutingin and neuraminidase. Sequencing of the full length haemagglutingin was performed. Sequence analyses of the isolated strains were performed and compared to all available H5N1 from Egyptian human
and avian strains in the flu database. Changes in the different amino acid that may be related to virus virulence,
receptor affinity and epitope configuration were assigned and matched with all available Egyptian strains in the
flu database.
Results
One out of the four strains was found to be related to the B2 Egyptian lineage, 2 were related to A1 lineage and the
4th was related to A2 lineage. Comparing data obtained from the current study by other available Egyptian H5N1
sequences remarkably demonstrates that amino acid changes in the immune escape variants are remarkably restricted to a limited number of locations on the HA molecule during antigenic drift. Molecular diversity in the HA
gene, in relevance to different epitopes, were not found to follow a regular trend, suggesting abrupt cumulative
sequence mutations. However a number of amino acids were found to be subjected to high mutation pressure.
Conclusion
The current data provides a comprehensive view of HA gene evolution among H5N1 subtype viruses in Egypt.
Egyptian H5N1-AIVs are constantly undergoing genetic changes and reveal a complex pattern of drifts. These
findings raise the concerns about the value of using influenza vaccines in correlation with the development of
antigenic drift in influenza epidemics.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3146449/

“The current data provides a comprehensive view of HA
gene evolution among H5N1 subtype viruses in Egypt.
Egyptian H5N1-AIVs are constantly undergoing genetic
changes and reveal a complex pattern of drifts. These
findings raise the concerns about the value of using
influenza vaccines in correlation with the development
of antigenic drift in influenza epidemics.”

Surgery Neurology International • July 2011

Immunoexcitotoxicity
as a central mechanism in chronic traumatic encephalopathy
—A unifying hypothesis
Russell L. Blaylock* and Joseph Maroon1
Theoretical Neurosciences, LLC Visiting Professor of Biology
Belhaven University, Jackson, MS 315 Rolling Meadows Rd
Ridgeland, MS 39157, USA
2. Department of Neurosurgery, Heindl Scholar in Neuroscience
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
Team Neurosurgeon, The Pittsburgh Steelers, USA
Abstract
Some individuals suffering from mild traumatic brain injuries, especially repetitive mild concussions, are thought to develop a slowly progressive encephalopathy characterized by a number of the neuropathological elements shared with various neurodegenerative diseases. A central pathological mechanism explaining the development of progressive neurodegeneration in
this subset of individuals has not been elucidated. Yet, a large number of studies indicate that a
process called immunoexcitotoxicity may be playing a central role in many neurodegenerative
diseases including chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). The term immunoexcitotoxicity
was first coined by the lead author to explain the evolving pathological and neurodevelopmental changes in autism and the Gulf War Syndrome, but it can be applied to a number of neurodegenerative disorders. The interaction between immune receptors within the central nervous
system (CNS) and excitatory glutamate receptors trigger a series of events, such as extensive
reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species generation, accumulation of lipid peroxidation products, and prostaglandin activation, which then leads to dendritic retraction, synaptic
injury, damage to microtubules, and mitochondrial suppression. In this paper, we discuss the
mechanism of immunoexcitotoxicity and its link to each of the pathophysiological and neurochemical events previously described with CTE, with special emphasis on the observed accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau.
[Although this report discusses traumatic brain injury the data discussed fits in perfectly
with and coincides with vaccine-induced brain injury and is included for that reason]
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3157093/

Vaccine • August 2011

Pandemic influenza H1N1 2009 infection
in Victoria, Australia: no evidence for harm or benefit
following receipt of seasonal influenza vaccine in 2009
Author information
Kelly HA1, Grant KA, Fielding JE, Carville KS, Looker CO, Tran T, Jacoby P.
Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
heath.kelly@mh.org.au
Abstract
Conflicting findings regarding the level of protection offered by seasonal influenza vaccination against pandemic influenza H1N1 have been reported. We performed a testnegative case control study using sentinel patients from general practices in Victoria to
estimate seasonal influenza vaccine effectiveness against laboratory proven infection
with pandemic influenza. Cases were defined as patients with an influenza-like illness
who tested positive for influenza while controls had an influenza-like illness but tested
negative. We found no evidence of significant protection from seasonal vaccine against
pandemic influenza virus infection in any age group. Age-stratified point estimates, adjusted for pandemic phase, ranged from 44% in persons aged less than 5 years to -103%
(odds ratio=2.03) in persons aged 50-64 years. Vaccine effectiveness, adjusted for age
group and pandemic phase, was 3% (95% CI -48 to 37) for all patients. Our study
confirms the results from our previous interim report, and other studies, that failed to
demonstrate benefit or harm from receipt of seasonal influenza vaccine in patients with
confirmed infection with pandemic influenza H1N1 2009.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21473950

“Our study confirms the results
from our previous interim report,
and other studies, that failed to
demonstrate benefit or harm from
receipt of seasonal influenza vaccine ...”

Pharmazie • September 2011

Stability of the non-ionic surfactant polysorbate 80
investigated by HPLC-MS and charged aerosol detector
Author information
Christiansen A1, Backensfeld T, Kühn S, Weitschies W.
Analytical Development
Bayer Schering Pharma AG
Berlin, Germany
Abstract
An analytical method using HPLC coupled with a charged aerosol detector (CAD) and a
mass selective detector (MSD) was developed to characterize the non-ionic surfactant polysorbate 80 (PS 80). The molecular structure and heterogeneous composition due to isomers
and various lengths of PEG-chains make it difficult to develop sensitive and specific analytical methods. Hence, there is only limited knowledge about the stability and purity of this
compound. Polysorbate 80 does not possess any chromophore, thus UV detection is not applicable. Therefore, CAD and MSD have been used for determination. The aim of this study
was to characterize polysorbate 80 and to examine its stability at pH 1.0 and 37 degrees C
simulating harsh gastric conditions. It was shown that this surfactant is liable to degradation
under these conditions. Within 8 h monoesters of PS 80 were hydrolyzed to an extent of
9.5% (+/- 3.0%), whereas incubation in water did not result in any detectable degradation.
Furthermore, we demonstrated that HPLC-MS is a suitable technique to investigate ethoxylated compounds like polysorbates.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22026121

“The aim of this study was to characterize polysorbate
80 and to examine its stability at pH 1.0 and 37
degrees C simulating harsh gastric conditions.
It was shown that this surfactant is liable to
degradation under these conditions.”

Human And Experimental Toxicology • September 2011

Infant mortality rates regressed
against number of vaccine doses routinely given:
Is there a biochemical or synergistic toxicity?
Neil Z Miller and Gary S Goldman
Neil Z Miller
PO Box 9638, Santa Fe, NM 87504, USA
neilzmiller@gmail.com
Abstract
The infant mortality rate (IMR) is one of the most important indicators of the socio-economic
well-being and public health conditions of a country. The US childhood immunization schedule
specifies 26 vaccine doses for infants aged less than 1 year—the most in the world—yet 33 nations
have lower IMRs. Using linear regression, the immunization schedules of these 34 nations were
examined and a correlation coefficient of r = 0.70 (p < 0.0001) was found between IMRs and the
number of vaccine doses routinely given to infants. Nations were also grouped into five different
vaccine dose ranges: 12–14, 15–17, 18–20, 21–23, and 24–26. The mean IMRs of all nations within each group were then calculated. Linear regression analysis of unweighted mean IMRs showed
a high statistically significant correlation between increasing number of vaccine doses and increasing infant mortality rates, with r = 0.992 (p = 0.0009). Using the Tukey-Kramer test, statistically
significant differences in mean IMRs were found between nations giving 12–14 vaccine doses and
those giving 21–23, and 24–26 doses. A closer inspection of correlations between vaccine doses,
biochemical or synergistic toxicity, and IMRs is essential.
Conclusion
The US childhood immunization schedule requires 26 vaccine doses for infants aged less than
1 year, the most in the world, yet 33 nations have better IMRs. Using linear regression, the immunization schedules of these 34 nations were examined and a correlation coefficient of 0.70 (p
< 0.0001) was found between IMRs and the number of vaccine doses routinely given to infants.
When nations were grouped into five different vaccine dose ranges (12–14, 15–17, 18–20, 21–23,
and 24–26), 98.3% of the total variance in IMR was explained by the unweighted linear regression
model. These findings demonstrate a counter-intuitive relationship: nations that require more vaccine doses tend to have higher infant mortality rates.
Efforts to reduce the relatively high US IMR have been elusive. Finding ways to lower preterm
birth rates should be a high priority. However, preventing premature births is just a partial solution
to reduce infant deaths. A closer inspection of correlations between vaccine doses, biochemical
or synergistic toxicity, and IMRs, is essential. All nations—rich and poor, advanced and developing—have an obligation to determine whether their immunization schedules are achieving their
desired goals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3170075/

“These findings demonstrate
a counter-intuitive relationship:
nations that require more vaccine doses
tend to have higher infant mortality rates.”

BMC Immunology • October 2011

Immune enhancement
by novel vaccine adjuvants in autoimmune-prone NZB/W F1 mice:
relative efficacy and safety
Author information
Aachoui Y1, Ghosh SK.
Department of Biology
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Vaccines have profoundly impacted global health although concerns persist about their potential role in
autoimmune or other adverse reactions. To address these concerns, vaccine components like immunogens and adjuvants require critical evaluation not only in healthy subjects but also in those genetically
averse to vaccine constituents. Evaluation in autoimmune-prone animal models of adjuvants is therefore important in vaccine development. The objective here was to assess the effectiveness of experimental adjuvants: two phytol-derived immunostimulants PHIS-01 (phytanol) and PHIS-03 (phytanyl
mannose), and a new commercial adjuvant from porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS-H), relative
to a standard adjuvant alum. Phytol derivatives are hydrophobic, oil-in water diterpenoids, while alum
is hydrophilic, and SIS is essentially a biodegradable and collagenous protein cocktail derived from
extracellular matrices.
RESULTS
We studied phthalate -specific and cross-reactive anti-DNA antibody responses, and parameters associated with the onset of autoimmune disorders. We determined antibody isotype and cytokine/chemokine
milieu induced by the above experimental adjuvants relative to alum. Our results indicated that the
phytol-derived adjuvant PHIS-01 exceeded alum in enhancing anti-phthalate antibody without much
cross reactivity with ds-DNA. Relatively, SIS and PHIS-03 proved less robust, but they were also less
inflammatory. Interestingly, these adjuvants facilitated isotype switching of anti-hapten, but not of antiDNA response. The current study reaffirms our earlier reports on adjuvanticity of phytol compounds
and SIS-H in non autoimmune-prone BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. These adjuvants are as effective as
alum also in autoimmune-prone NZB/WF1 mice, and they have little deleterious effects.
CONCLUSION
Although all adjuvants tested impacted cytokine/chemokine milieu in favor of Th1/Th2 balance, the
phytol compounds fared better in reducing the onset of autoimmune syndromes. However, SIS is least
inflammatory among the adjuvants evaluated.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22024358

“Evaluation in autoimmune-prone
animal models of adjuvants is therefore
important in vaccine development.”

Archives In Neurology • October 2011

Postvaccination
Miller Fisher Syndrome
Ashkan Shoamanesh, MD;
Kristine Chapman, MD;
Anthony Traboulsee, MD
Abstract
Background
Although postvaccination Guillain-Barré syndrome is commonly reported, there have
only been 2 previously reported cases of postvaccination Miller Fisher syndrome, and
none in association with the novel influenza A(H1N1) vaccine.
Objective
To describe a case of Miller Fisher syndrome
following receipt of the seasonal influenza and novel influenza A(H1N1) vaccine.
Design
Case report and literature review.
Setting
Vancouver General Hospital.
Patient
A 77-year-old Chinese woman.
Results
The patient presented with ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, areflexia, and a sensory neuropathy
within 2 weeks of immunization. Findings of parainfectious evaluation were unremarkable. Treatment with 2 courses of intravenous immunoglobulin led to clinical improvement. Her presentation and natural history of disease were similar to the 2 previously
published cases.
Conclusions
We present the third case of postvaccination Miller Fisher syndrome in the literature and
the first associated with the novel influenza A(H1N1) vaccine. The benefits of the development of vaccines and the ensuing modern immunization programs are overwhelmingly without question. Nevertheless, there is a growing public concern surrounding the
potential for postvaccination adverse events, a sentiment that has dwelled since their
nascence.1 In view of the recent novel influenza A(H1N1) pandemic and scramble toward developing new vaccines for mass worldwide immunization campaigns, a better
understanding of these potential adverse events is vital. We present a case of Miller
Fisher syndrome (MFS) following seasonal influenza and novel influenza A(H1N1) vaccination, as well as a review of the literature on postvaccination MFS.
http://archneur.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1107885&resultClick=3

“We present the third case
of postvaccination Miller Fisher syndrome
in the literature and the first associated
with the novel influenza A(H1N1) vaccine.”

Clinical Reviews In Allergy And Immunology • October 2011

Macrophagic myofaciitis
a vaccine (alum) autoimmune-related disease
Author information
Israeli E1, Agmon-Levin N, Blank M, Shoenfeld Y.
Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center
Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is an immune-mediated condition first reported in 1998. MMF is characterized by post-vaccination systemic manifestations as well as local-stereotyped and immunologically active lesion in
the site of inoculation (deltoid muscle). MMF systemic symptoms included
myalgias, arthralgias, marked asthenia, muscle weakness, chronic fatigue,
and fever. Recently, studies demonstrated that the local lesion is due to persistence for years at site of injection of an aluminum (Al(OH)3) adjuvant
commonly used in human vaccines. Time elapsed from last immunization
with an Al(OH)3-containing vaccine to muscle biopsy range from 3 months
to 8 years; in rare cases, MMF may be diagnosed even 10 years post-vaccination. The discrepancy between the wide applications of aluminum hydroxidecontaining vaccines and the very limited number of MMF cases reported may
be resolved by observations suggesting that aluminum-containing vaccinations may trigger MMF in genetically susceptible subjects carrying the HLADRB1*01. Thus, MMF may be defined as an emerging novel condition that
may be triggered by exposure to alum-containing vaccines, in patients with a
specific genetic background, and this temporal association may be exhibited
from a few months up to 10 years.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20882368

“MMF may be defined as
an emerging novel condition
that may be triggered by exposure to
alum-containing vaccines ... and this
temporal association may be exhibited
from a few months up to 10 years.”

Infectious Disease Clinics Of North America • December 2011

The common immunogenic etiology
of chronic fatigue syndrome:
from infections to vaccines via adjuvants
to the ASIA syndrome
Author information
Rosenblum H1, Shoenfeld Y, Amital H.
Department of Medicine B
Sheba Medical Center
Sackler Faculty of Medicine
Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv
Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
Abstract
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is characterized by unexplained fatigue
that lasts for at least 6 months with a constellation of other symptoms. Most
cases start suddenly, and are usually accompanied by a flu-like illness. It
is a symptom-based diagnosis of exclusion, the pathogenesis of which is
unknown. Studies have examined and hypothesized about the possible biomedical and epidemiologic characteristics of the disease, including genetic
predisposition, infections, endocrine abnormalities, and immune dysfunction and psychological and psychosocial factors. Recently, the AISA (autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants) syndrome was
recognized, indicating the possible contribution of adjuvants and vaccines
to the development of autoimmunity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22054760

“Recently, the AISA
(autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants)
syndrome was recognized, indicating the possible contribution
of adjuvants and vaccines to the development of autoimmunity.”

Medical Hypotheses • December 2011

Hypothesis:
conjugate vaccines
may predispose children
to autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Richmand BJ1.
brichmand@gmail.com
Abstract
The first conjugate vaccine was approved for use in the US in 1988 to protect infants and young children against the capsular bacteria Haemophilus influenzae type b
(Hib). Since its introduction in the US, this vaccine has been approved in most developed countries, including Denmark and Israel where the vaccine was added to their
national vaccine programs in 1993 and 1994, respectively. There have been marked
increases in the reported prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) among
children in the US beginning with birth cohorts in the late 1980s and in Denmark
and Israel starting approximately 4-5 years later. Although these increases may partly
reflect ascertainment biases, an exogenous trigger could explain a significant portion
of the reported increases in ASDs. It is hypothesized here that the introduction of the
Hib conjugate vaccine in the US in 1988 and its subsequent introduction in Denmark
and Israel could explain a substantial portion of the initial increases in ASDs in those
countries. The continuation of the trend toward increased rates of ASDs could be
further explained by increased usage of the vaccine, a change in 1990 in the recommended age of vaccination in the US from 15 to 2 months, increased immunogenicity
of the vaccine through changes in its carrier protein, and the subsequent introduction
of the conjugate vaccine for Streptococcus pneumoniae. Although conjugate vaccines
have been highly effective in protecting infants and young children from the significant morbidity and mortality caused by Hib and S. pneumoniae, the potential effects
of conjugate vaccines on neural development merit close examination. Conjugate
vaccines fundamentally change the manner in which the immune systems of infants
and young children function by deviating their immune responses to the targeted carbohydrate antigens from a state of hypo-responsiveness to a robust B2 B cell mediated response. This period of hypo-responsiveness to carbohydrate antigens coincides
with the intense myelination process in infants and young children, and conjugate
vaccines may have disrupted evolutionary forces that favored early brain development over the need to protect infants and young children from capsular bacteria.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=21993250

“This period of hypo-responsiveness
to carbohydrate antigens coincides with
the intense myelination process in infants
and young children, and conjugate vaccines
may have disrupted evolutionary forces that
favored early brain development over the need
to protect infants and young children from capsular bacteria.”

Reumatismo • 2011

‘ASIA’ Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants: even and odd
Author information
Perricone C1, Alessandri C, Valesini G.
Reumatologia
Dipartimento di Medicina Interna e Specialità Mediche
Sapienza Università di Roma, Viale del Policlinico 155
Rome, Italy
carlo.perricone@gmail.com
Abstract
Recently, Shoenfeld and Agmon-Levin described a potential new syndrome,
namely ASIA - autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants,
that comprises four medical conditions: siliconosis, the Gulf war syndrome,
the macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome and post-vaccination phenomena,
characterized by hyperactive immune responses accompanied by a similar
complex of signs and symptoms. Most relevantly, these conditions share a
linkage represented by adjuvants. This common soil may possibly induce
autoimmune or auto-inflammatory diseases in humans as it was demonstrated in different animal models. Reconsidering under a unified umbrella this
apparently detached condition is not only intriguing, but also provocative,
and may help in unraveling novel pathogenetic mechanisms, preventive
measures, and therapeutic targets.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21776441

“This common soil
may possibly induce autoimmune or
auto-inflammatory diseases in humans as it was
demonstrated in different animal models.”

Public Health Report • 2011

Highlights of Historical Events
Leading to National Surveillance of Vaccination Coverage
in the United States
Author Information
Philip J. Smith, PhD,a David Wood, MD, MPH,b and Paul M. Darden, MDc
aCenters for Disease Control and Prevention
National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Atlanta, GA
bUniversity of Florida, College of Medicine
Community Pediatrics, Jacksonville, FL
cUniversity of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
General & Community Pediatrics, Oklahoma City, OK
Abstract
The articles published in this special supplement of Public Health Reports provide examples of
only some of the current efforts in the United States for evaluating vaccination coverage. So,
how did we get here? The history of vaccination and assessment of vaccination coverage in the
U.S. has its roots in the pre-Revolutionary War era. In many cases, development of vaccines,
and attention devoted to the assessment of vaccination coverage, has grown from the impact
of infectious disease on major world events such as wars. The purpose of this commentary is
to provide a brief overview of the key historical events in the U.S. that influenced the development of vaccines and the efforts to track vaccination coverage, which laid the foundation for
contemporary vaccination assessment efforts.
Full Report • Recommended Reading
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3113425/

“The history of vaccination
and assessment of vaccination coverage
in the U.S. has its roots in the
pre-Revolutionary War era.”

JAMA • January 2012

Serum Vaccine Antibody Concentrations
in Children Exposed to Perfluorinated Compounds
Philippe Grandjean, MD, DMSc; Elisabeth Wreford Andersen, PhD;
Esben Budtz-Jørgensen, PhD; Flemming Nielsen, PhD; Kåre Mølbak, MD, DMSc;
Pal Weihe, MD; Carsten Heilmann, MD, DMSc
Abstract
Context
Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) have emerged as important food contaminants. They cause immune suppression in a rodent model at serum concentrations similar to those occurring in the US
population, but adverse health effects of PFC exposure are poorly understood.
Objective
To determine whether PFC exposure is associated with antibody response to childhood vaccinations.
Design, Setting, and Participants
Prospective study of a birth cohort from the National Hospital in the Faroe Islands. A total of 656
consecutive singleton births were recruited during 1997-2000, and 587 participated in follow-up
through 2008.
Main Outcome Measures
Serum antibody concentrations against tetanus and diphtheria toxoids at ages 5 and 7 years.
Results
Similar to results of prior studies in the United States, the PFCs with the highest serum concentrations were perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Among PFCs
in maternal pregnancy serum, PFOS showed the strongest negative correlations with antibody concentrations at age 5 years, for which a 2-fold greater concentration of exposure was associated with
a difference of ∼39% (95% CI, ∼55% to ∼17%) in the diphtheria antibody concentration. PFCs
in the child’s serum at age 5 years showed uniformly negative associations with antibody levels,
especially at age 7 years, except that the tetanus antibody level following PFOS exposure was not
statistically significant. In a structural equation model, a 2-fold greater concentration of major PFCs
in child serum was associated with a difference of ∼49% (95% CI, ∼67% to ∼23%) in the overall
antibody concentration. A 2-fold increase in PFOS and PFOA concentrations at age 5 years was
associated with odds ratios between 2.38 (95% CI, 0.89 to 6.35) and 4.20 (95% CI, 1.54 to 11.44)
for falling below a clinically protective level of 0.1 IU/mL for tetanus and diphtheria antibodies at
age 7 years.
Conclusion
Elevated exposures to PFCs were associated with reduced humoral immune response to routine
childhood immunizations in children aged 5 and 7 years.
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1104903&resultClick=3

“Elevated exposures to PFCs were associated with
reduced humoral immune response to routine
childhood immunizations in children aged 5 and 7 years.”

Journal Of Pharmacology And Pharmacotherapeutics • January 2012

Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough),
and tetanus vaccine induced recurrent seizures
and acute encephalopathy in a pediatric patient:
Possibly due to pertussis fraction
Author information
Patel MK1, Patel TK, Tripathi CB.
Department of Pharmacology
Government Medical College
Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India
Abstract
A 5-month-old male patient developed recurrent seizures and acute encephalopathy possibly due to first dose of diphtheria, pertussis (whooping
cough), and tetanus (DPT) vaccine used for routine immunization. Postreaction computed tomography (CT) scan of brain, magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) of brain, and electroencephalogram were normal. Pertussis fraction
of DPT vaccine is responsible for this reaction. It is suggested that acellular pertussis vaccine should be used instead of whole cell vaccine because
it is associated with lower frequency of neurological complications, such
as seizures, encephalopathy, and hypotensive episodes. However, acellular
pertussis-containing vaccines are currently not affordable in most developing countries.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3284047/

“It is suggested that
acellular pertussis vaccine
should be used instead of whole cell
vaccine because it is associated with
lower frequency of neurological
complications, such as seizures,
encephalopathy, and hypotensive
episodes.”

Lupus • February 2012

Influenza vaccination
can induce new-onset anticardiolipins
but not B2-glycoprotein-I antibodies
among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus
Author information
Vista ES1, Crowe SR, Thompson LF,
Air GM, Robertson JM, Guthridge JM, James JA.
1. Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104,
USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Antiphospholipid syndrome is characterized by autoantibodies against cardiolipins (aCL), lupus anticoagulant, and independent B2-glycoprotein (B2GPI).
Controversy exists as to whether vaccination triggers the development of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE).
METHODS
Patients with SLE (101) and matched controls (101) were enrolled from 20052009 and received seasonal influenza vaccinations. Sera were tested by ELISA
for aCL at baseline, 2, 6, and 12 weeks after vaccination. Vaccine responses
were ranked according to an overall anti-influenza antibody response index.
Individuals with positive aCL were further tested for B2GPI antibodies.
RESULTS
Patients with SLE and healthy controls can develop new-onset aCL post vaccination, although at rates which do not differ between patients and controls
(12/101 cases and 7/101 controls, OR 1.81, p = 0.34). New-onset moderate
aCL are slightly enriched in African American SLE patients (5/36 cases; p =
0.094). The optical density measurements for aCL reactivity in patients were
significantly higher than baseline at 2 weeks (p < 0.05), 6 weeks (p < 0.05),
and 12 weeks (p < 0.05) post vaccination. No new B2GPI antibodies were
detected among patients with new aCL reactivity. Vaccine response was not
different between patients with and without new-onset aCL reactivity (p =
0.43).
CONCLUSIONS
This study shows transient increases in aCL, but not anti-B2GPI responses,
after influenza vaccination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22235049

“Controversy exists
as to whether vaccination
triggers the development of
antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL)
in patients with systemic lupus
erythematosus (SLE). This study
shows transient increases in aCL,
but not anti-B2GPI responses,
after influenza vaccination.”

Lupus • February 2012

Autoimmune response
following influenza vaccination
in patients with autoimmune
inflammatory rheumatic disease
Author information
Perdan-Pirkmajer K1, Thallinger GG, Snoj N,
1. University Medical Centre Ljubljana
Department of Rheumatology
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract
Vaccines have undoubtedly brought overwhelming benefits to mankind and are
considered safe and effective. Nevertheless, they can occasionally stimulate autoantibody production or even a recently defined syndrome known as autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA). There is scarce data regarding
autoimmune response after seasonal/influenza A (H1N1) vaccine in patients with
autoimmune inflammatory rheumatic disease (AIRD). The objective of our study
was therefore to determine autoimmune response in a large group of AIRD patients
vaccinated against seasonal and/or H1N1 influenza. We conducted a prospective
cohort study with a 6-month follow-up. Two-hundred and eighteen patients with
AIRD (50 vaccinated against seasonal influenza, six against H1N1, 104 against
both, 58 non-vaccinated controls) and 41 apparently healthy controls (nine vaccinated against seasonal influenza, three against H1N1, 18 against both, 11 nonvaccinated controls) were included. Blood samples were taken and screened for
autoantibodies [antinuclear antibody (ANA), anti-extractable nuclear antigen (antiENA), anticardiolipin (aCL) IgG/IgM antibodies, anti-beta 2-glycoprotein I (anti∼2GPI)] at inclusion in the study, before each vaccination, 1 month after the last
vaccination and 6 months after inclusion. For non-vaccinated participants (patients
and healthy controls) blood samples were taken at the time of inclusion in the study
and 6 months later. We report that after the administration of seasonal/H1N1 vaccine there were mostly transient changes in autoantibody production in AIRD patients and in healthy participants. However, a small subset of patients, especially
ANA-positive patients, had a tendency towards anti-ENA development. Although
no convincing differences between the seasonal and H1N1 vaccines were observed,
our results imply that there might be a slight tendency of the H1N1 vaccine towards aCL induction. Although seasonal and H1N1 vaccines are safe and effective,
they also have the potential to induce autoantibodies in selected AIRD patients and
healthy adults. Follow-up of such individuals is proposed and further research is
needed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22235050

“they [vaccines] can
occasionally stimulate
autoantibody production
or even a recently defined
syndrome known as
autoimmune/inflammatory
syndrome induced by
adjuvants (ASIA).”

Lupus • February 2012

Aluminum as an adjuvant
in Crohn’s disease induction
Author information
Lerner A.
Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit
Carmel Medical Center, Haifa, Israel
lerner_aaron@clalit.org.il
Abstract
Alum (AlK(SO(4))(2)) is an adjuvant commonly utilized in vaccines, and is a ubiquitous element used extensively in contemporary life. Food, air, water, waste, the earth’s surface, and pharmaceuticals all represent pathways of aluminum (Al) exposure.
Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic relapsing intestinal inflammation in genetically susceptible individuals and is caused by yet
unidentified environmental factors. Al is a potential factor for the
induction of inflammation in CD, and its immune activities share
many characteristics with the immune pathology of CD: many
luminal bacterial or dietary compounds can be adsorbed to the
metal surface and induce Th1 profile cytokines, shared cytokines/
chemokines, co-stimulatory molecules, and intracellular pathways and stress-related molecular expression enhancement, affecting intestinal macrobiota, trans-mural granuloma formation,
and colitis induction in an animal CD model. The inflammasome
plays a central role in Al mode of action and in CD pathophysiology. It is suggested that Al adjuvant activity can fit between the
aberrations of innate and adaptive immune responses occurring
in CD. The CD mucosa is confronted with numerous inappropriate bacterial components adsorbed on the Al compound surface,
constituting a pro-inflammatory supra-adjuvant. Al fits the diagnostic criteria of the newly described autoimmune/inflammatory
syndrome induced by adjuvants. If a cause and effect relationship
can be established, the consequences will greatly impact public
health and CD prevention and management.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235058

“The inflammasome plays a central role
in Aluminum mode of action and in Crohn’s Disease (CD)
pathophysiology. It is suggested that Aluminum adjuvant
activity can fit between the aberrations of innate and adaptive
immune responses occurring in Crohn’s Disease. The CD mucosa
is confronted with numerous inappropriate bacterial components
adsorbed on the Aluminum compound surface, constituting a
pro-inflammatory supra-adjuvant. Aluminum
fits the diagnostic criteria ...”

Lupus • February 2012

Adjuvant immunization
induces high levels of pathogenic antiphospholipid antibodies
in genetically prone mice: another facet of the ASIA syndrome
Author information
Katzav A1, Kivity S, Blank M, Shoenfeld Y, Chapman J.
Department of Neurology and Sagol Center for Neurosciences
Sheba Medical Center, affiliated to the Sackler Faculty of Medicine
Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
avivakatzav@gmail.com
Abstract
Adjuvants may induce autoimmune diseases in susceptible individuals, a phenomenon recently
defined as autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA). Patients with both
antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) and the genetic coagulopathy factor V Leiden (FVL) are frequently found. We therefore evaluated whether adjuvant can induce aPL in heterozygous FVL
mice. aPL were measured in naïve mice and at 1 and 5 months after immunization with either
complete or incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA, IFA) in FVL and control C57/B6 background
mice. We defined antibody levels 3 SD above the mean of C57/B6 mice immunized with adjuvant
as positive (specificity of 99%). For B(2)GPI-dependent aPL, 28.6% (6/21) of FVL mice 5 months
after immunization with adjuvant (both IFA and CFA) were positive compared with 4.8% (1/22)
of FVL mice 1 month after adjuvant and 0% of naïve FVL and C57/B6 mice (0/16, p < 0.001). aPL
levels correlated with behavioral hyperactivity in the staircase test. FVL mice immunized with
adjuvant did not develop B(2)GPI-independent aPL. We hypothesize that the FVL aPL association
is not a coincidence, but that chronic coagulation defects combined with external inflammatory
stimuli analogous to adjuvant may induce aPL and also antiphospholipid syndrome, thus supporting the notion of ASIA.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235055

“Adjuvants may induce
autoimmune diseases in susceptible individuals,
a phenomenon recently defined as autoimmune/
inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA).”

Lupus • February 2012

Autoimmunity following hepatitis B vaccine
as part of the spectrum of ‘Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory) Syndrome
induced by Adjuvants’ (ASIA):
analysis of 93 cases
Author information
Zafrir Y1, Agmon-Levin N, Paz Z, Shilton T, Shoenfeld Y.
The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
In this study we analyzed the clinical and demographic manifestations among patients diagnosed with immune/
autoimmune-mediated diseases post-hepatitis B vaccination. We aimed to find common denominators for all patients, regardless of different diagnosed diseases, as well as the correlation to the criteria of Autoimmune (Autoinflammatory) Syndrome induced by Adjuvants (ASIA).

“Manifestations that were
commonly reported

PATIENTS AND METHODS
We have retrospectively analyzed the medical records of 114 patients, from different centers in the USA, diagnosed with immune-mediated diseases following immunization with hepatitis-B vaccine (HBVv). All patients in
this cohort sought legal consultation. Of these, 93/114 patients diagnosed with disease before applying for legal
consultation were included in the study. All medical records were evaluated for demographics, medical history,
number of vaccine doses, peri-immunization adverse events and clinical manifestations of diseases. In addition,
available blood tests, imaging results, treatments and outcomes were recorded. Signs and symptoms of the different immune-mediated diseases were grouped according to the organ or system involved. ASIA criteria were
applied to all patients.

included neuro-psychiatric (70%),

RESULTS
The mean age of 93 patients was 26.5 ± 15 years; 69.2% were female and 21% were considered autoimmune
susceptible. The mean latency period from the last dose of HBVv and onset of symptoms was 43.2 days. Of note,
47% of patients continued with the immunization program despite experiencing adverse events. Manifestations
that were commonly reported included neuro-psychiatric (70%), fatigue (42%) mucocutaneous (30%), musculoskeletal (59%) and gastrointestinal (50%) complaints. Elevated titers of autoantibodies were documented in
80% of sera tested. In this cohort 80/93 patients (86%), comprising 57/59 (96%) adults and 23/34 (68%) children,
fulfilled the required criteria for ASIA.

gastrointestinal (50%) complaints.”

CONCLUSIONS
Common clinical characteristics were observed among 93 patients diagnosed with immune-mediated conditions
post-HBVv, suggesting a common denominator in these diseases. In addition, risk factors such as history of autoimmune diseases and the appearance of adverse event(s) during immunization may serve to predict the risk of
post-immunization diseases. The ASIA criteria were found to be very useful among adults with post-vaccination
events. The application of the ASIA criteria to pediatric populations requires further study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235045

fatigue (42%)
mucocutaneous (30%),
musculoskeletal (59%) and

Lupus • February 2012

Macrophagic myofasciitis:
characterization and pathophysiology
Author information
Gherardi RK1, Authier FJ.
1. AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor, France
Abstract
Aluminium oxyhydroxide (alum), a nanocrystalline compound
forming agglomerates, has been used in vaccines for its immunological adjuvant effect since 1927. Alum is the most commonly used adjuvant in human and veterinary vaccines, but
the mechanisms by which it stimulates immune responses remain incompletely understood. Although generally well tolerated, alum may occasionally cause disabling health problems
in presumably susceptible individuals. A small proportion of
vaccinated people present with delayed onset of diffuse myalgia, chronic fatigue and cognitive dysfunction, and exhibit
very long-term persistence of alum-loaded macrophages at
the site of previous intramuscular (i.m.) immunization, forming a granulomatous lesion called macrophagic myofasciitis
(MMF). Clinical symptoms associated with MMF are paradigmatic of the recently delineated ‘autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants’ (ASIA). The stereotyped
cognitive dysfunction is reminiscent of cognitive deficits described in foundry workers exposed to inhaled Al particles.
Alum safety concerns will largely depend on whether the compound remains localized at the site of injection or diffuses and
accumulates in distant organs. Animal experiments indicate
that biopersistent nanomaterials taken up by monocyte-lineage
cells in tissues, such as fluorescent alum surrogates, can first
translocate to draining lymph nodes, and thereafter circulate in
blood within phagocytes and reach the spleen, and, eventually,
slowly accumulate in the brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22235051

“Animal experiments
indicate that biopersistent
nanomaterials taken up
by monocyte-lineage cells
in tissues, such as fluorescent
alum surrogates, can first
translocate to draining lymph
nodes, and thereafter circulate
in blood within phagocytes and
reach the spleen, and, eventually,
slowly accumulate in the brain.”

Lupus • February 2012

Gulf War syndrome
as a part of the
autoimmune (autoinflammatory) syndrome
induced by adjuvant (ASIA)
Author information
Israeli E.
1. The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
eitanister@gmail.com
Abstract
Gulf War syndrome (GWS) is a multi-symptom condition comprising
a variety of signs and symptoms described in the literature, which not
been fully resolved. The various symptoms of the condition include
muscle fatigue and tiredness, malaise, myalgia, impaired cognition,
ataxia, diarrhoea, bladder dysfunction, sweating disturbances, headaches, fever, arthralgia, skin rashes, and gastrointestinal and sleep
disturbances. In addition, excessive chemical sensitivity and odour
intolerance is reported. The aetiology of the condition is unclear, but
many reviews and epidemiological analyses suggest association with
pyridostigmine bromide (PB), certain vaccination regimes, a variety
of possible chemical exposures, including smoke from oil-well fires
or depleted uranium from shells, as well as physical and psychological
stress. Recently, Shoenfeld et al. suggested that four conditions--siliconosis, macrophagic myofaciitis (MMF), GWS and post-vaccination
phenomena--that share clinical and pathogenic resemblances, may be
incorporated into common syndrome called ‘Autoimmune (Autoinflammatory) Syndrome induced by Adjuvants’ (ASIA). Symptoms
and signs of the four conditions described by Shoenfeld et al. show
that at least eight out of ten main symptoms are in correlation in all
four conditions. Namely, myalgia, arthralgias, chronic fatigue, neurological cognitive impairment, gastrointestinal symptoms, respiratory
symptoms, skin manifestations and appearance of autoantibodies. Regardless of the aetiology of GWS, be it exposure to environmental
factors or chemical drugs, vaccinations or the adjuvants in them, GWS
fits well with the definition of ASIA and is included as part of ‘Shoenfeld’s syndrome’.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22235052

“Recently, Shoenfeld et al. suggested that
four conditions—siliconosis, macrophagic
myofaciitis (MMF), GWS and post-vaccination
phenomena—that share clinical and pathogenic
resemblances, may be incorporated into
common syndrome called ‘Autoimmune
(Autoinflammatory) Syndrome induced by
Adjuvants’ (ASIA). Symptoms and signs of
the four conditions described by Shoenfeld et al.
show that at least eight out of ten main symptoms
are in correlation in all four conditions. Namely,
myalgia, arthralgias, chronic fatigue, neurological
cognitive impairment, gastrointestinal
symptoms, respiratory symptoms, skin manifestations and appearance of autoantibodies.”

Lupus • February 2012

Vaccine model
of antiphospholipid syndrome
induced by tetanus vaccine
Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera-Torlak
Department of Research and Development, Belgrade, Serbia
ljiljana.dimitrijevic@gmail.com
Abstract
Successful induction of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) in two different non-autoimmune prone mouse strains, BALB/c and C57BL/6,
was achieved by tetanus toxoid (TTd) hyperimmunization using different adjuvants (glycerol or aluminium hydroxide), and different
adjuvant pretreatments (glycerol or Complete Freund’s Adjuvant
(CFA)). APS had different manifestations of reproductive pathology
in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice: fetal resorption (as a consequence of
extreme T-cell activation obtained in the course of pretreatment), and
lowering of fecundity (as a consequence of polyclonal B-cell stimulation), respectively. In BALB/c mice fetal resorption coincided with
glycerol and CFA pretreatments, while in C57BL/6 mice lowering
of fecundity was most obvious in CFA-pretreated mice immunized
with TTd in aluminium hydroxide. Both molecular mimicry and
polyclonal B-cell activation occur in APS induction, with molecular
mimicry effects being dominant in BALB/c mice, and polyclonal
cell activation being dominant in C57BL/6 mice. Confirmation of
molecular mimicry effects, which in the condition of T-cell stimulation generated fetal resorptions in the BALB/c strain, was achieved
by passive infusion of monoclonal antibody (MoAb) T-26 specific
for TTd and anti-∼(2)-glycoprotein I obtained after TTd hyperimunization. High polyclonal B-cell activation in C57BL/6 mice prevented fetal resorption but induced fecundity lowering, as was the
case in passive administration of MoAb T-26 in this mouse strain.
Passive infusion of anti-idiotypic MoAb Y7 into C57BL/6 mice induced fetal resorptions and confirmed the above suggestion on the
protective role of polyclonal B-cell stimulation in fetal resorptions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22235053

“Successful induction of
antiphospholipid syndrome (APS)
in two different non-autoimmune prone mouse strains ... was
achieved by tetanus toxoid (TTd)
hyperimmunization using different
adjuvants (glycerol or aluminium
hydroxide), and different adjuvant
pretreatments (glycerol or
Complete Freund’s Adjuvant (CFA).”

Lupus • February 2012

Oily adjuvants
and autoimmunity:
now time for reconsideration?
Author information
Whitehouse M.
School of Medicine, Griffith University
Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
whitehousemd@spin.net.au
Abstract
Immunologists have relied heavily on oil-based adjuvants
to generate antibodies or induce auto-allergic responses in
experimental animals. These are rarely used today for human vaccination because of their persistent irritancies and
propensity to cause ulcers at sites of injection. However oily
materials with adjuvant properties abound in our modern
environment, both personal and extraneous. Their inadvertent impact as cryptotoxins may contribute to the rising
incidence of auto-allergic diseases in recent times. Experimentally, the potential adjuvanticity of various oils, fats and
other lipids can be evaluated by their ability (or otherwise)
to induce auto-allergic disease(s) in rats and mice with, or
even without, the addition of a mycobacterial immunostimulant. Genetic factors have been recognized that determine
an animal’s susceptibility or resistance to these oil-induced
immunopathies. So it may be profitable to further characterize these factors, first in animals and then perhaps in human
populations, to help find ways to enhance natural resistance
to those adjuvant-active oils that may be widely distributed
in the personal environment, notably mineral oil(s). (The
six tables in this article summarize some relevant facts and
a few conjectures.) A caveat: This review is restricted to the
adjuvant properties of some oils in the personal environment. It does not cover the mechanisms of adjuvanticity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22235056

“Immunologists have relied heavily on oil-based adjuvants to generate
antibodies or induce auto-allergic responses in experimental animals.
These are rarely used today for human vaccination because of their persistent
irritancies and propensity to cause ulcers at sites of injection. However oily
materials with adjuvant properties abound in our modern environment, both
personal and extraneous. Their inadvertent impact as cryptotoxins may
contribute to the rising incidence of auto-allergic diseases in recent times.”

Lupus • February 2012

Induction of the ‘ASIA’ syndrome
in NZB/NZWF1 mice after injection of
complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)
Author information
Bassi N1, Luisetto R, Del Prete D,
Ghirardello A, Ceol M, Rizzo S, Iaccarino L,
Gatto M, Valente ML, Punzi L, Doria A.
Division of Rheumatology
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
University of Padova, Italy
Abstract
Adjuvants, commonly used in vaccines, may be responsible for inducing autoimmunity and autoimmune diseases, both in humans and mice.
The so-called ‘ASIA’ (Autoimmune/inflammatory Syndrome Induced
by Adjuvants) syndrome has been recently described, which is caused
by the exposure to a component reproducing the effect of adjuvants.
The aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) in NZB/NZWF1 mice, a lupus-prone
murine model. We injected 10 NZB/NZWF1 mice with CFA/PBS and
10 with PBS, three times, 3 weeks apart, and followed-up until natural
death. CFA-injected mice developed both anti-double-stranded DNA
and proteinuria earlier and at higher levels than the control group. Proteinuria-free survival rate and survival rate were significantly lower in
CFA-treated mice than in the control mice (p = 0.002 and p = 0.001,
respectively). Histological analyses showed a more severe glomerulonephritis in CFA-injected mice compared with the control mice. In
addition, lymphoid hyperplasia in spleen and lungs, myocarditis, and
vasculitis were observed in the former, but not in the latter group. In
conclusion, the injection of CFA in NZB/NZWF1 mice accelerated autoimmune manifestations resembling ‘ASIA’ syndrome in humans.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235054

“... lymphoid hyperplasia in spleen and lungs,
myocarditis, and vasculitis were observed in the former,
but not in the latter group. In conclusion, the injection of
Complete Freund’s Adjuvant (CFA) [a vaccine ingredient]
in NZB/NZWF1 mice accelerated autoimmune manifestations
resembling ‘ASIA’ syndrome in humans.”

[complete Freund’s adjuvant is used in some vaccines]

“The design and reporting of safety outcomes in MMR vaccine studies,
both pre- and post-marketing, are largely inadequate. The evidence of adverse events following immunisation
with the MMR vaccine cannot be separated from its role in preventing the target diseases.”

Cochrane Database Of Systematic Reviews • February 2012

Vaccines for measles, mumps and rubella in children
Author information
Demicheli V1, Rivetti A, Debalini MG, Di Pietrantonj C.
Servizio Regionale di Riferimento per l’Epidemiologia, SSEpi-SeREMI - Cochrane Vaccines Field, Azienda
Sanitaria Locale ASL AL,Alessandria, Italy
vdemicheli@aslal.it
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Mumps, measles and rubella (MMR) are serious diseases that can lead to potentially fatal illness, disability and
death. However, public debate over the safety of the trivalent MMR vaccine and the resultant drop in vaccination
coverage in several countries persists, despite its almost universal use and accepted effectiveness.
OBJECTIVES
To assess the effectiveness and adverse effects associated with the MMR vaccine in children up to 15 years of
age.
SEARCH METHODS
For this update we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane
Library 2011, Issue 2), which includes the Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Group’s Specialised Register,
PubMed (July 2004 to May week 2, 2011) and Embase.com (July 2004 to May 2011).
SELECTION CRITERIA
We used comparative prospective or retrospective trials assessing the effects of the MMR vaccine compared to
placebo, do nothing or a combination of measles, mumps and rubella antigens on healthy individuals up to 15
years of age.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed methodological quality of the included studies.
One review author arbitrated in case of disagreement.

MAIN RESULTS
We included five randomised controlled trials (RCTs), one controlled clinical trial (CCT), 27 cohort studies, 17
case-control studies, five time-series trials, one case cross-over trial, two ecological studies, six self controlled
case series studies involving in all about 14,700,000 children and assessing effectiveness and safety of MMR
vaccine. Based on the available evidence, one MMR vaccine dose is at least 95% effective in preventing clinical
measles and 92% effective in preventing secondary cases among household contacts.Effectiveness of at least one
dose of MMR in preventing clinical mumps in children is estimated to be between 69% and 81% for the vaccine
prepared with Jeryl Lynn mumps strain and between 70% and 75% for the vaccine containing the Urabe strain.
Vaccination with MMR containing the Urabe strain has demonstrated to be 73% effective in preventing secondary
mumps cases. Effectiveness of Jeryl Lynn containing MMR in preventing laboratory-confirmed mumps cases in
children and adolescents was estimated to be between 64% to 66% for one dose and 83% to 88% for two vaccine
doses. We did not identify any studies assessing the effectiveness of MMR in preventing rubella.The highest risk
of association with aseptic meningitis was observed within the third week after immunisation with Urabe-containing MMR (risk ratio (RR) 14.28; 95% confidence interval (CI) from 7.93 to 25.71) and within the third (RR 22.5;
95% CI 11.8 to 42.9) or fifth (RR 15.6; 95% CI 10.3 to 24.2) weeks after immunisation with the vaccine prepared
with the Leningrad-Zagreb strain. A significant risk of association with febrile seizures and MMR exposure during the two previous weeks (RR 1.10; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.15) was assessed in one large person-time cohort study
involving 537,171 children aged between three months and five year of age. Increased risk of febrile seizure has
also been observed in children aged between 12 to 23 months (relative incidence (RI) 4.09; 95% CI 3.1 to 5.33)
and children aged 12 to 35 months (RI 5.68; 95% CI 2.31 to 13.97) within six to 11 days after exposure to MMR
vaccine. An increased risk of thrombocytopenic purpura within six weeks after MMR immunisation in children
aged 12 to 23 months was assessed in one case-control study (RR 6.3; 95% CI 1.3 to 30.1) and in one small self
controlled case series (incidence rate ratio (IRR) 5.38; 95% CI 2.72 to 10.62). Increased risk of thrombocytopenic
purpura within six weeks after MMR exposure was also assessed in one other case-control study involving 2311
children and adolescents between one month and 18 years (odds ratio (OR) 2.4; 95% CI 1.2 to 4.7). Exposure to
the MMR vaccine was unlikely to be associated with autism, asthma, leukaemia, hay fever, type 1 diabetes, gait
disturbance, Crohn’s disease, demyelinating diseases, bacterial or viral infections.
AUTHORS’ CONCLUSIONS
The design and reporting of safety outcomes in MMR vaccine studies, both pre- and post-marketing, are largely
inadequate. The evidence of adverse events following immunisation with the MMR vaccine cannot be separated
from its role in preventing the target diseases.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22336803

“Herein, we report 10 cases of previously healthy subjects who developed GCA/PMR
within 3 months of influenza vaccination (Inf-V). A Medline search uncovered
an additional 11 isolated cases of GCA/PMR occurring after influenza vaccination Inf-V.”

[GCA stands for giant cell arteritis and PMR stands for polymyalgia rheumatica]
Lupus • February 2012

Giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica
after influenza vaccination:
report of 10 cases and review of the literature
Author information
Soriano A1, Verrecchia E, Marinaro A, Giovinale M, Fonnesu C, Landolfi R, Manna R.
Clinical Autoimmunity Unit
Catholic University of the Sacred Heart
Rome, Italy
Abstract
Giant cell arteritis (GCA) and polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) are inflammatory rheumatic diseases common in
people over the age of 50 years. Herein, we report 10 cases of previously healthy subjects who developed GCA/
PMR within 3 months of influenza vaccination (Inf-V). A Medline search uncovered additional 11 isolated cases
of GCA/PMR occurring after Inf-V. We discuss the role of individual susceptibility, the potential function of
immune adjuvants as triggers of autoimmunity post-vaccination, and the correlation of our observation with the
‘ASIA’ syndrome, i.e. autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants and including post-vaccination
phenomena.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235046

Lupus • February 2012

The spectrum of ASIA:
‘Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory) Syndrome induced by Adjuvants’
N Agmon-Levin, GRV Hughes, Y Shoenfeld1
1.The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
2. Head, Lupus Research Unit, The Rayne Institute, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London, UK
3. Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Incumbent of the Laura Schwarz-Kip, Chair for Research of Autoimmune Diseases, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
Yehuda Shoenfeld, MD, FRCP, Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il

Abstract
Physicians are often puzzled by enigmatic medical conditions or the abrupt appearance of an immune-mediated disease.
Such a story was recently presented to us by a young Sheikh. A Saudi Sheikh, who suffered at the age of 27 from joints
pains, rash and serological evidence of anti-Ro antibodies, was diagnosed with probable systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE) at that time. He was treated with Plaquenil for a year, but as no signs of SLE were apparent, treatment was stopped
and he remained disease free for the next 12 years. At the age of 39 years, 2 weeks after immunization with the flu vaccine, his disease reemerged. This time he presented with severe arthritis and pericarditis, which required treatment with
high doses of steroids.
This patient’s story illustrates the acceleration of an autoimmune or immune-mediated condition following exposure to
external stimuli. During the past year a new syndrome was introduced and termed ASIA, ‘Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory) Syndrome induced by Adjuvants’.1 This syndrome assembles a spectrum of immune-mediated diseases triggered
by an adjuvant stimulus.2 – 4 The use of medical adjuvants has become common practice and substances such as aluminum adjuvant are added to most human and animal vaccines, while the adjuvant silicone is extensively used for breast
implants and cosmetic procedures. Furthermore, ‘hidden adjuvants’ such as infectious material or house molds have also
been associated with different immune mediated conditions.1,5 The adjuvant effect has been recognized for years, and
is broadly utilized to enhance desired antigen-specific immune responses.6 This effect is accomplished via mechanisms
that impinge on both the innate and adaptive immune systems.6 – 9 Formerly, adjuvants were thought to pose little or
no independent threat. Alas, studies of animal models and humans demonstrated the ability of some of them to inflict
autoimmunity and immune-mediated diseases by themselves.2,10,11 Intriguingly, although exposure is common, adjuvant disease is relatively rare. It has been suggested that for a clinically overt adjuvant disease additional risk factors are
required such as genetic susceptibilities or the co-exposure to other environmental factors.1
http://lup.sagepub.com/content/21/2/118.full

This special issue of Lupus
is dedicated to ASIA and contains diverse articles
from different geographical areas which provide a
broad view of the clinical manifestations as well as
the mechanisms related to the adjuvant effect.

Autism Research • April 2012

Disordered porphyrin metabolism:
a potential biological marker for
autism risk assessment
Author information
Heyer NJ1, Echeverria D, Woods JS.
Battelle Centers for Public Health Research and Evaluation
Seattle, Washington, USA
Abstract
Autism (AUT) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder that, together with
Asperger’s syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), comprises the expanded classification of autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). The heterogeneity of ASD underlies the need
to identify biomarkers or clinical features that can be employed to identify
meaningful subtypes of ASD, define specific etiologies, and inform intervention and treatment options. Previous studies have shown that disordered porphyrin metabolism, manifested principally as significantly elevated urinary
concentrations of pentacarboxyl (penta) and coproporphyrins, is commonly
observed among some children with ASD. Here, we extend these observations by specifically evaluating penta and coproporphyrins as biological indicators of ASD among 76 male children comprising 30 with validated AUT,
14 with PDD-NOS, and 32 neurotypical (NT) controls. ASD children (AUT
and PDD-NOS) had higher mean urinary penta (P < 0.006) and copro (P <
0.006) concentrations compared with same-aged NT children, each characterized by a number of extreme values. Using Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis, we evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of penta,
copro, and their combined Z-scores in ASD detection. The penta sensitivity
was 30% for AUT and 36% for PDD-NOS, with 94% specificity. The copro
sensitivity was 33% and 14%, respectively, with 94% specificity. The combined Z-score measure had 33% and 21% sensitivity for AUT and PDDNOS, respectively, with 100% specificity. These findings demonstrate that
porphyrin measures are strong predictors of both AUT and PDD-NOS, and
support the potential clinical utility of urinary porphyrin measures for identifying a subgroup of ASD subjects in whom disordered porphyrin metabolism may be a salient characteristic.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3329579/

“These findings demonstrate
that porphyrin measures are strong
predictors of both AUT and PDD-NOS,
and support the potential clinical utility of
urinary porphyrin measures for identifying a
subgroup of ASD subjects in whom
disordered porphyrin metabolism
may be a salient characteristic.”

“Given all this, supporting the ‘one-size fits all’ vaccination program is neither reasonable nor ethical.”
Vaccine • March 2012

Vaccination:
Why the ‘one size fits all’
vaccination argument does not fit all!
By Lucija Tomljenovic, PhD
Imagine the next time you went to Walmart, Target or Sears
that due to scientific research and government regulation
your retailer only stocked one size of clothing – regardless
of whether you are male or female, child or adult, and with
no sensitivity to your cultural or ethnic background. Would
you be happy? Would you accept it? Would you wear the
clothes? The answer is clearly NO! What if the clothing
manufacturer used a highly toxic dye in the clothing fabric
and knew this dye could cause serious skin reactions in some
people but they failed to declare this? Would that be acceptable to you? Yet that is exactly what the current approach to
vaccines worldwide is – one size fits all and some “collateral
damage” is acceptable for the sake of the alleged “greater
good”.
In the case of vaccines, the good news is that even those in
the scientific community who are strong proponents of vaccinations, are coming to question the scientific legitimacy of
“one-size fits all” vaccination practices. [1]
For example, Gregory Poland MD, Editor in Chief of the
journal Vaccine and co-author of “The age-old struggle
against the anti-vaccinationists” [2] and colleagues rightly
ask whether:
...with the advances coming from the new biology of the 2st
century. It is time to consider how might new genetic and
molecular biology information inform vaccinology practices
of the future? [1]
In light of this question Poland et al. conclude that “one-size
fits all” approach for all vaccines and all persons should be
abandoned. According to Poland, this conclusion applies to
both vaccine efficacy, as well as safety.[1]

Regarding the safety, the widely held view that serious vaccine-related adverse reactions are rare needs revision, as
current worldwide vaccination policies indeed operate on
a “one-size fits all” assumption. This assumption persists
despite the fact that historically, vaccine trials routinely exclude vulnerable individuals with a variety of pre-existing
conditions (i.e., premature birth, personal or family history
of developmental delay or neurologic disorders including
epilepsy/seizures, hypersensitivity to vaccine constituents
etc...). [3-7]
Because of such selection bias at the very base level of research, the occurrence of serious adverse reactions resulting
from vaccinations is considerably underestimated.
Worse yet, such an outcome should be of concern to all who
vaccinate in view of the documented scientific evidence describing cases of permanent neurodevelopmental disabilities
and deaths following vaccination in children with underlying genetic/mitochondrial disorders and other susceptibilities, such as a family history of auto-immune diseases (i.e.,
asthma, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, etc...), allergies, or a
compromised immune system. [8-10]
Poland’s along with the other scientists’ current data therefore have far broader implications for understanding vaccines, not only in terms of efficacy and the desired immune
response, but also in terms of safety for those susceptible to
adverse health outcomes and excluded from clinical trials
--- but not from receipt!
Vulnerable individuals, both male and female, will neither
have the same antibody response nor the same level of tolerance to serious adverse reactions as non-vulnerable individuals. [1, 11]
Before one considers vaccinating their child according to the
current ‘one size fits all’ vaccination program, one should
think about the fact that we all have a different genetic history,
personal health history, current health status, nutritional status
and exposures to level of environmental toxins – all of which
may impact how an individual, or their child will respond to
a vaccine. Given all this, supporting the ‘one-size fits all’ vaccination program is neither reasonable nor ethical.

References:
1. Poland, G.A., I.G. Ovsyannikova, and R.M. Jacobson,
Vaccine immunogenetics: bedside to bench to population.
Vaccine, 2008. 26(49): p. 6183-8.
2. Poland, G.A. and R.M. Jacobson, The age-old struggle
against the antivaccinationists. N Engl J Med, 2011. 364(2):
p. 97-9.
3. Kovel, A., et al., Safety and immunogenicity of acellular diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis and Haemophilus conjugate
vaccines given in combination or at separate injection sites.
J Pediatr, 1992. 120(1): p. 84-7.
4. Kaplan, S.L., et al., Immunogenicity and safety of Haemophilus influenzae type b-tetanus protein conjugate vaccine alone or mixed with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine in infants. J Pediatr, 1994. 124(2): p. 323-7.
5. Li, G., et al., Safety and immunogenicity of a diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis and Haemophilus influenzae
Type b combination vaccine compared with separate administration of licensed equivalent vaccines in Chinese infants
and toddlers for primary and booster immunization. Vaccine,
2010. 28(25): p. 4215-23.
6. Shinefield, H., et al., Evaluation of a quadrivalent measles,
mumps, rubella and varicella vaccine in healthy children.
Pediatr Infect Dis J, 2005. 24(8): p. 665-9.
7. Velu, V., et al., Comparative efficacy of two dosages of
recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in healthy adolescents in
India. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 2007. 26(11): p. 1038-41.
8. Poling, J.S., et al., Developmental regression and mitochondrial dysfunction in a child with autism. J Child Neurol,
2006. 21(2): p. 170-2.
9.Yang, Y., et al., Acute metabolic crisis induced by vaccination in seven Chinese patients. Pediatr Neurol, 2006. 35(2):
p. 114-8.
10. Ottaviani, G., A.M. Lavezzi, and L. Matturri, Sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS) shortly after hexavalent vaccination: another pathology in suspected SIDS? Virchows
Arch, 2006. 448(1): p. 100-4.
11. Thomas, C. and M. Moridani, Interindividual variations
in the efficacy and toxicity of vaccines. Toxicology, 2009.
278(2): p. 204-10.

http://sanevax.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Vaccination-does-one-size-fit-all.pdf

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22119595

“103 vaccine adjuvants have been curated in Vaxjo.
Among these adjuvants, 98 have been used in 384 vaccines stored in VIOLIN against over 81 pathogens,
cancers, or allergies. All these vaccine adjuvants are categorized and analyzed based on
adjuvant types, pathogens used, and vaccine types.”
Journal Of Biomedicine & Biotechnology • March 2012

Vaxjo:
a web-based vaccine adjuvant database
and its application for analysis of vaccine adjuvants
and their uses in vaccine development
Sayers S., Ulysses G., Xiang Z., He Y.
Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine
University of Michigan Medical School
Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
Abstract
Vaccine adjuvants are compounds that enhance host immune responses to co-administered antigens in vaccines.
Vaxjo is a web-based central database and analysis system that curates, stores, and analyzes vaccine adjuvants
and their usages in vaccine development. Basic information of a vaccine adjuvant stored in Vaxjo includes adjuvant name, components, structure, appearance, storage, preparation, function, safety, and vaccines that use this
adjuvant. Reliable references are curated and cited. Bioinformatics scripts are developed and used to link vaccine
adjuvants to different adjuvanted vaccines stored in the general VIOLIN vaccine database. Presently, 103 vaccine
adjuvants have been curated in Vaxjo. Among these adjuvants, 98 have been used in 384 vaccines stored in VIOLIN against over 81 pathogens, cancers, or allergies. All these vaccine adjuvants are categorized and analyzed
based on adjuvant types, pathogens used, and vaccine types. As a use case study of vaccine adjuvants in infectious
disease vaccines, the adjuvants used in Brucella vaccines are specifically analyzed. A user-friendly web query
and visualization interface is developed for interactive vaccine adjuvant search. To support data exchange, the
information of vaccine adjuvants is stored in the Vaccine Ontology (VO) in the Web Ontology Language (OWL)
format.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22505817

PLoS One • March 2012

AS03 adjuvanted AH1N1 vaccine
associated with an abrupt increase in the
incidence of childhood narcolepsy in Finland
Author information
Nohynek H1, Jokinen J, Partinen M, Vaarala O,
Kirjavainen T, Sundman J, Himanen SL, Hublin C, Julkunen I,
Olsén P, Saarenpää-Heikkilä O, Kilpi T.
Department of Vaccines and Immune Protection
National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
hanna.nohynek@thl.fi
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Narcolepsy is a chronic sleep disorder with strong genetic predisposition causing excessive daytime sleepiness
and cataplexy. A sudden increase in childhood narcolepsy was observed in Finland soon after pandemic influenza
epidemic and vaccination with ASO3-adjuvanted Pandemrix. No increase was observed in other age groups.
METHODS
Retrospective cohort study. From January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2010 we retrospectively followed the cohort
of all children living in Finland and born from January 1991 through December 2005. Vaccination data of the
whole population was obtained from primary health care databases. All new cases with assigned ICD-10 code of
narcolepsy were identified and the medical records reviewed by two experts to classify the diagnosis of narcolepsy according to the Brighton collaboration criteria. Onset of narcolepsy was defined as the first documented
contact to health care because of excessive daytime sleepiness. The primary follow-up period was restricted to
August 15, 2010, the day before media attention on post-vaccination narcolepsy started.
FINDINGS
Vaccination coverage in the cohort was 75%. Of the 67 confirmed cases of narcolepsy, 46 vaccinated and 7 unvaccinated were included in the primary analysis. The incidence of narcolepsy was 9.0 in the vaccinated as compared
to 0.7/100,000 person years in the unvaccinated individuals, the rate ratio being 12.7 (95% confidence interval
6.1-30.8). The vaccine-attributable risk of developing narcolepsy was 1:16,000 vaccinated 4 to 19-year-olds (95%
confidence interval 1:13,000-1:21,000).
CONCLUSIONS
Pandemrix vaccine contributed to the onset of narcolepsy among those 4 to 19 years old during the pandemic
influenza in 2009-2010 in Finland. Further studies are needed to determine whether this observation exists in
other populations and to elucidate potential underlying immunological mechanism. The role of the adjuvant in
particular warrants further research before drawing conclusions about the use of adjuvanted pandemic vaccines
in the future.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22470453
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3314666/

“Pandemrix vaccine
contributed to the onset of narcolepsy
among those 4 to 19 years old during the
pandemic influenza in 2009-2010 in Finland.
The role of the adjuvant in particular warrants
further research before drawing conclusions about
the use of adjuvanted pandemic vaccines in the future.”

Clinical Reviews In Allergy & Immunology • April 2012

Guillain-Barré syndrome
a classical autoimmune disease
triggered by infection or vaccination
Author information
Israeli E1, Agmon-Levin N,
Blank M, Chapman J, Shoenfeld Y.
The Chaim Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Tel-Aviv, Israel
Abstract
Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a rare autoimmune disorder,
the incidence of which is estimated to be 0.6-4/100,000 person/
year worldwide. Often, GBS occurs a few days or weeks after
the patient has had symptoms of a respiratory or gastrointestinal
microbial infection. The disorder is sub-acute developing over
the course of hours or days up to 3 to 4 weeks. About a third of
all cases of Guillain-Barré syndrome are preceded by Campylobacter jejuni infection. C. jejuni strains isolated from GBS patients have a lipooligosaccharide (LOS) with a GM1-like structure. Molecular mimicry between LOS and the peripheral nerves
as a cause of GBS was demonstrated in animal models of human
GBS. Following the “swine flu” virus vaccine program in the
USA in 1976, an increase in incidence of GBS was observed
and the calculated relative risk was 6.2. Later studies have found
that influenza vaccines contained structures that can induce antiGM1 (ganglioside) antibodies after inoculation into mice. More
recent information has suggested that the occurrence of GBS
after currently used influenza and other vaccines is rare. GBS
involves genetic and environmental factors, may be triggered by
infections or vaccinations, and predisposition can be predicted
by analyzing some of these factors.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20890797

“ Guillain-Barré syndrome involves
genetic and environmental factors,
may be triggered by infections
or vaccinations, and predisposition
can be predicted by analyzing
some of these factors.”

International Journal Of Cosmetic Science • April 2012

In vitro induction of apoptosis, necrosis and genotoxicity
by cosmetic preservatives: application of flow cytometry
as a complementary analysis by NRU
Author information
Carvalho CM1, Menezes PF, Letenski GC, Praes CE, Feferman IH, Lorencini M.
Grupo Boticário
Research and Innovation Department
Biomolecular Research Laboratory
Av. Rui Barbosa no. 3450, 83.065-260
São José dos Pinhais, PR- Brazil
camilamc@grupoboticario.com.br
Abstract
Preservatives are used in cosmetics to prevent microbial contamination; however, some
preservatives are not free of allergenic and cytotoxic potential. Allergenicity and cytotoxicity potential values are major aspects of preservative safety, which determine limitations
and maximum concentration dose in a cosmetic product. The purpose of this study was to
investigate and compare the in vitro apoptosis, necrosis and genotoxicity-inducing potential
of five different types of preservatives: Phenoxyethanol (PE), Propylparaben (PP), Methylparaben (MP), Benzyl Alcohol (BA) and Ethylhexyl Glycerine (EG). In vitro experiments
were carried out on human dermal fibroblasts by a quantitative flow cytometry method,
using specific cell markers (Annexin V, Propidium Iodide and H2AX). We compared the
resulting cell viability by means of neutral red uptake (NRU) and established the IC(50) .
Our results showed that PE, PP, MP and BA have similar cytotoxic mechanisms (high apoptosis and necrosis levels only at the test concentration of 1%), whereas EG showed only
an apoptosis pathway. For genotoxicity, both parabens yielded the highest values. Results
obtained by flow cytometry for necrosis were comparable to those produced by NRU; however, NRU does not distinguish apoptosis from necrosis. We propose that flow cytometry is
a more sophisticated methodology for understanding the cytotoxic mechanisms of cosmetic
preservatives and can be used to complement the NRU.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22118339

“Our results showed that
Phenoxyethanol [a vaccine ingredient] ...
have similar cytotoxic mechanisms
(high apoptosis and necrosis levels only
at the test concentration of 1%) ...”

Dermatitis • May 2012

Hypersensitivity reactions to vaccine constituents:
a case series and review of the literature
Author information
Leventhal JS1, Berger EM, Brauer JA, Cohen DE.
Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology
New York University School of Medicine, NY, USA
Abstract
Vaccines are composed of immunogens, preservatives, adjuvants, antibiotics, and
manufacturing by-products. Components of vaccines may rarely elicit adverse reactions in susceptible individuals, thus raising concerns regarding vaccine safety.
In this report, we add to the medical literature 3 cases of cutaneous delayed-type
hypersensitivity to the vaccine preservative aluminum. We provide a review of
major constituents in vaccines that have elicited immediate-type or delayed-type
hypersensitivity reactions and describe their clinical manifestations. We include
a table of the Food and Drug Administration-approved vaccines, which lists the
quantities of major components including ovalbumin (egg protein), gelatin, aluminum, neomycin, 2-phenoxyethanol, thimerosal, and formaldehyde. Our goals
were to inform physicians on the variety of hypersensitivity reactions to common
vaccines and to provide information on the choice of vaccines in patients with
suspected hypersensitivity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22653170

“Our goals were to inform physicians
on the variety of hypersensitivity reactions
to common vaccines and to provide information
on the choice of vaccines in patients with
suspected hypersensitivity.”

BMJ Case Report • May 2012

Hypersensitivity reaction
to human papillomavirus vaccine
due to polysorbate 80
Author information
Badiu I1, Geuna M, Heffler E, Rolla G.
Allergy and Clinical Immunology
University of Torino and AO Ordine Mauriziano
Torino, Italy
Abstract
A 17-year-old girl reported generalised urticaria, eyelid angioedema,
rhino-conjunctivitis, dyspnoea and wheezing 1 h after third intramuscular administration of quadrivalent human papilloma virus vaccine
(Gardasil). She was treated with antihistamine, and corticosteroids with
prompt relief of rhinitis and dyspnoea, while urticaria and angioedema
lasted 24 h. Intradermal test with Gardasil, which contains polysorbate
80 (PS80), resulted positive, while skin tests with the bivalent vaccine
were negative. Prick test performed with PS80 resulted positive in the
patient and negative in ten healthy controls. The CD203 basophil activation test result was negative for PS80 at all the tested dilutions and specific IgE was not found. As flu vaccine was recommended, the authors
skin tested two flu vaccine, one containing PS80 (Fluarix, GSK), which
resulted positive and another flu vaccine with no adjuvant or preservative (Vaxigrip, Sanofi Pasteur MSD), which gave negative results. The
patient then received Vaxigrip without adverse reactions.
Full Report:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3351639/

“... the authors skin tested two
flu vaccine, one containing PS80 (Fluarix, GSK),
which resulted positive and another flu vaccine
with no adjuvant or preservative
(Vaxigrip, Sanofi Pasteur MSD),
which gave negative results.”

“With herd immunity to whooping cough,
DTP is associated with higher mortality for girls.”
BMJ Open • May 2012

Testing the hypothesis that
diphtheria–tetanus–pertussis vaccine has
negative non-specific and sex-differential
effects on child survival in
high-mortality countries
Author Information
Peter Aaby,1,2 Christine Benn,1,2 Jens Nielsen,1,2 Ida Maria
Lisse,1,2 Amabelia Rodrigues,1,2 and Henrik Ravn1,2
1. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network,
Statens Serum Institut, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
2. Research Centre for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim
Health Project, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
Abstract
Background
Measles vaccines (MV) have sex-differential effects on mortality
not explained by protection against measles infection.
Objective
The authors examined whether whole-cell diphtheria–tetanus–pertussis (DTP) vaccine has sex-differential and non-specific effects.
Data sources and eligibility
Following previous reviews and a new search, the effect of DTP
on mortality up to the next vaccination was assessed in all studies
where DTP was given after BCG or DTP was given after MV and
there was prospective follow-up after ascertainment of vaccination
status.

Setting
High-mortality countries in Africa and Asia.
Methods
The initial observation of negative effect of DTP generated six hypotheses, which were examined in all available studies and two randomised trials reducing the time of exposure to DTP.
Main outcome
Consistency between studies.
Results
In the first study, DTP had negative effects on survival in contrast to
the beneficial effects of BCG and MV. This pattern was repeated in
the six other studies available. Second, the two ‘natural experiments’
found significantly higher mortality for DTP-vaccinated compared
with DTP-unvaccinated children. Third, the female–male mortality
ratio was increased after DTP in all nine studies; in contrast, the
ratio was decreased after BCG and MV in all studies. Fourth, the
increased female mortality associated with high-titre measles vaccine was found only among children who had received DTP after
high-titre measles vaccine. Fifth, in six randomised trials of early
MV, female but not male mortality was increased if DTP was likely
to be given after MV. Sixth, the mortality rate declined markedly for
girls but not for boys when DTP-vaccinated children received MV.
The authors reduced exposure to DTP as most recent vaccination by
administering a live vaccine (MV and BCG) shortly after DTP. Both
trials reduced child mortality.
Conclusions
These observations are incompatible with DTP merely protecting against the targeted diseases. With herd immunity to whooping cough, DTP is associated with higher mortality for girls. Randomised studies of DTP are warranted to measure the true impact
on survival.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3364456/

Apoptosis • May 2012

Hepatitis B vaccine
induces apoptotic death in Hepa1-6 cells
Author information
Hamza H1, Cao J, Li X, Li C, Zhu M, Zhao S.
Key Lab of Agricultural Animal Genetics
Breeding, and Reproduction of Ministry of Education
College of Animal Science and Technology
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan
People’s Republic of China
Heyam68_hamza@yahoo.com
Abstract
Vaccines can have adverse side-effects, and these are predominantly associated with
the inclusion of chemical additives such as aluminum hydroxide adjuvant. The objective of this study was to establish an in vitro model system amenable to mechanistic investigations of cytotoxicity induced by hepatitis B vaccine, and to investigate
the mechanisms of vaccine-induced cell death. The mouse liver hepatoma cell line
Hepa1-6 was treated with two doses of adjuvanted (aluminium hydroxide) hepatitis
B vaccine (0.5 and 1 μg protein per ml) and cell integrity was measured after 24, 48
and 72 h. Hepatitis B vaccine exposure increased cell apoptosis as detected by flow
cytometry and TUNEL assay. Vaccine exposure was accompanied by significant
increases in the levels of activated caspase 3, a key effector caspase in the apoptosis
cascade. Early transcriptional events were detected by qRT-PCR. We report that
hepatitis B vaccine exposure resulted in significant upregulation of the key genes
encoding caspase 7, caspase 9, Inhibitor caspase-activated DNase (ICAD), Rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1 (ROCK-1), and Apoptotic protease
activating factor 1 (Apaf-1). Upregulation of cleaved caspase 3,7 were detected by
western blot in addition to Apaf-1 and caspase 9 expressions argues that cell death
takes place via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway in which release of cytochrome c
from the mitochondria triggers the assembly of a caspase activation complex. We
conclude that exposure of Hepa1-6 cells to a low dose of adjuvanted hepatitis B
vaccine leads to loss of mitochondrial integrity, apoptosis induction, and cell death,
apoptosis effect was observed also in C2C12 mouse myoblast cell line after treated
with low dose of vaccine (0.3, 0.1, 0.05 μg/ml). In addition In vivo apoptotic effect
of hepatitis B vaccine was observed in mouse liver.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22249285

“We conclude that exposure of Hepa1-6 cells
to a low dose of adjuvanted hepatitis B vaccine
leads to loss of mitochondrial integrity,
apoptosis induction, and cell death, apoptosis
effect was observed also in C2C12 mouse
myoblast cell line after treated with low dose
of vaccine (0.3, 0.1, 0.05 μg/ml). In addition
In vivo apoptotic effect of hepatitis B vaccine
was observed in mouse liver.”

“We will discuss the possible mechanisms which pertain to ASIA (Shoenfeld syndrome).”
Lupus • June 2012

When APS (Hughes syndrome)
met the autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants
(ASIA)
Blank M1, Israeli E, Shoenfeld Y.
Zabludowitz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center affiliated to Sackler Faculty of Medicine
Tel-Aviv University, Israel
Abstract
Vaccination of healthy individuals is the most effective approach to protect the public from infections and prevent
the spread of many infectious diseases all over the globe. Licensed vaccines are mostly safe, but in rare cases they
may be associated with humoral response to self-antigens due to molecular mimicry, epitope spread, bystander
activation or polyclonal triggering. Moreover, the clinical picture of autoimmune conditions following post-vaccination is rarer. Nevertheless, anecdotal case reports on the flare of autoimmune response with clinical manifestations were reported. Herein, we discuss this topic in relation to post-vaccination-induced antiphospholipid
antibodies following tetanus toxoid vaccine, HBV and influenza associated in rare cases with antiphospholipid
syndrome clinical manifestations. We will discuss the possible mechanisms which pertain to ASIA (Shoenfeld
syndrome). Therefore, these all strengthen the importance of ASIA and should be kept in mind during clinical
work and research.
Full Report
http://lup.sagepub.com/content/21/7/711.long

Environmental Health Perspectives • June 2012

Neurotoxic metal coexposures and neurodevelopment
José G. Dórea
Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidade de Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
E-mail: dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
Claus Henn et al. (2012) addressed a “real world scenario” of exposure to multiple
neurotoxic metals in their unique and interesting study. They investigated manganese–lead coexposure and its association with neurodevelopmental deficiencies
in Mexican children. Their rationale was that neurodevelopmental deficiencies of
both metals together could be more severe than expected based on effects of exposure to each metal alone. Indeed, they observed a synergism between manganese
and lead. Given the early age of the subjects (12 and 24 months of age), I suggest
that some confounders not included in their model deserve consideration in regard
to this study.
Claus Henn et al. (2012) collected information on duration of breast-feeding, but it
seems that in their statistical analyses, they adjusted only for sex, gestational age,
hemoglobin, maternal IQ (intelligence quotient), and maternal education. Other
confounders, such as thimerosal (a compound containing ethylmercury that is used
as a preservative in some vaccines) and breast-feeding, may influence neurodevelopment outcomes. In countries such as Mexico, children 12–24 months of age may
be immunized with thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs) (WHO 2011). Because
of opposite effects on the central nervous system, the combination of breast-feeding and ethylmercury may influence neurodevelopmental outcomes. Kramer et al.
(2008) showed that children who were exclusively breast-fed had improved cognitive development. Indeed, Kostial et al. (1978) demonstrated that infant rats fed
cow’s milk diets absorbed more lead and manganese, which are associated with a
higher relative retention of mercury in the brain.
Blood levels of lead and manganese are indicators of ongoing exposure; however,
ethylmercury has a short half-life and thus is unlikely to be concurrently measured

in blood (Dórea et al. 2011). Nevertheless we can ascertain exposure from vaccination cards (Dórea et al. 2012; Marques et al. 2009). Following participants in the
National Immunization Program of Mexico, the amount of ethylmercury from routine immunizations against hepatitis B (three doses), DTP (diphtheria, tetanus, and
pertussis, three doses), and influenza can be estimated from records on vaccination
cards. Additionally, during pregnancy, Mexican mothers may receive tetanus toxoid (TT) vaccines and other products, such as anti-RhoD immune globulins (given
to Rh-negative mothers) that may contain thimerosal (Marques et al. 2009). These
sources of prenatal and postnatal ethylmercury exposure should be considered significant sources of an additional neurotoxic coexposure—organic mercury.
Claus Henn et al. (2012) realized that information on the association of neurodevelopment and coexposure to multiple chemicals is limited; the scientific literature
is even more scarce for the specific exposure to small amounts of ethylmercury derived from TCVs (Oken and Bellinger 2008), which are largely used in nonindustrialized countries. However, recent work has suggested that when studies with young
children are properly adjusted for exposure to TCVs, subtle neurodevelopmental effects can be demonstrated (Dórea et al. 2012; Marques et al. 2009; Mrozek-Budzyn
2011a, 2011b). Therefore, the potential for interaction of ethylmercury, manganese,
and lead provides an opportunity to expand our knowledge.
Factors related to maternal neurotoxic exposure and neurodevelopment (e.g., breastfeeding) are significant in studies of children’s exposure to ethylmercury (Marques
et al. 2009). The study design used by Claus Henn et al. (2012) could provide further information on this timely issue and also provide direction for future studies of
contaminants and confounders that affect neurodevelopment.

Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3385458/

“Claus Henn et al. (2012)
realized that information on
the association of neurodevelopment and coexposure to multiple chemicals is limited; the
scientific literature is even more
scarce for the specific exposure
to small amounts of ethyl mercury derived from Thimerosal
containing vaccines, which are
largely used in nonindustrialized countries.”

Biometals • June 2012

A case of multiple sclerosis improvement
following removal of heavy metal intoxication:
lessons learnt from Matteo’s case
Author information
Fulgenzi A1, Zanella SG, Mariani MM, Vietti D, Ferrero ME.
Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze Biomediche Città Studi
Università degli Studi di Milano, Via L. Mangiagalli, 31, 20133 Milan, Italy
alessandro.fulgenzi@unimi.it
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic progressive disease of the central nervous system
(CNS) provoking disability and neurological symptoms. The exact causes of MS are
unknown, even if it is characterized by focal inflammatory lesions in CNS accompanied
by autoimmune reaction against myelin. Indeed, many drugs able to modulate the immune response of patients have been used to treat MS. More recently, toxic metals have
been proposed as possible causes of neurodegenerative diseases. The objective of this
study is to investigate in vivo the impact of heavy metal intoxication in MS progression.
We studied the case of a patient affected by MS, who has been unsuccessfully treated
for some years with current therapies. We examined his levels of toxic heavy metals
in the urine, following intravenous “challenge” with the chelating agent calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA).The patient displayed elevated levels of
aluminium, lead and mercury in the urine. Indeed, he was subjected to treatment with
EDTA twice a month. Under treatment, the patient revealed in time improved symptoms
suggestive of MS remission. The clinical data correlated with the reduction of heavy
metal levels in the urine to normal range values. Our case report suggests that levels of
toxic metals can be tested in patients affected by neurodegenerative diseases as MS.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22438029/

“More recently, toxic metals have been proposed
as possible causes of neurodegenerative diseases.”

“Being protected against influenza, trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine recipients
may lack temporary non-specific immunity that protected against other respiratory viruses.”
Clinical Infectious Disease • June 2012

Increased risk of noninfluenza respiratory virus infections
associated with receipt of inactivated influenza vaccine
Author information
Cowling BJ1, Fang VJ, Nishiura H, Chan KH, Ng S, Ip DK, Chiu SS, Leung GM, Peiris JS.
School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine,
The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
bcowling@hku.hk
Abstract
We randomized 115 children to trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (TIV) or placebo. Over the following 9
months, TIV recipients had an increased risk of virologically-confirmed non-influenza infections (relative risk:
4.40; 95% confidence interval: 1.31-14.8). Being protected against influenza, TIV recipients may lack temporary
non-specific immunity that protected against other respiratory viruses.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3404712/

Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi
Chinese Journal Of Chinese Materia Medica • July 2012

Comparative study on pseudoanaphylactoid reactions
induced by medicinal tween 80 and injectable tween 80
Author information
Wang Y1, Li C, Yi Y, Qin L, Zhao Y,
Li G, Cong X, Cao S, Liang A.
Capital Medical University
School of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Beijing 100069, China
wangyunting0@sina.com
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To investigate the safety of different level of tween 80 by comparing the degree of pseudoanaphylactoid reactions
(PR) induced by medicinal tween 80 and injectable tween 80.
METHOD
The analysis of vascular permeability of the mice ears: ICR mouse were divided into different test groups, the
mice were intravenously injected with solutions of medicinal tween 80 and injectable tween 80 with 0.2%, 1%
and 5% concentration, positive control Compound 48/80 and 5% glucose injection. All test substances were
mixed with 0.4% Evans blue. The reaction and vascular permeability of the ears were observed and measured 30
min after injection. The analysis of vascular permeability of the rat’s skin: the rats were intravenous injected with
0. 6% Evans blue normal saline solution first, 10 minutes later, the same substances were intradermal administrated into the back of rats. The rats were sacrificed and the diameter of locus ceruleus and the content of Evans
blue leak out were measured 20 min after injection.
RESULT
Medicinal tween 80 and injectable tween 80 with 5% concentration caused obvious vascular hyper permeability in ICR mice, but the degree of vascular hyperpermeability caused by injectable tween 80 was lighter than
by medicinal tween 80. Other tween 80 didn’t cause obvious vascular hyper permeability in the ears of mouse.
The solution of different concentration of tween 80 caused obvious locus ceruleus reaction in rat’s back. As for
the content Evans blue leak out, there was no statistical significance between each group except positive control
Compound 48/80 group.
CONCLUSION
Tween 80 can cause obvious vascular hyper permeability and the effect is dose dependent, which indicated that
tween 80 can cause PR. On the other hand, injectable tween 80 is more security than medicinal tween 80, the dosage of tween 80 should be still controlled strictly so that to decrease the incidence of PR.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23019864

“Tween 80 can cause obvious
vascular hyper permeability and
the effect is dose dependent, which
indicated that Tween 80 can cause PR
[pseudoanaphylactoid reactions].

Current Opinion In Rheumatology • July 2012

Infections and vaccines
in the etiology of antiphospholipid syndrome
Author information
Cruz-Tapias P1, Blank M, Anaya JM, Shoenfeld Y.
Zabludowitz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center affiliated to Sackler Faculty of Medicine
Tel-Aviv University, Israel
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW
To present scientific evidence supporting the infectious origin for the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) by molecular mimicry between pathogens,
infection and vaccination with ß2-glycoprotein I (ß2-GPI) molecule.
RECENT FINDINGS
APS is characterized by the presence of pathogenic autoantibodies against
ß2-GPI. The infection etiology of APS was well established. Likewise, a
link between vaccination such as tetanus toxoid may trigger antibodies
targeting tetanus toxoid and ß2-GPI, due to molecular mimicry between
the two molecules. During the years, the pathogenic potential of anti-tetanus toxoid antibodies cross reactive with ß2-GPI were found to be pathogenic in animal models, inducing experimental APS.
SUMMARY
Accumulated evidence supports that the presence of anti-ß2-GPI antibodies is associated with a history of infections and the main mechanism to
explain this correlation is molecular mimicry. The relationship between
tetanus toxoid vaccination and APS reveals a novel view on the autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22617823

“The relationship between tetanus toxoid vaccination
and Anti-Phospholipid Syndrome reveals a novel view
on the autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants (ASIA).

Blood • July 2012

The significance of autoantibodies
against ß2-glycoprotein I
Author information
de Groot PG1, Urbanus RT.
Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology
University Medical Center, Heidelberglaan 100
Utrecht, The Netherlands
ph.g.degroot@umcutrecht.nl
Abstract
The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is defined by the persistent
presence of antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with a history of
thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity, including fetal loss. APS is
an autoimmune disease with a confusing name because the pathologic auto-antibodies are shown to be directed against the plasma
protein ß(2)-glycoprotein I and not against phospholipids. In fact,
auto-antibodies that recognize phospholipids themselves are not associated with thrombosis but with infectious diseases. One of the intriguing questions is why autoantibodies against ß(2)-glycoprotein
I are so commonly found in both patients and the healthy. Several
potential mechanisms have been suggested to explain the increased
thrombotic risk in patients with these autoantibodies. In this overview, we will summarize our knowledge on the etiology of the autoantibodies, and we will discuss the evidence that identify autoantibodies against ß(2)-glycoprotein I as the culprit of APS.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22553312

“... we will summarize our knowledge on the
etiology of the autoantibodies, and we will
discuss the evidence that identify autoantibodies
against ß(2)-glycoprotein I as the culprit
of Antiphospholipid Syndrome.”

Food And Chemical Toxicology • September 2012

Fragrance material review on 2-phenoxyethanol
Author information
Scognamiglio J1, Jones L, Letizia CS, Api AM.
Research Institute for Fragrance Materials Inc.
50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677, USA
jscognamiglio@rifm.org
Abstract
A toxicologic and dermatologic review of 2-phenoxyethanol when used as a fragrance ingredient is presented. 2-Phenoxyethanol is a member of the fragrance
structural group Aryl Alkyl Alcohols and is a primary alcohol. The AAAs are a
structurally diverse class of fragrance ingredients that includes primary, secondary, and tertiary alkyl alcohols covalently bonded to an aryl (Ar) group, which
may be either a substituted or unsubstituted benzene ring. The common structural
element for the AAA fragrance ingredients is an alcohol group -C-(R1)(R2)OH
and generically the AAA fragrances can be represented as an Ar-C-(R1)(R2)OH
or Ar-Alkyl-C-(R1)(R2)OH group. This review contains a detailed summary of all
available toxicology and dermatology papers that are related to this individual fragrance ingredient and is not intended as a stand-alone document. Available data for
2-phenoxyethanol were evaluated then summarized and includes physical properties, acute toxicity, skin irritation, mucous membrane (eye) irritation, skin sensitization, elicitation, phototoxicity, photoallergy, toxicokinetics, repeated dose, and
reproductive toxicity data. A safety assessment of the entire Aryl Alkyl Alcohols
will be published simultaneously with this document; please refer to Belsito et al.
(2012) for an overall assessment of the safe use of this material and all Aryl Alkyl
Alcohols in fragrances.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22036980
Editors Note: 2-Phenoxyethanol MSDS States:
This substance is toxic to kidneys, nervous system, liver.
Link for 2-Phenoxyethanol MSDS
http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsid=9926486

“Available data for 2-phenoxyethanol
[a vaccine ingredient used in some vaccines]
were evaluated then summarized and
includes physical properties, acute toxicity,
skin irritation, mucous membrane (eye) irritation,
skin sensitization, elicitation, phototoxicity,
photoallergy, toxicokinetics, repeated dose,
and reproductive toxicity data.”

Human Experimental Toxicology • October 2012

Relative trends in hospitalizations and mortality
among infants by the number of vaccine doses and age,
based on the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
(VAERS) 1990-2010
Author information
Goldman GS1, Miller NZ.
Computer Scientist
Pearblossom, CA 93553, USA
gsgoldman@roadrunner.com
Abstract
In this study, the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) database, 19902010, was investigated; cases that specified either hospitalization or death were identified among 38,801 reports of infants. Based on the types of vaccines reported, the
actual number of vaccine doses administered, from 1 to 8, was summed for each case.
Linear regression analysis of hospitalization rates as a function of (a) the number of
reported vaccine doses and (b) patient age yielded a linear relationship with r(2) = 0.91
and r(2) = 0.95, respectively. The hospitalization rate increased linearly from 11.0%
(107 of 969) for 2 doses to 23.5% (661 of 2817) for 8 doses and decreased linearly
from 20.1% (154 of 765) for children aged <0.1 year to 10.7% (86 of 801) for children
aged 0.9 year. The rate ratio (RR) of the mortality rate for 5-8 vaccine doses to 1-4
vaccine doses is 1.5 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.4-1.7), indicating a statistically
significant increase from 3.6% (95% CI, 3.2-3.9%) deaths associated with 1-4 vaccine
doses to 5.5% (95% CI, 5.2-5.7%) associated with 5-8 vaccine doses. The male-to-female mortality RR was 1.4 (95% CI, 1.3-1.5). Our findings show a positive correlation
between the number of vaccine doses administered and the percentage of hospitalizations and deaths. Since vaccines are given to millions of infants annually, it is imperative that health authorities have scientific data from synergistic toxicity studies on all
combinations of vaccines that infants might receive. Finding ways to increase vaccine
safety should be the highest priority.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3547435/

“Our findings show a positive correlation
between the number of vaccine doses administered
and the percentage of hospitalizations and deaths.

Since vaccines are given to millions of infants annually,
it is imperative that health authorities have scientific data
from synergistic toxicity studies on all combinations of
vaccines that infants might receive.”

[complex and unknown synergies]

“Despite widespread pertussis immunization in childhood,
there are an estimated 50 million cases and 300,000 deaths
due to pertussis globally each year.”
Expert Review Of Vaccines • November 2012

Re-emergence of pertussis:
what are the solutions?
Author information
Libster R1, Edwards KM.
Vanderbilt University School of Medicine
Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt Vaccine Research Program
Nashville, TN, USA
Abstract
Whooping cough, due to Bordetella pertussis and Bordetella parapertussis, is an important cause of childhood
morbidity and mortality. Despite widespread pertussis immunization in childhood, there are an estimated 50 million cases and 300,000 deaths due to pertussis globally each year. Infants who are too young to be vaccinated,
children who are partially vaccinated and fully-vaccinated persons with waning immunity are especially vulnerable to disease. Since pertussis is one of the vaccine-preventable diseases on the rise, additional vaccine approaches are needed. These approaches include vaccination of newborns, additional booster doses for older adolescents
and adults, and immunization of pregnant women with existing vaccines. Innovative new vaccines are also being
studied. Each of these options will be discussed and their potential impact on pertussis control assessed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23249233

American Journal Of Perinatology • November 2012

Breast-feeding and responses to infant vaccines:
constitutional and environmental factors
Author information
Dórea JG
Department of Nutrition
Universidade de Brasília
Brasília, Brazil
dorea@rudah.com.br
Abstract
Neonates and nursing infants are special with regard to immune development and
vulnerability to infectious diseases. Although breast-feeding is essential to modulate and prime immune defenses, vaccines (an interventional prophylaxis) are crucial to prevent and control infectious diseases. During nursing, the type of feeding
influences infants’ natural defenses (including gut colonization) and their response
to vaccines, both through cell-mediated immunity and specific antibody production. Given the variety and combination of vaccine components (antigens and excipients, preservative thimerosal, and aluminum adjuvants) and route of administration, there is a need to examine the role of infant feeding practices in intended and
nonintended outcomes of vaccination. Maternal factors related to milk constituents
(nutrients and pollutants) and feeding practices can affect response to vaccines.
Collectively, studies that compared type of feeding (or used breast-feeding-adjusted
statistical models) showed significant influence on some vaccines taken during infancy. Nurslings deprived of the full benefit of breast-feeding could have altered
immune responses affecting vaccine outcome. In the absence of studies elucidating
neurodevelopment (including excitoxicity) and immunotoxicity issues, vaccination
practices should promote and support breast-feeding.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22773284

“Maternal factors related to milk constituents
(nutrients and pollutants) and feeding practices
can affect response to vaccines. Collectively, studies
that compared type of feeding (or used breast-feedingadjusted statistical models) showed significant
influence on some vaccines taken during infancy.
Nurslings deprived of the full benefit of breast-feeding
could have altered immune responses affecting
vaccine outcome.”

PLoS One • December 2012

Comparison of Shedding Characteristics
of Seasonal Influenza Virus (Sub)Types and Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09
Germany, 2007–2011
Conclusion
Asymptomatic/subclinical infections occur infrequently, but may be associated with substantial amounts of viral
shedding. Presymptomatic shedding may arise in one third of cases, and shedding characteristics appear to be
independent of (seasonal or pandemic) (sub)type, age, antiviral therapy or vaccination; however the power to find
moderate differences was limited.
In summary, our study addresses several important questions on clinical manifestation, duration of infectiousness,
viral shedding patterns, including shedding before symptom onset and in asymptomatic/subclinical patients, as
well as the effect of vaccination and antiviral therapy on viral shedding. Important single results include the finding that children do not seem to be infected asymptomatically, that shedding one day before symptom onset may
occur in one third of influenza patients, that asymptomatic/subclinical influenza patients occur rarely, but viral
load (and probably infectiousness) may be substantial, and vaccinated influenza patients do not show different
shedding patterns compared to non-vaccinated cases with ILI. Overall results do not show marked differences
between seasonal influenza (sub)types and influenza A(H1N1)pdm09.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3519848/

“Asymptomatic/subclinical infections occur infrequently,
but may be associated with substantial amounts of viral
shedding. Presymptomatic shedding may arise in one third
of cases, and shedding characteristics appear to be
independent of (seasonal or pandemic) (sub)type, age,
antiviral therapy or vaccination...”

“The effectiveness of influenza vaccines is still controversial ...”
Vaccine • December 2012

Adjuvants in influenza vaccines
Author information
Tetsutani K1, Ishii KJ.
Laboratory of Adjuvant Innovation
National Institute of Biomedical Innovation
Japan
Abstract
The effectiveness of influenza vaccines is still controversial, and the role of adjuvants in such vaccines is briefly
reviewed in this paper. Inactivated whole virus vaccines may include components that function as adjuvants,
meaning that additive adjuvants are often not required. MF59 and AS03 showed higher adjuvanticity than aluminum salts in several clinical studies. Recent research has suggested that immune cell recruitment is the main
mechanism underlying adjuvant actions in general, and that aluminum salts induce this recruitment via inflammation at the injected site. The aspect of how oil-based adjuvants, such as MF59 and AS03, recruit immune cells
remains to be clarified.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23084848

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • December 2012

Detection of human papillomavirus (HPV) L1 gene DNA
possibly bound to particulate aluminum adjuvant
in the HPV vaccine Gardasil
Author information
Lee SH1.
Milford Hospital and Milford Molecular Laboratory
2044 Bridgeport Avenue, Milford, CT 06460, USA
shlee01@snet.net
Abstract
Medical practitioners in nine countries submitted samples of Gardasil (Merck & Co.) to be
tested for the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA because they suspected that
residual recombinant HPV DNA left in the vaccine might have been a contributing factor
leading to some of the unexplained post-vaccination side effects. A total of 16 packages
of Gardasil were received from Australia, Bulgaria, France, India, New Zealand, Poland,
Russia, Spain and the United States. A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method
using the MY09/MY11 degenerate primers for initial amplification and the GP5/GP6based nested PCR primers for the second amplification were used to prepare the template
for direct automated cycle DNA sequencing of a hypervariable segment of the HPV L1
gene which is used for manufacturing of the HPV L1 capsid protein by a DNA recombinant technology in vaccine production. Detection of HPV DNA and HPV genotyping
of all positive samples were finally validated by BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search
Tool) analysis of a 45-60 bases sequence of the computer-generated electropherogram.
The results showed that all 16 Gardasil samples, each with a different lot number, contained fragments of HPV-11 DNA, or HPV-18 DNA, or a DNA fragment mixture from
both genotypes. The detected HPV DNA was found to be firmly bound to the insoluble,
proteinase-resistant fraction, presumably of amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate (AAHS) nanoparticles used as adjuvant. The clinical significance of these residual
HPV DNA fragments bound to a particulate mineral-based adjuvant is uncertain after
intramuscular injection, and requires further investigation for vaccination safety.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23078778

“Medical practitioners in nine countries submitted samples of Gardasil
(Merck & Co.) to be tested for the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV)
DNA because they suspected that residual recombinant HPV DNA left in
the vaccine might have been a contributing factor leading to some of the
unexplained post-vaccination side effects. A total of 16 packages of Gardasil were received from Australia, Bulgaria, France, India, New Zealand, Poland, Russia, Spain and the United States.

The results showed that all 16 Gardasil samples, each with a different lot
number, contained fragments of HPV-11 DNA, or HPV-18 DNA, or a DNA
fragment mixture from both genotypes. The detected HPV DNA was found
to be firmly bound to the insoluble, proteinase-resistant fraction, presumably of amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate (AAHS) nanoparticles used as adjuvant. The clinical significance of these residual HPV DNA
fragments bound to a particulate mineral-based adjuvant is uncertain after
intramuscular injection ...”

Auto-Immunity Highlights • December 2012

Autoimmunity
in connection with a metal implant:
a case of autoimmune/autoinflammatory
syndrome induced by adjuvants
Author information
Loyo E1, Jara LJ2, López PD3, Puig AC3.
1. Director, Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology Department
Hospital Regional Universitario José Ma. Cabral y Báez
Santiago, Dominican Republic
2. Hospital de Especialidades “Dr. Antonio Fraga Mouret”
Centro Médico Nacional La Raza, IMSS, Mexico, DF Mexico
3. Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra
Santiago, Dominican Republic
Abstract
Autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) has been recently proposed by Shoenfeld and Agmon-Levin as a new entity that comprises several
conditions: the macrophagic-myofasciitis syndrome, the Gulf War syndrome, silicosis
and post-vaccination phenomena, autoimmunity related to infectious fragments, hormones, aluminum, silicone, squalene oil, and pristane. We report the case of a 23-year-old
woman who developed serial episodes of high fever, extreme fatigue, transient thrombocytopenia, multiple cervical adenopathies, hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, neutropenia, severe proteinuria and urine sediment abnormalities, elevated serum ferritin levels,
and transient low positive antinuclear antibodies 1 year after she had a nickel-titanium
chin implant for cosmetic reasons. The clinical picture simulated a variety of probable
diseases: systemic lupus erythematosus, Kikuchi-Fujimoto syndrome, adult onset Still’s
disease, antiphospholipid syndrome, and hemophagocytic syndrome, among others, so
she underwent an extensive medical investigation including two lymph node biopsies.
She received treatment accordingly with steroids, methotrexate, and mofetil mycophenolate, with initial improvement of her symptoms, which recurred every time the dose
was reduced. Two and a half years later the patient decided to retire the chin implant and
afterwards all her systemic symptoms have disappeared. She remains in good health,
without recurrence of any symptom and off medications until today. Albeit this patient
fulfills proposed major ASIA criteria, to our knowledge it would be the first description
of systemic features of autoinflammation in connection with a metal implant.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26000140

“We report the case of a 23-year-old woman
who developed serial episodes of high fever,
extreme fatigue, transient thrombocytopenia,
multiple cervical adenopathies, hepatosplenomegaly,
anemia, neutropenia, severe proteinuria and urine sediment
abnormalities, elevated serum ferritin levels, and transient low
positive antinuclear antibodies 1 year after she had a
nickel-titanium chin implant for cosmetic reasons.

Two and a half years later the patient decided to
retire the chin implant and afterwards all her
systemic symptoms have disappeared.”

PLoS One • December 2012

Comparison of Shedding Characteristics of Seasonal Influenza Virus
(Sub)Types and Influenza A(H1N1) Germany, 2007–2011
Thorsten Suess, Cornelius Remschmidt, Susanne B. Schink,
Brunhilde Schweiger, Alla Heider, Jeanette Milde, Andreas Nitsche, Kati Schroeder,
Joerg Doellinger, Christian Braun, Walter Haas, Gérard Krause, Udo Buchhol
Abstract
Background
Influenza viral shedding studies provide fundamental information for preventive strategies and modelling exercises. We conducted a prospective household study to investigate viral shedding in seasonal and pandemic influenza
between 2007 and 2011 in Berlin and Munich, Germany.
Methods
Study physicians recruited index patients and their household members. Serial nasal specimens were obtained
from all household members over at least eight days and tested quantitatively by qRT-PCR for the influenza virus
(sub)type of the index patient. A subset of samples was also tested by viral culture. Symptoms were recorded
daily.
Results
We recruited 122 index patients and 320 household contacts, of which 67 became secondary household cases. Among all 189 influenza cases, 12 were infected with seasonal/prepandemic influenza A(H1N1), 19 with
A(H3N2), 60 with influenza B, and 98 with A(H1N1)pdm09. Nine (14%) of 65 non-vaccinated secondary cases
were asymptomatic/subclinical (0 (0%) of 21 children, 9 (21%) of 44 adults; p = 0.03). Viral load among patients
with influenza-like illness (ILI) peaked on illness days 1, 2 or 3 for all (sub)types and declined steadily until days
7–9. Clinical symptom scores roughly paralleled viral shedding dynamics. On the first day prior to symptom onset
30% (12/40) of specimens were positive. Viral load in 6 asymptomatic/subclinical patients was similar to that in
ILI-patients. Duration of infectiousness as measured by viral culture lasted approximately until illness days 4–6.
Viral load did not seem to be influenced by antiviral therapy, age or vaccination status.
Conclusion
Asymptomatic/subclinical infections occur infrequently, but may be associated with substantial amounts of viral
shedding. Presymptomatic shedding may arise in one third of cases, and shedding characteristics appear to be
independent of (seasonal or pandemic) (sub)type, age, antiviral therapy or vaccination; however the power to find
moderate differences was limited.
Full Report
http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0051653

“Asymptomatic/subclinical infections
occur infrequently, but may be associated with
substantial amounts of viral shedding. Presymptomatic
shedding may arise in one third of cases, and shedding
characteristics appear to be independent of (seasonal or pandemic)
(sub)type, age, antiviral therapy or vaccination ...”

Der Unfallchirurg • December 2012

Persistent swelling
after flushing of an abscess with Octenisept
Author information
Bauer B1, Majic M, Rauthe S, Bröcker EB, Kerstan A.
Klinik und Poliklinik für Dermatologie
Venerologie und Allergologie
Universitätsklinkum Würzburg
Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080
Würzburg, Deutschland
Bauer_B1@klinik.uni-wuerzburg.de
Abstract
We report the case of a long-lasting cutaneous side effect after inappropriate use of Octenisept® solution (containing octenidine and phenoxyethanol). Following lavage of an abscess in the inguinal region, a painful erythematous induration mimicking cellulitis persisted for several months.
Manual lymphatic drainage considerably improved the symptoms. Octenisept® shows considerable tissue toxicity in vivo including - but not
restricted to - blood vessel damage. Deterioration of endothelial cells followed by oedema and continued tissue damage can be seen histologically.
Despite the fact that there is a circular letter issued by the manufacturer as
well as a boxed warning on the bottles, the awareness to avoid this misuse
of Octenisept® is still lacking.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22101779

“Octenisept® solution
(containing octenidine and phenoxyethanol) ...
shows considerable tissue toxicity in vivo including but not restricted to - blood vessel damage.
Deterioration of endothelial cells followed by
oedema and continued tissue damage can
be seen histologically.”

[phenoxyethanol is a vaccine ingredient]

American Journal Of Perinatology • 2012

Breast-Feeding and Responses to Infant Vaccines:
Constitutional and Environmental Factors
José G. Dórea
Department of Nutrition
Universidade de Brasília
Brasília, Brazil
Abstract
Neonates and nursing infants are special with regard to immune development and
vulnerability to infectious diseases. Although breast-feeding is essential to modulate and prime immune defenses, vaccines (an interventional prophylaxis) are crucial to prevent and control infectious diseases. During nursing, the type of feeding
influences infants’ natural defenses (including gut colonization) and their response
to vaccines, both through cell-mediated immunity and specific antibody production. Given the variety and combination of vaccine components (antigens and excipients, preservative thimerosal, and aluminum adjuvants) and route of administration, there is a need to examine the role of infant feeding practices in intended and
nonintended outcomes of vaccination. Maternal factors related to milk constituents
(nutrients and pollutants) and feeding practices can affect response to vaccines.
Collectively, studies that compared type of feeding (or used breast-feeding-adjusted
statistical models) showed significant influence on some vaccines taken during infancy. Nurslings deprived of the full benefit of breast-feeding could have altered
immune responses affecting vaccine outcome. In the absence of studies elucidating
neurodevelopment (including excitoxicity) and immunotoxicity issues, vaccination
practices should promote and support breast-feeding.
https://www.thieme-connect.com/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0032-1316442

“Nurslings deprived of the full benefit
of breast-feeding could have altered immune
responses affecting vaccine outcome.”

Journal of Autoimmunity • January 2013

Autoimmune/inflammatory
syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) 2013:
Unveiling the pathogenic, clinical and diagnostic aspects
Carlo Perricone a, b, Serena Colafrancesco a, b, Roei D. Mazor a,
Alessandra Soriano a, c, Nancy Agmon-Levina, Yehuda Shoenfelda,d,*
a. The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
b. Reumatologia, Dipartimento di Medicina Interna e Specialità Mediche, Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
c. Department of Clinical Medicine and Rheumatology, University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Italy
d. Incumbent of the Laura Schwarz-Kipp Chair for Research of Autoimmune Diseases, Sackler Faculty of MedicineTel-Aviv University

Abstract
In 2011 a new syndrome termed ‘ASIA Autoimmune/Inflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants’
was defined pointing to summarize for the first time the spectrum of immune-mediated diseases triggered by an adjuvant stimulus such as chronic exposure to silicone, tetramethylpentadecane, pristane,
aluminum and other adjuvants, as well as infectious components, that also may have an adjuvant effect.
All these environmental factors have been found to induce autoimmunity by themselves both in animal
models and in humans: for instance, silicone was associated with siliconosis, aluminum hydroxide
with post- vaccination phenomena and macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome. Several mechanisms have
been hy- pothesized to be involved in the onset of adjuvant-induced autoimmunity; a genetic favorable
back- ground plays a key role in the appearance on such vaccine-related diseases and also justifies the
rarity of these phenomena. This paper will focus on protean facets which are part of ASIA, focusing on
the roles and mechanisms of action of different adjuvants which lead to the autoimmune/inflammatory
response. The data herein illustrate the critical role of environmental factors in the induction of autoimmunity. Indeed, it is the interplay of genetic susceptibility and environment that is the major player for
the initiation of breach of tolerance.
Final remarks
Despite the huge amount of money invested in studying vaccines, there are few observational studies
and virtually no randomized clinical trials documenting the effect on mortality of any of the existing
vaccines. One recent paper found an increased hospitalization rate with the increase of the number of
vaccine doses and a mortality rate ratio for 5e8 vaccine doses to 1e4 vaccine doses of 1.5, indicating
a statistically significant increase of deaths associated with higher vaccine doses. Since vaccines are
given to millions of infants annually, it is imperative that health authorities have scientific data from
synergistic toxicity studies on all combinations of vaccines that infants might receive to improve vaccine safety [194].
Moreover, from one side the non-specific beneficial effects of vaccines on survival can be underestimated, on the other side the negative effect of other vaccines may not be captured by current studies
[195]. As a matter of fact, in case of vaccine-associated autoimmune phenomena latency periods between the vaccine administration and the appearance of clinical symptoms can be longer (months or
years after vaccination) than the time interval commonly established in most vaccine risk assessment
studies [196].
Full Report
http://www.2ndchance.info/onesize4all-Perricone2013.pdf

“Despite the huge amount of money
invested in studying vaccines, there are few observational studies
and virtually no randomized clinical trials documenting the
effect on mortality of any of the existing vaccines.

One recent paper found an increased hospitalization rate with
the increase of the number of vaccine doses and a mortality rate
ratio for 5e8 vaccine doses to 1e4 vaccine doses of 1.5, indicating a
statistically significant increase of deaths associated with
higher vaccine doses.”

PLoS One • January 2013

A novel mechanism of formaldehyde neurotoxicity:
inhibition of hydrogen sulfide generation
by promoting overproduction of nitric oxide
Author information
Tang XQ1, Fang HR, Zhou CF,
Zhuang YY, Zhang P, Gu HF, Hu B.
Department of Physiology, Medical College
University of South China, Hengyang
Hunan, PR China
txq01001@gmail.com
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Formaldehyde (FA) induces neurotoxicity by overproduction of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Increasing studies have shown that hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S), an endogenous gastransmitter, protects nerve cells against oxidative stress by its antioxidant effect. It has been shown that
overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) inhibits the activity of cystathionine-beta-synthase (CBS), the
predominant H(2)S-generating enzyme in the central nervous system.
OBJECTIVE
We hypothesize that FA-caused neurotoxicity involves the deficiency of this endogenous protective antioxidant gas, which results from excessive generation of NO. The aim of this study is to
evaluate whether FA disturbs H(2)S synthesis in PC12 cells, and whether this disturbance is associated with overproduction of NO.
PRINCIPAL FINDINGS
We showed that exposure of PC12 cells to FA causes reduction of viability, inhibition of CBS
expression, decrease of endogenous H(2)S production, and NO production. CBS silencing deteriorates FA-induced decreases in endogenous H(2)S generation, neurotoxicity, and intracellular
ROS accumulation in PC12 cells; while ADMA, a specific inhibitor of NOS significantly attenuates FA-induced decreases in endogenous H(2)S generation, neurotoxicity, and intracellular ROS
accumulation in PC12 cells.
CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE
Our data indicate that FA induces neurotoxicity by inhibiting the generation of H(2)S through
excess of NO and suggest that strategies to manipulate endogenous H(2)S could open a suitable
novel therapeutic avenue for FA-induced neurotoxicity.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3554621/

“Our data indicate that
Formaldehyde induces neurotoxicity
by inhibiting the generation of hydrogen sulfide
through excess of nitric oxide ...”

Brain, Behavior And Immunity • February 2013

Altered immune pathway activity
under exercise challenge in Gulf War Illness:
an exploratory analysis
Author information
Broderick G1, Ben-Hamo R, Vashishtha S, Efroni S,
Nathanson L, Barnes Z, Fletcher MA, Klimas N.
Department of Medicine, University of Alberta
Edmonton, Canada
gordon.broderick@ualberta.ca
Abstract
Though potentially linked to the basic physiology of stress response
we still have no clear understanding of Gulf War Illness (GWI), a debilitating illness presenting with a complex constellation of immune,
endocrine and neurological symptoms. Here we compared male GWI
(n=20) with healthy veterans (n=22) and subjects with chronic fatigue
syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) (n=7). Blood was
drawn during a Graded eXercise Test (GXT) prior to exercise, at peak
effort (VO2 max) and 4-h post exercise. Affymetrix HG U133 plus 2.0
microarray gene expression profiling in peripheral blood mononuclear
cells (PBMCs) was used to estimate activation of over 500 documented pathways. This was cast against ELISA-based measurement of 16
cytokines in plasma and flow cytometric assessment of lymphocyte
populations and cytotoxicity. A 2-way ANOVA corrected for multiple
comparisons (q statistic <0.05) indicated significant increases in neuroendocrine-immune signaling and inflammatory activity in GWI, with
decreased apoptotic signaling. Conversely, cell cycle progression and
immune signaling were broadly subdued in CFS. Partial correlation
networks linking pathways with symptom severity via changes in immune cell abundance, function and signaling were constructed. Central
to these were changes in IL-10 and CD2+ cell abundance and their link
to two pathway clusters. The first consisted of pathways supporting
neuronal development and migration whereas the second was related
to androgen-mediated activation of NF-∼B. These exploratory results
suggest an over-expression of known exercise response mechanisms as
well as illness-specific changes that may involve an overlapping stresspotentiated neuro-inflammatory response.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23201588

“These exploratory results suggest
an over-expression of known
exercise response mechanisms
as well as illness-specific changes
that may involve an overlapping
stress-potentiated neuro-inflammatory response.”

Biomedical Research International • February 2013

Vaccine adverse events reported
during the first ten years (1998-2008)
after introduction in the state of Rondonia, Brazil
Author information
Cunha MP1, Dórea JG, Marques RC, Leão RS.
Department of Nursing
Fundação Universidade Federal de Rondônia
76801-974 Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
Abstract
Despite good safety records, vaccines given to young children can cause adverse
events. We investigated the reported adverse events following immunization
(AEFI) of vaccines given to children of less than seven years of age during the
first ten years (1998 to 2008) in the state of Rondonia, Brazil. We worked with the
events related to BCG (Bacillus Calmett-Guérin), HB (hepatitis B), DTwP/Hib
(diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis+Hemophillus influenza b), DTP (diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis), MMR (mumps, measles, rubella), and YF (yellow fever) vaccines
because they were part of the recommended scheme. The number of doses of vaccines given was 3,231,567 with an average of AEFI of 57.2/year during the studied period. DTwP/Hib was responsible for 298 (57.8%), DTP 114 (22.9%), HB 31
(6%), MMR 28 (5.4%), BCG 24 (4.7%), and YF 20 (3.9%) of the reported AEFI.
The combination of the AEFI for DTwP/Hib vaccines showed the highest number
of systemic (61.4%) and local events (33.8%). Young children (≤1-year old) were
more susceptible to AEFI occurring in the 6 hours (54.2%) following vaccine uptake. This study suggests significant differences in reactogenicity of vaccines and
that despite limitations of the AEFI Brazilian registry system we cannot ignore
underreporting and should use the system to expand our understanding of adverse
events and effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23509790

“This study suggests significant
differences in reactogenicity of vaccines ...”

Biomolecular Concepts • February 2013

The meaning of aluminium exposure
on human health and aluminium-related diseases
Crisponi G, Fanni D, Gerosa C, Nemolato S,
Nurchi VM, Crespo-Alonso M, Lachowicz JI, Faa G.
Abstract
The aim of this review is to attempt to answer extremely important questions related to aluminium-related diseases. Starting from an overview on the
main sources of aluminium exposure in everyday life, the principal aspects of
aluminium metabolism in humans have been taken into consideration in an
attempt to enlighten the main metabolic pathways utilised by trivalent metal
ions in different organs. The second part of this review is focused on the available evidence concerning the pathogenetic consequences of aluminium overload in human health, with particular attention to its putative role in bone and
neurodegenerative human diseases.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25436567

“ The second part of this review
is focused on the available evidence concerning
the pathogenetic consequences of aluminium
overload in human health, with particular
attention to its putative role in bone and
neurodegenerative human diseases.”

Biomedical Research International • February 2013

Vaccine Adverse Events Reported
during the First Ten Years (1998–2008)
after Introduction in the State of Rondonia, Brazil
Author Information
Mônica P. L. Cunha, 1 José G. Dórea, 2 ,*
Rejane C. Marques, 3 and Renata S. Leão 4
1Department of Nursing, Fundação Universidade Federal de Rondônia
76801-974 Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
2Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidade de Brasília
70919-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil
3Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Campus Macaé
27971-550 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
4Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
Abstract
Despite good safety records, vaccines given to young children can cause adverse events.
We investigated the reported adverse events following immunization (AEFI) of vaccines
given to children of less than seven years of age during the first ten years (1998 to 2008) in
the state of Rondonia, Brazil. We worked with the events related to BCG (Bacillus CalmettGuérin), HB (hepatitis B), DTwP/Hib (diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis+Hemophillus influenza
b), DTP (diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis), MMR (mumps, measles, rubella), and YF (yellow
fever) vaccines because they were part of the recommended scheme. The number of doses
of vaccines given was 3,231,567 with an average of AEFI of 57.2/year during the studied period. DTwP/Hib was responsible for 298 (57.8%), DTP 114 (22.9%), HB 31 (6%), MMR 28
(5.4%), BCG 24 (4.7%), and YF 20 (3.9%) of the reported AEFI. The combination of the
AEFI for DTwP/Hib vaccines showed the highest number of systemic (61.4%) and local
events (33.8%). Young children (≤1-year old) were more susceptible to AEFI occurring in
the 6 hours (54.2%) following vaccine uptake. This study suggests significant differences in
reactogenicity of vaccines and that despite limitations of the AEFI Brazilian registry system
we cannot ignore underreporting and should use the system to expand our understanding of
adverse events and effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586457/

“... despite limitations of
the AEFI Brazilian registry system
we cannot ignore underreporting ...”

Annals Of Medical & Health Sciences Research • July 2013

Are the Currently Existing
Anti-Human Papillomavirus Vaccines
Appropriate for the Developing World?
Author Information
LJ van Bogaert
Department Of Histopathology
National Health Laboratory, Service and University of Limpopo
Polokwane, South Africa
Abstract
Cervical cancer prevention is expected to be achieved by vaccination of girls 2-3
years before sexual debut, and cervical smear cytology follow-up. The existing human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines target the low-risk 6 and 11, and the high-risk
16 and 18 subtypes, the most common agents of ano-genital pre-invasive and invasive lesions. We conducted the review by searching PubMed using the terms “HPV,”
“HPV subtypes,” “developing world,” and “HPV-vaccine” to retrieve articles published between 2000 and 2011. We focused on studies that were relevant to the developing world. The proposed vaccination policy is currently unachievable in the
developing world because of the cost of the vaccine, the lack of adequate cytology
and follow-up infrastructures. Moreover, the subtypes of HPV involved in cervical
pathology, their associations, and natural history (clearance and persistence rates)
differ from the industrialized world. Therefore, the current bivalent and quadrivalent
anti-HPV vaccines are unlikely to achieve their target in the developing world. It follows from published data that there is an obligation of the pharmaceutical industry
and of the public-health policy makers not to embark on mass vaccination campaigns
without thorough information and investigation of the local relevance.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3793430/

“The proposed vaccination policy
is currently unachievable in the developing world
because of the cost of the vaccine, the lack of adequate
cytology and follow-up infrastructures. Moreover, the
subtypes of HPV involved in cervical pathology, their
associations, and natural history (clearance and
persistence rates) differ from the industrialized world.”

EMBO Reports • March 2013

Scientific dissent and public policy.
Is targeting dissent a reasonable way
to protect sound policy decisions?
Author information
de Melo-Martín I1, Intemann K.
Division of Medical Ethics
Department of Public Health
Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, USA
imd2001@med.cornell.edu
The temptation to silence dissenters whose non-mainstream views negatively affect public policies is powerful. However, silencing dissent,
no matter how scientifically unsound it might be, can cause the public
to mistrust science in general. Dissent is crucial for the advancement of
science. Disagreement is at the heart of peer review and is important for
uncovering unjustified assumptions, flawed methodologies and problematic reasoning.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3589084

“Dissent is crucial
for the advancement of science.
Disagreement is at the heart
of peer review and is important
for uncovering unjustified
assumptions, flawed
methodologies and
problematic reasoning.”

Vaccine • March 2013

Review of the United States universal varicella vaccination program:
Herpes zoster incidence rates, cost-effectiveness, and vaccine efficacy
based primarily on the Antelope Valley Varicella
Active Surveillance Project data
Author information
Goldman GS1, King PG.
Abstract
In a cooperative agreement starting January 1995, prior to the FDA’s licensure of the varicella vaccine on March
17, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) funded the Los Angeles Department of Health Services’ Antelope Valley Varicella Active Surveillance Project (AV-VASP). Since only varicella case reports were
gathered, baseline incidence data for herpes zoster (HZ) or shingles was lacking. Varicella case reports decreased
72%, from 2834 in 1995 to 836 in 2000 at which time approximately 50% of children under 10 years of age had
been vaccinated. Starting in 2000, HZ surveillance was added to the project. By 2002, notable increases in HZ
incidence rates were reported among both children and adults with a prior history of natural varicella. However,
CDC authorities still claimed that no increase in HZ had occurred in any US surveillance site. The basic assumptions inherent to the varicella cost-benefit analysis ignored the significance of exogenous boosting caused by those
shedding wild-type VZV. Also ignored was the morbidity associated with even rare serious events following varicella vaccination as well as the morbidity from increasing cases of HZ among adults. Vaccine efficacy declined
below 80% in 2001. By 2006, because 20% of vaccinees were experiencing breakthrough varicella and vaccine-induced protection was waning, the CDC recommended a booster dose for children and, in 2007, a shingles
vaccination was approved for adults aged 60 years and older. In the prelicensure era, 95% of adults experienced
natural chickenpox (usually as children)-these cases were usually benign and resulted in long-term immunity.
Varicella vaccination is less effective than the natural immunity that existed in prevaccine communities. Universal
varicella vaccination has not proven to be cost-effective as increased HZ morbidity has disproportionately offset
cost savings associated with reductions in varicella disease. Universal varicella vaccination has failed to provide
long-term protection from VZV disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22659447

“In the prelicensure era, 95% of adults experienced
natural chickenpox (usually as children)-these cases
were usually benign and resulted in long-term immunity.
Varicella vaccination is less effective than the natural
immunity that existed in prevaccine communities.
Universal varicella vaccination has not proven to be
cost-effective as increased HZ morbidity has disproportionately
offset cost savings associated with reductions in varicella
disease. Universal varicella vaccination has failed to
provide long-term protection from VZV disease.”

Frontiers In Cellular And Infection Microbiology • March 2013

Vaccine delivery using nanoparticles
Anthony E. Gregory,1,* Richard Titball,1 and Diane Williamson2
1. College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
2. DSTL Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltsire, SP4 0QJ, UK
Abstract
Vaccination has had a major impact on the control of infectious diseases. However,
there are still many infectious diseases for which the development of an effective vaccine has been elusive. In many cases the failure to devise vaccines is a consequence
of the inability of vaccine candidates to evoke appropriate immune responses. This is
especially true where cellular immunity is required for protective immunity and this
problem is compounded by the move toward devising sub-unit vaccines. Over the past
decade nanoscale size (<1000 nm) materials such as virus-like particles, liposomes,
ISCOMs, polymeric, and non-degradable nanospheres have received attention as potential delivery vehicles for vaccine antigens which can both stabilize vaccine antigens and act as adjuvants. Importantly, some of these nanoparticles (NPs) are able to
enter antigen-presenting cells by different pathways, thereby modulating the immune
response to the antigen. This may be critical for the induction of protective Th1-type
immune responses to intracellular pathogens. Their properties also make them suitable
for the delivery of antigens at mucosal surfaces and for intradermal administration. In
this review we compare the utilities of different NP systems for the delivery of sub-unit
vaccines and evaluate the potential of these delivery systems for the development of
new vaccines against a range of pathogens.
Many of the NP delivery systems mentioned in this review are capable of eliciting
both cellular and humoral immune responses. However, an efficient and protective
vaccine is likely to induce a combination of both responses and should be tailored to
the pathogen in question accordingly. Whilst these delivery vehicles may present as an
exciting prospect for future vaccination strategies, it is also worth noting their potential
drawbacks, particulary those associated with cytotoxicity. Since NPs have a relatively
short history in medicine they do not have a longstanding safety profile in human use.
It is therefore essential that further research is carried out in NP toxicity to fully address
these questions if they are to be accepted as an alternative method for the delivery of
novel vaccines and are licensed more widely for human use.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3607064/

“Whilst these delivery vehicles
may present as an exciting prospect
for future vaccination strategies, it is also
worth noting their potential drawbacks,
particulary those associated with cytotoxicity.”

“This is the new wind blowing within the branches of autoimmunity ...”
BMC Medicine • April 2013

Novel pebbles in the mosaic of autoimmunity
Perricone C, Agmon-Levin N, Shoenfeld Y.
Abstract
Almost 25 years ago, the concept of the ‘mosaic of autoimmunity’ was introduced to the scientific community,
and since then this concept has continuously evolved, with new pebbles being added regularly. We are now looking at an era in which the players of autoimmunity have changed names and roles. In this issue of BMC Medicine,
several aspects of autoimmunity have been addressed, suggesting that we are now at the forefront of autoimmunity science. Within the environmental factors generating autoimmunity are now included unsuspected molecules
such as vitamin D and aluminum. Some adjuvants such as aluminum are recognized as causal factors in the
development of the autoimmune response. An entirely new syndrome, the autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants (ASIA), has been recently described. This is the new wind blowing within the branches of
autoimmunity, adding knowledge to physicians for helping patients with autoimmune disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23557479

Virus Genes • April 2013

Genetic characterization of HA gene
of low pathogenic H9N2 influenza viruses
isolated in Israel during 2006-2012 periods
Author information
Davidson I1, Shkoda I, Golender N, Perk S,
Lapin K, Khinich Y, Panshin A.
Kimron Veterinary Institute
P.O. Box 12, 50250 Beit Dagan, Israel
davidsoni@int.gov.il
Abstract
H9N2 influenza viruses are isolated in Israel since 2000 and became endemic. From November 2006 to the beginning of 2012,
many H9N2 viruses were identified, all belonged to the Asian G1like lineage represented by A/qu/Hong Kong/G1/97 (H9N2). In
the present study, 66 isolates were selected for their hemagglutinin gene characterization. Most H9N2 isolates were distributed
between two main groups, identified as the 4th and 5th introductions. The 5th introduction, was represented by a compact cluster
containing viruses isolated in 2011-2012; the 4th introduction was
subdivided into two subgroups, A and B, each containing at least
two clusters, which can be identified as A-1, A-2, B-1, and B2,
respectively. Genetic analysis of the deduced HA proteins of viruses, belonging to the 4th and 5th introductions, revealed amino
acid variations in 79 out of 542 positions. All isolates had typical low pathogenicity motifs at the hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage
site. Most viruses had leucine at position 216 in a receptor binding
pocket that enables the virus to bind successfully with the cellular
receptors intrinsic to mammals, including humans. It was shown
that the differences between the HA proteins of viruses used for
vaccine production and local field isolates increased in parallel
with the duration and intensity of vaccine use, illustrating the genetic diversity of the H9N2 viruses in Israel.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23271448

“... the differences between the HA proteins of viruses
used for vaccine production and local field isolates
increased in parallel with the duration and intensity
of vaccine use, illustrating the genetic diversity of the
H9N2 viruses in Israel.”

Cell Biology And Toxicology • April 2013

How aluminum, an intracellular ROS generator
promotes hepatic and neurological diseases:
the metabolic tale
Author information
Han S1, Lemire J, Appanna VP,
Auger C, Castonguay Z, Appanna VD.
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Laurentian University, Sudbury
Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada
Abstract
Metal pollutants are a global health risk due to their ability to contribute to a
variety of diseases. Aluminum (Al), a ubiquitous environmental contaminant
is implicated in anemia, osteomalacia, hepatic disorder, and neurological disorder. In this review, we outline how this intracellular generator of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) triggers a metabolic shift towards lipogenesis in astrocytes and hepatocytes. This Al-evoked phenomenon is coupled to diminished
mitochondrial activity, anerobiosis, and the channeling of a-ketoacids towards
anti-oxidant defense. The resulting metabolic reconfiguration leads to fat accumulation and a reduction in ATP synthesis, characteristics that are common
to numerous medical disorders. Hence, the ability of Al toxicity to create an
oxidative environment promotes dysfunctional metabolic processes in astrocytes and hepatocytes. These molecular events triggered by Al-induced ROS
production are the potential mediators of brain and liver disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23463459

“The resulting metabolic reconfiguration
leads to fat accumulation and a reduction in ATP
synthesis, characteristics that are common to
numerous medical disorders.

Hence, the ability of Al toxicity to create an
oxidative environment promotes dysfunctional
metabolic processes in astrocytes and
hepatocytes. These molecular events triggered
by Al-induced ROS production are the potential
mediators of brain and liver disorders.”

“The incidence of narcolepsy was 25 times higher after the vaccination
compared with the time period before. The children in the postvaccination group had
a lower age at onset and a more sudden onset than that generally seen.”
Neurology • April 2013

Increased childhood incidence of narcolepsy
in western Sweden after H1N1 influenza vaccination
Author information
Szakács A1, Darin N, Hallböök T.
Department of Children
County Hospital, Halmstad, Sweden
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
To assess the incidence of narcolepsy between January 2000 and December 2010 in children in western Sweden and its
relationship to the Pandemrix vaccination, and to compare the clinical and laboratory features of these children.
METHODS
The children were identified from all local and regional pediatric hospitals, child rehabilitation centers, outpatient pediatric clinics, and regional departments of neurophysiology. Data collection was performed with the aid of a standardized
data collection form, from medical records and telephone interviews with patients and parents. The laboratory and investigational data were carefully scrutinized.
RESULTS
We identified 37 children with narcolepsy. Nine of them had onset of symptoms before the H1N1 vaccination and 28 had
onset of symptoms in relationship to the vaccination. The median age at onset was 10 years. All patients in the postvaccination group were positive for human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQB1*0602. Nineteen patients in the postvaccination
group, compared with one in the prevaccination group, had a clinical onset that could be dated within 12 weeks.
CONCLUSION
Pandemrix vaccination is a precipitating factor for narcolepsy, especially in combination with HLA-DQB1*0602. The
incidence of narcolepsy was 25 times higher after the vaccination compared with the time period before. The children in
the postvaccination group had a lower age at onset and a more sudden onset than that generally seen.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23486871

Expert Reviews Of Clinical Immunology • April 2013

Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants (Shoenfeld’s syndrome):
clinical and immunological spectrum
Author information
Vera-Lastra O1, Medina G, Cruz-Dominguez Mdel P, Jara LJ, Shoenfeld Y.
Hospital de Especialidades Centro Médico La Raza
Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social
Mexico City, Mexico
Abstract
An adjuvant is a substance that enhances the antigen-specific immune response, induces the release of inflammatory cytokines, and interacts with Toll-like receptors
and the NALP3 inflammasome. The immunological consequence of these actions is
to stimulate the innate and adaptive immune response. The activation of the immune
system by adjuvants, a desirable effect, could trigger manifestations of autoimmunity
or autoimmune disease. Recently, a new syndrome was introduced, autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA), that includes postvaccination
phenomena, macrophagic myofasciitis, Gulf War syndrome and siliconosis. This syndrome is characterized by nonspecific and specific manifestations of autoimmune disease. The main substances associated with ASIA are squalene (Gulf War syndrome),
aluminum hydroxide (postvaccination phenomena, macrophagic myofasciitis) and
silicone with siliconosis. Mineral oil, guaiacol and iodine gadital are also associated
with ASIA. The following review describes the wide clinical spectrum and pathogenesis of ASIA including defined autoimmune diseases and nonspecific autoimmune
manifestations, as well as the outlook of future research in this field.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23557271

“The activation of the immune system by adjuvants,
a desirable effect, could trigger manifestations of autoimmunity
or autoimmune disease. Recently, a new syndrome was
introduced, autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced
by adjuvants (ASIA), that includes postvaccination phenomena,
macrophagic myofasciitis, Gulf War syndrome and siliconosis.”

PLoS One • April 2013

Altered response to A(H1N1)pnd09
vaccination in pregnant women:
a single blinded randomized controlled trial
Author information
Bischoff AL1, Følsgaard NV, Carson CG, Stokholm J,
Pedersen L, Holmberg M, Bisgaard A, Birch S, Tsai TF, Bisgaard H.
Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood (COPSAC)
Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital
Gentofte, Denmark
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Pregnant women were suspected to be at particular risk when H1N1pnd09 influenza became pandemic in 2009. Our primary objective was to compare the immune responses
conferred by MF59®-adjuvanted vaccine (Focetria®) in H1N1pnd09-naïve pregnant and
non-pregnant women. The secondary aims were to compare influences of dose and adjuvant on the immune response.
METHODS
The study was nested in the Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood
(COPSAC2010) pregnancy cohort in 2009-2010 and conducted as a single-blinded blockrandomised [1∼1∼1] controlled clinical trial in pregnant women after gestational week
20: (1) 7.5 μg H1N1pnd09 antigen with MF59-adjuvant (Pa7.5 μg); (2) 3.75 μg antigen
half MF59-adjuvanted (Pa3.75 μg); (3) 15 μg antigen unadjuvanted (P15 μg); and in
non-pregnant women receiving (4) 7.5 μg antigen full adjuvanted (NPa7.5 μg). Blood
samples were collected at baseline, 3 weeks, 3 and 10 months after vaccination, adverse
events were recorded prospectively.
RESULTS
58 pregnant women were allocated to Pa7.5 μg and 149 non-pregnant women were recruited to NPa7.5 μg. The sero-conversion rate was significantly increased in non-pregnant (NPa7.5 μg) compared with pregnant (Pa7.5 μg) women (OR = 2.48 [1.03-5.95],
p = 0.04) and geometric mean titers trended towards being higher, but this difference was
not statistically significant (ratio 1.27 [0.85-1.93], p = 0.23). The significant titer increase
rate showed no difference between pregnant (Pa7.5 μg) and non-pregnant (NPa7.5 μg)
groups (OR = 0.49 [0.13-1.85], p = 0.29).
CONCLUSION
Our study suggests the immune response to the 7.5 μg MF59-adjuvanted Focetria®
H1N1pnd09 vaccine in pregnant women may be diminished compared with non-pregnant women.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23637733

“Our study suggests
the immune response
to the 7.5 μg MF59-adjuvanted Focetria®
H1N1pnd09 vaccine in pregnant women
may be diminished compared
with non-pregnant women.”

“Prevalence of CD and UC increased 2-fold to 3-fold among VA users between 1998 and 2009.”
Inflammatory Bowel Diseases • April 2013

The incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease
among U.S. veterans: A national cohort study
Hou, J.K.ab, Kramer, J.R.ab, Richardson, P.ab, Mei, M.ab, El-Serag, H.B.ab
a. Houston VA HSR and D Center of Excellence, Houston, TX, United States
b. Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
Abstract
Background: Temporal trends in incidence and prevalence of Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) in
the United States have been reported only in regional populations. The Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system
encompasses a national network of clinical care facilities. The aim of this study was to identify temporal trends in
the incidence and prevalence of CD and UC among VA users using national VA data sets. Methods: Veterans with
CD and UC were identified during fiscal years 1998 to 2009 in the national VA outpatient and inpatient files. Incident and prevalent cases were identified by diagnosis code, and age-standardized and gender-standardized annual
prevalence and incidence rates were estimated using the VA 1998 population as the standard population. Results:
The total of unique incident cases were 16,842 and 26,272 for CD and UC, respectively; 94% were men. The average annual age-standardized and gender-standardized incidence rate of CD was 33 per 100,000 VA users (range,
27-40), whereas the average for UC was 50 per 100,000 VA users (range, 36-65). In 2009, the age-standardized
and gender-standardized point prevalence rate of CD was 287 per 100,000 VA users, whereas the point prevalence
of UC was 413 per 100,000 VA users. Conclusions: Prevalence of CD and UC increased 2-fold to 3-fold among
VA users between 1998 and 2009. The incidence of UC decreased among VA users from 1998 to 2004 but has
remained stable from 2005 to 2009. The incidence of CD has remained stable during the observed time period.
http://www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pubmed/23448789

Clinical Infectious Disease • May 2013

Influenza vaccine effectiveness
in the community and the household
Author information
Ohmit SE1, Petrie JG, Malosh RE
Cowling BJ, Thompson MG, Shay DK, Monto AS.
Department of Epidemiology
University of Michigan School of Public Health
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
sohmit@umich.edu
Abstract
Background
There is a recognized need to determine influenza vaccine effectiveness on an annual basis and a long history
of studying respiratory illnesses in households.
Methods
We recruited 328 households with 1441 members, including 839 children, and followed them during the
2010-2011 influenza season. Specimens were collected
from subjects with reported acute respiratory illnesses
and tested by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase
chain reaction. Receipt of influenza vaccine was defined
based on documented evidence of vaccination in medical records or an immunization registry. The effectiveness of 2010-2011 influenza vaccination in preventing
laboratory-confirmed influenza was estimated using Cox
proportional hazards models adjusted for age and presence of high-risk condition, and stratified by prior season
(2009-2010) vaccination status.
Results
Influenza was identified in 78 (24%) households and 125
(9%) individuals; the infection risk was 8.5% in the vaccinated and 8.9% in the unvaccinated (P = .83). Adjusted
vaccine effectiveness in preventing community-acquired
influenza was 31% (95% confidence interval [CI], -7%
to 55%). In vaccinated subjects with no evidence of prior season vaccination, significant protection (62% [95%

CI, 17%-82%]) against community-acquired influenza
was demonstrated. Substantially lower effectiveness
was noted among subjects who were vaccinated in both
the current and prior season. There was no evidence that
vaccination prevented household transmission once influenza was introduced; adults were at particular risk despite vaccination.
Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness
(From Full Report Linked Below)
Adjusted vaccine effectiveness in preventing community-acquired influenza was 31% (95% confidence interval
[CI], ∼7 to 55); point estimates were lowest in young
children and modestly higher in adults. Stratified analyses indicated substantial differences in vaccine effectiveness based on whether or not seasonal influenza vaccine
had been received the prior season (interaction term: P =
.014). Among subjects with documented evidence of prior season vaccination, estimates of current season vaccine effectiveness were low overall and in each of the age
groups examined. In contrast, for those subjects without
evidence of prior season vaccine receipt, effectiveness
estimates were higher for all age groups and statistically
significant overall (62% [95% CI, 17%–82%]).
In adjusted analyses for all ages combined, effectiveness
estimates were highest against influenza type B (48%
[95% CI, ∼5% to 75%]), and lower for A (pH1N1) (26%
[95% CI, ∼68% to 67%]) and A (H3N2) (10% [95% CI,
∼74% to 54%]). In analyses stratified by prior season
vaccination status, estimates were substantially higher
for those subjects without evidence of prior season vaccine receipt.
Conclusions
Vaccine effectiveness estimates were lower than those
demonstrated in other observational studies carried out
during the same season. The unexpected findings of lower effectiveness with repeated vaccination and no protection given household exposure require further study.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23413420
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3693492/

“Influenza was identified in 78
(24%) households and 125 (9%)
individuals; the infection risk
was 8.5% in the vaccinated and
8.9% in the unvaccinated
(P = .83). Adjusted vaccine
effectiveness in preventing
community-acquired influenza
was 31% (95% confidence interval [CI], -7% to 55%).
In vaccinated subjects with no
evidence of prior season
vaccination, significant
protection (62% [95% CI, 17%82%]) against communityacquired influenza was
demonstrated. Substantially
lower effectiveness was noted
among subjects who were
vaccinated in both the current
and prior season. There was no
evidence that vaccination
prevented household
transmission once influenza
was introduced; adults were
at particular risk despite
vaccination.”

Human And Experimental Toxicology • May 2013

Comparison of VAERS fetal-loss reports
during three consecutive influenza seasons:
was there a synergistic fetal toxicity associated
with the two-vaccine 2009/2010 season?
Author information
Goldman GS
Independent Computer Scientist
Pearblossom, CA 93553, USA
gsgoldman@roadrunner.com
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare the number of inactivated-influenza vaccine-related spontaneous abortion and stillbirth (SB) reports in
the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) database during
three consecutive flu seasons beginning 2008/2009 and assess the relative fetal death reports associated with the two-vaccine 2009/2010 season.
The VAERS database was searched for reports of fetal demise following
administration of the influenza vaccine/vaccines to pregnant women. Utilization of an independent surveillance survey and VAERS, two-source
capture-recapture analysis estimated the reporting completeness in the
2009/2010 flu season. Capture-recapture demonstrated that the VAERS
database captured about 13.2% of the total 1321 (95% confidence interval
(CI): 815-2795) estimated reports, yielding an ascertainment-corrected
rate of 590 fetal-loss reports per million pregnant women vaccinated (or 1
per 1695). The unadjusted fetal-loss report rates for the three consecutive
influenza seasons beginning 2008/2009 were 6.8 (95% CI: 0.1-13.1), 77.8
(95% CI: 66.3-89.4), and 12.6 (95% CI: 7.2-18.0) cases per million pregnant women vaccinated, respectively. The observed reporting bias was too
low to explain the magnitude increase in fetal-demise reporting rates in the
VAERS database relative to the reported annual trends. Thus, a synergistic
fetal toxicity likely resulted from the administration of both the pandemic
(A-H1N1) and seasonal influenza vaccines during the 2009/2010 season.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3888271/

“Thus, a synergistic fetal toxicity likely
resulted from the administration of both the
pandemic (A-H1N1) and seasonal influenza
vaccines during the 2009/2010 season.”

“While young infants represent the major target population for vaccination,
effective immunization in this age group remains a challenge. Many parameters of innate immune responses
differ quantitatively and qualitatively from newborns to infants and adults,
revealing a highly regulated developmental program.”
Vaccine • May 2013

Immune response to vaccine adjuvants during the first year of life
Ofer Levya, Stanislas Gorielyb, Tobias R. Kollmannc
Abstract
Subunit vaccine formulations often include adjuvants that primarily stimulate innate immune cells. While young
infants represent the major target population for vaccination, effective immunization in this age group remains a
challenge. Many parameters of innate immune responses differ quantitatively and qualitatively from newborns to
infants and adults, revealing a highly regulated developmental program. Herein, we discuss the potential implications of innate immune ontogeny for the activity of adjuvants contained in licensed infant vaccines, as well as
future directions for rational design of adjuvanted vaccines for this age group.
• We comprehensively reviewed mechanisms of action of licensed adjuvants.
• We examined the changes of adjuvant responses with age in early life.
• We juxtaposed the current knowledge with safety considerations.
• We point to the need for targeted investigations of adjuvant activity early in life.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X12014624

Scandinavian Journal Of Clinical And Laboratory Investigations • May 2013

Leukocyte transcript alterations
in West-African girls following a booster vaccination
with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine
Author information
Orntoft NW1, Thorsen K, Benn CS, Lemvik G,
Nanque JR, Aaby P, Ostergaard L, Agergaard J.
Department of Medicine V (Hepatology and Gastroenterology)
Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
Abstract
Background. Observational studies from low-income countries have shown that the
vaccination against diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (DTP) is associated with excess
female mortality due to infectious diseases. Methods. To investigate possible changes
in gene expression after DTP vaccination, we identified a group of nine comparable
West African girls, from a biobank of 356 children, who were due to receive DTP
booster vaccine at age 18 months. As a pilot experiment we extracted RNA from blood
samples before, and 6 weeks after, vaccination to analyze the coding transcriptome in
leukocytes using expression microarrays, and ended up with information from eight
girls. The data was further analyzed using dedicated array pathway and network software. We aimed to study whether DTP vaccination introduced a systematic alteration
in the immune system in girls. Results. We found very few transcripts to alter systematically. Those that did mainly belonged to the Interferon (IFN) signalling pathway.
We scrutinized this pathway as well as the Interleukin (IL) pathways. Two out of eight
showed a down-regulated IFN pathway and two showed an up-regulated IFN pathway.
The two with down-regulated IFN pathway had also down-regulated IL-6 pathway. In
the study of networks, two of the girls stood out as not having the inflammatory response as top altered network. Conclusion. The transcriptome changes following DTP
booster vaccination were subtle, but although the material was small, it was possible to
identify sub groups that deviate from each other, mainly in the IFN response.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23668887

“Two out of eight showed a down-regulated
IFN [Interferon] pathway and two showed an
up-regulated IFN [Interferon] pathway.”

BMC Medicine • May 2013

Video Q&A: what is ASIA?
An interview with Yehuda Shoenfeld
Yehuda Shoenfeld
Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Aviv University
Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
Introduction
Professor Yehuda Shoenfeld is the founder and head of the Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases at the Sheba Medical Center, which is affiliated to the Sackler Faculty of Medicine at Tel-Aviv University, Israel. He is also the Incumbent of the Laura
Schwarz-Kipp Chair for Research of Autoimmune Diseases at Tel-Aviv University. His
clinical and scientific works focus on autoimmune and rheumatic diseases, and he has
been the recipient of multiple awards, including a Life Contribution Prize in Internal
Medicine in Israel, 2012.
In recent years, Professor Shoenfeld noted that four conditions: siliconosis, Gulf War
syndrome (GWS), macrophagicmyofasciitis syndrome (MMF) and post-vaccination
phenomena were linked with previous exposure to an adjuvant, and that the patients also
presented with similar clinical symptoms. In 2011, this led Professor Shoenfeld to suggest these comparable conditions should be grouped under a common syndrome entitled
‘ASIA’, for ‘Autoimmune (Autoinflammatory) Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants’.
In this Q&A we talk to Professor Shoenfeld about ASIA, and discuss his recommendations regarding further research in the field.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662178/
Video Interview
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0n12pWMfHhs

“In this Q&A we talk to
Professor Shoenfeld about ASIA,
and discuss his recommendations
regarding further research in the field.”

PLoS One • June 2013

Exercise challenge
in Gulf War Illness
reveals two subgroups
with altered brain structure and function
Author information
Rayhan RU1, Stevens BW, Raksit MP, Ripple JA,
Timbol CR, Adewuyi O, VanMeter JW, Baraniuk JN.
Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy
Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center
Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
rur@georgetown.edu
Abstract
Nearly 30% of the approximately 700,000 military personnel who
served in Operation Desert Storm (1990-1991) have developed Gulf
War Illness, a condition that presents with symptoms such as cognitive
impairment, autonomic dysfunction, debilitating fatigue and chronic
widespread pain that implicate the central nervous system. A hallmark
complaint of subjects with Gulf War Illness is post-exertional malaise; defined as an exacerbation of symptoms following physical and/
or mental effort. To study the causal relationship between exercise,
the brain, and changes in symptoms, 28 Gulf War veterans and 10
controls completed an fMRI scan before and after two exercise stress
tests to investigate serial changes in pain, autonomic function, and
working memory. Exercise induced two clinical Gulf War Illness subgroups. One subgroup presented with orthostatic tachycardia (n = 10).
This phenotype correlated with brainstem atrophy, baseline working memory compensation in the cerebellar vermis, and subsequent
loss of compensation after exercise. The other subgroup developed
exercise induced hyperalgesia (n = 18) that was associated with cortical atrophy and baseline working memory compensation in the basal
ganglia. Alterations in cognition, brain structure, and symptoms were
absent in controls. Our novel findings may provide an understanding
of the relationship between the brain and post-exertional malaise in
Gulf War Illness.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23798990

“Nearly 30%
of the approximately 700,000 military
personnel who served in Operation
Desert Storm (1990-1991) have
developed Gulf War Illness, a
condition that presents with symptoms
such as cognitive impairment,
autonomic dysfunction, debilitating
fatigue and chronic widespread
pain that implicate the central
nervous system.”

Methods In Molecular Biology • June 2013

Databases and in silico tools for vaccine design
Author information
He Y1, Xiang Z.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology
Center for Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics
University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Abstract
In vaccine design, databases and in silico tools play different but complementary roles. Databases collect experimentally verified vaccines and vaccine
components, and in silico tools provide computational methods to predict and
design new vaccines and vaccine components. Vaccine-related databases include databases of vaccines and vaccine components. In the USA, the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) maintains a database of licensed human vaccines, and the US Department of Agriculture keeps a database of licensed animal vaccines. Databases of vaccine clinical trials and vaccines in research also
exist. The important vaccine components include vaccine antigens, vaccine
adjuvants, vaccine vectors, and -vaccine preservatives. The vaccine antigens
can be whole proteins or immune epitopes. Various in silico vaccine design
tools are also available. The Vaccine Investigation and Online Information
Network (VIOLIN; http://www.violinet.org ) is a comprehensive vaccine database and analysis system. The VIOLIN database includes various types of
vaccines and vaccine components. VIOLIN also includes Vaxign, a Web-based
in silico vaccine design program based on the reverse vaccinology strategy.
Vaccine information and resources can be integrated with Vaccine Ontology
(VO). This chapter introduces databases and in silico tools that facilitate vaccine design, especially those in the VIOLIN system.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23568467

“Vaxign, a Web-based in silico vaccine
design program based on the
reverse vaccinology strategy.”

Romanian Journal Of Internal Medicine • July 2013

ASIA or Shoenfeld’s syndrome—
an autoimmune syndrome induced by adjuvants
Cojocaru M, Chico∼ B.
Abstract
Recently, reports have suggested grouping different autoimmune conditions
that are triggered by external stimuli as a single syndrome called autoimmune syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA). This syndrome is characterized by the appearance of myalgia, myositis, muscle weakness, arthralgia, arthritis, chronic fatigue, sleep disturbances, cognitive impairment and
memory loss, and the possible emergence of a demyelinating autoimmune
disease caused by systemic exposure after vaccines and adjuvants. As there
are no markers for ASIA, the authors intend to present ASIA, or Shoenfeld’s
syndrome, as an autoimmune syndrome induced by adjuvants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24620624

“This syndrome is characterized
by the appearance of myalgia, myositis,
muscle weakness, arthralgia, arthritis, chronic fatigue,
sleep disturbances, cognitive impairment and memory
loss, and the possible emergence of a demyelinating
autoimmune disease caused by systemic exposure
after vaccines and adjuvants.”

Immunology Research • July 2013

Adverse events
following immunization with vaccines
containing adjuvants
Author information
Cerpa-Cruz S1, Paredes-Casillas P, Landeros Navarro E,
Bernard-Medina AG, Martínez-Bonilla G, Gutiérrez-Ureña S.
Rheumatology and Immunology Department
Hospital Civil de Guadalajara Fray Antonio Alcalde
Hospital 278, SH, Colonia El Retiro, 44280
Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
sacer04@prodigy.net.mx
Abstract
A traditional infectious disease vaccine is a preparation of live attenuated, inactivated or killed pathogen that stimulates immunity. Vaccine immunologic adjuvants are
compounds incorporated into vaccines to enhance immunogenicity. Adjuvants have
recently been implicated in the new syndrome named ASIA autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants. The objective describes the frequencies of postvaccination clinical syndrome induced by adjuvants. We performed a cross-sectional
study; adverse event following immunization was defined as any untoward medical
occurrence that follows immunization 54 days prior to the event. Data on vaccinations and other risk factors were obtained from daily epidemiologic surveillance.
Descriptive statistics were done using means and standard deviation, and odds ratio
adjusted for potential confounding variables was calculated with SPSS 17 software.
Forty-three out of 120 patients with moderate or severe manifestations following
immunization were hospitalized from 2008 to 2011. All patients fulfilled at least
2 major and 1 minor criteria suggested by Shoenfeld and Agmon-Levin for ASIA
diagnosis. The most frequent clinical findings were pyrexia 68%, arthralgias 47%,
cutaneous disorders 33%, muscle weakness 16% and myalgias 14%. Three patients
had diagnosis of Guillain-Barre syndrome, one patient had Adult-Still’s disease 3
days after vaccination. A total of 76% of the events occurred in the first 3 days postvaccination. Two patients with previous autoimmune disease showed severe adverse
reactions with the reactivation of their illness. Minor local reactions were present in
49% of patients. Vaccines containing adjuvants may be associated with an increased
risk of autoimmune/inflammatory adverse events following immunization.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23576057

“Vaccines containing adjuvants
may be associated with an increased risk
of autoimmune/inflammatory adverse
events following immunization.”

“... a form of the autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA syndrome)
in commercial sheep, linked to the repetitive inoculation of aluminum-containing adjuvants through vaccination.
The syndrome shows an acute phase that affects less than 0.5% of animals in a given herd ...”
[a syndrome that affects 5,000 per each 1 million]
Immunology Research • July 2013

Autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants
(ASIA syndrome) in commercial sheep
Author information
Luján L1, Pérez M, Salazar E, Álvarez N, Gimeno M,
Pinczowski P, Irusta S, Santamaría J, Insausti N, Cortés Y,
Figueras L, Cuartielles I, Vila M, Fantova E, Chapullé JL.
Department of Animal Pathology
Veterinary Faculty, University of Zaragoza
177 Miguel Servet Street, 50013, Saragossa, Spain
Lluis.Lujan@unizar.es
Abstract
We describe a form of the autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA syndrome) in commercial sheep, linked to the repetitive inoculation of aluminum-containing adjuvants through vaccination. The syndrome shows an acute phase that affects less than 0.5% of animals in a given herd,
it appears 2-6 days after an adjuvant-containing inoculation and it is characterized by an acute neurological episode with low response to external stimuli
and acute meningoencephalitis, most animals apparently recovering afterward. The chronic phase is seen in a higher proportion of flocks, it can follow the
acute phase, and it is triggered by external stimuli, mostly low temperatures. The chronic phase begins with an excitatory phase, followed by weakness,
extreme cachexia, tetraplegia and death. Gross lesions are related to a cachectic process with muscular atrophy, and microscopic lesions are mostly linked
to a neurodegenerative process in both dorsal and ventral column of the gray matter of the spinal cord. Experimental reproduction of ovine ASIA in a small
group of repeatedly vaccinated animals was successful. Detection of Al(III) in tissues indicated the presence of aluminum in the nervous tissue of experimental animals. The present report is the first description of a new sheep syndrome (ovine ASIA syndrome) linked to multiple, repetitive vaccination and
that can have devastating consequences as it happened after the compulsory vaccination against bluetongue in 2008. The ovine ASIA syndrome can be used
as a model of other similar diseases affecting both human and animals. A major research effort is needed in order to understand its complex pathogenesis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23579772

American Journal of Homeopathic Medicine • Autumn 2013

Hidden in Plain Sight: Vaccines as a Major Risk Factor for Chronic Disease
Richard Moskowitz, MD
Abstract
The science and politics of vaccination in this country are examined, with a careful look at the rationale for mandatory vaccination, benefits, and harms, and illustrated by case examples showing
injury, yet problematic medical-legal recognition.
Thirty-five years of medical practice have convinced me that all vaccines carry a significant risk
of chronic disease that is inherent in the vaccination process and in fact central to how they work.
Yet the growing concerns of parents and legislators and the media reports about them seldom elicit
anything beyond automatic, scornful denials by medical and public health authorities alike. Reflecting on this discrepancy, the focal point of this essay, has also helped me appreciate how much
the invisibility actually heightens the risk, and how intimately these phenomena are connected,
like mirror-images of the same reality, so that it is wisest to study them together.
Since I am mainly a clinician, I will begin with a story. It concerns a twelve-year-old boy whom
I know of solely from his mother’s letter, but her words are so heartfelt and so congruent with the
rest of my experience that I cannot doubt their veracity:
My son Adam was healthy until his first MMR shot at 15 months. Within 2 weeks he had flu and
cold symptoms, which persisted for 6 weeks. Then his eyes became puffy, and he was hospitalized
with nephrotic syndrome. A renal biopsy showed “focal sclerosing glomerulonephritis,” but the
illness didn’t respond to steroids. I asked if it could be related to the vaccine, but they told me it
couldn’t, and we accepted that. Over the next 4 years he was hospitalized repeatedly, and missed
many months of school, but finally went into remission, seeming normal and healthy and staying
off all medications for about 5 years.
When he turned 10, his pediatrician recommended a booster, saying that a rise in measles cases
made it dangerous for him not to be protected. I checked the PDR and other sources but found no

contraindication for kidney disease and no listing of nephrosis as a possible adverse reaction, so
I agreed to it. In less than 2 weeks he relapsed, with 4+ protein in his urine, swelling, and weight
gain, signs that we recognized immediately. He got worse even on Prednisone, and was admitted
in hypertensive crisis, with blood in his urine, fluid in his lungs,*and massive weight gain. On Cytoxan, massive doses of Prednisone, and three other drugs, he slowly improved, but missed another
7 months of school.
It’s been 2 years since that horrible episode, and he still needs Captopril daily for high blood pressure, and spills 4+ protein every day. The doctor says he sustained major kidney damage, will always need medication to control his blood pressure, and will worsen as he grows older, necessitating a transplant eventually. This time I was convinced that his condition was related to the vaccine,
but still the doctors didn’t take me seriously, and told me it was a coincidence.
I began searching for information, and even contacted the manufacturer of the vaccine. Finally
they sent me two case reports of nephrotic syndrome following the MMR vaccine. It’s very difficult for lay people to get information, or even ask questions, since we don’t use the correct medical
terms and are made to feel stupid. Please tell me if my ideas are reasonable.
I don’t think my son could tolerate another episode, and I think he’d have normal blood pressure
and kidney function today if not for that second vaccination. I also have a great concern for other
children who develop nephritic syndrome some weeks after receiving MMR and whose doctors
never make the connection. They could all be at great risk if revaccinated. I realize that this letter
has taken up a great deal of your time, and I’d appreciate any help you can give me. If we were
closer, I’d make an appointment to see you in person, so please feel free to charge me. Thank
you.
Full Text
http://www.whale.to/vaccine/moskowitz.html

Advisory Commission on Childhood Vaccines • September 2013

Updating the Vaccine Injury Table:
Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) and
Seasonal Influenza Vaccines
Ahmed Calvo, M.D., M.P.H.
Medical Officer
National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP)
Summary

The report leaves us understanding that the strength of evidence
and association is high between (2009) H1N1 vaccines and Guillain Barre Syndrome.
Full Report
http://www.hrsa.gov/vaccinecompensation/updatevaccineinjurytable2013.pdf

Current Alzheimer Research • November 2013

Military risk factors for cognitive decline,
dementia and Alzheimer’s disease
Author information
Veitch DP1, Friedl KE, Weiner MW.
Center for Imaging of Neurodegenerative Diseases
Veterans Medical Center and Departments of
Radiology, Medicine, Psychiatry and Neurology
University of California, San Francisco
San Francisco, CA, USA
michael.weiner@ucsf.edu
Abstract
Delayed neurological health consequences of environmental exposures
during military service have been generally underappreciated. The rapidly expanding understanding of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathogenesis now makes it possible to quantitate some of the likely long-term
health risks associated with military service. Military risk factors for
AD include both factors elevated in military personnel such as tobacco
use, traumatic brain injury (TBI), depression, and post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) and other nonspecific risk factors for AD including,
vascular risk factors such as obesity and obesity-related diseases (e.g.,
metabolic syndrome), education and physical fitness. The degree of
combat exposure, Vietnam era Agent Orange exposure and Gulf War
Illness may also influence risk for AD. Using available data on the association of AD and specific exposures and risk factors, the authors
have conservatively estimated 423,000 new cases of AD in veterans by
2020, including 140,000 excess cases associated with specific military
exposures. The cost associated with these excess cases is approximately
$5.8 billion to $7.8 billion. Mitigation of the potential impact of military exposures on the cognitive function of veterans and management of
modifiable risk factors through specifically designed programs will be
instrumental in minimizing the impact of AD in veterans in the future
decades.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23906002

“... the authors have conservatively estimated
423,000 new cases of AD in veterans by 2020,
including 140,000 excess cases associated with specific
military exposures. The cost associated with these excess
cases is approximately $5.8 billion to $7.8 billion.”

Journal Of Inorganic Biochemistry • November 2013

Distinctive clinical features
in arthro-myalgic patients with and without
aluminum hydroxyde-induced macrophagic myofasciitis:
an exploratory study
Author information
Ragunathan-Thangarajah N1, Le Beller C, Boutouyrie P,
Bassez G, Gherardi RK, Laurent S, Authier FJ.
INSERM U955-Equipe 10
Université Paris Est-Créteil, Créteil, France
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is a specific histological lesion assessing the persistence of vaccine-derived aluminum oxyhydroxide in muscle tissue, at a site of previous
immunization. Long-lasting MMF is usually detected in patients with arthromyalgias,
chronic fatigue, and stereotyped cognitive dysfunction. MMF diagnosis requires muscle
biopsy, an invasive procedure not suitable for the routine investigation of all patients
with musculoskeletal pain. To help decision making in routine practice, we designed a
retrospective analysis of 130 consecutive arthro-myalgic patients, previously immunized
with aluminum-containing vaccines, in whom deltoid muscle biopsy was performed for
diagnostic purposes. According to biopsy results, the patients were ascribed to either the
MMF or the non-MMF group. MMF was diagnosed in 32.3% of the patients. MMF and
non-MMF groups were similar according to both the injected vaccines and the delay
between vaccination and biopsy. MMF patients had less frequent fibromyalgia than nonMMF patients (≥11 fibromyalgic tender points in 16.6 vs 55.5%, p < 0.04), and more often
abnormal evoked potentials suggestive of CNS demyelination (38.5 vs 5.7%, p < 0.01).
Predictive bioclinical scores based on simple variables such as the number of fibromyalgic tender points, arthralgias, and spinal pain, had sensitivity ranging from 50 to 88.1%
and specificity from 36.4 to 76.1%.
In Conclusion
(i) most aluminum-containing vaccine receivers do not have long-lasting MMF in their
muscle, but the prevalence of MMF among patients with arthromyalgia following immunization is substantial; (ii) patients with MMF have more CNS dysfunction and less
fibromyalgic tender points than non-MMF patients; (iii) predictive scores may help to
identify patients at high vs low risk of MMF.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23921285

“most aluminum-containing vaccine receivers
do not have long-lasting MMF in their muscle,
but the prevalence of MMF among patients with
arthromyalgia following immunization is substantial
... patients with MMF have more CNS dysfunction ...”

Deutsches Arzteblatt International • November 2013

Targeted vaccine selection
in influenza vaccination
Author information
Wutzler P1, Hardt R, Knuf M, Wahle K.
Institute of Virology and Antiviral Therapy - University Hospital Jena
Catholic Clinic Mainz, St. Hildegardis Hospital
Department of Child and Adolescent Medicine
Dr. Horst Schmidt Clinic GmbH, Wiesbaden
German Association of General Practitioners, Münster
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The main target groups for influenza vaccination are the elderly, the chronically ill, infants,
and toddlers. Influenza vaccines are needed that suit the immunological particularities of each
of these age and risk groups. Recent years have seen the approval of influenza vaccines that
are more immunogenic than before, but whose use in Germany is limited by the restriction of
reimbursement to a small number of vaccines.
METHODS
The Medline database was selectively searched for pertinent literature.
RESULTS
The suboptimal immunogenicity of conventional influenza vaccines that contain inactivated
viral cleavage products and subunits can be markedly improved by the use of squalene-based
adjuvant systems, by the integration of viral antigens in virosomal particles, or by intradermal
administration. The vaccination of elderly persons with a vaccine containing the adjuvant
MF59 was found to lower the risk of hospitalization for influenza or pneumonia by 25%
compared to vaccination with a trivalent inactivated vaccine (TIV). On the other hand, the
adjuvant ASO3 was found to be associated with an up to 17-fold increase in the frequency
of narcolepsy among 4- to 18-year-olds. In a prospective study, a virosomal vaccine lowered
the frequency of laboratory-confirmed influenza in vaccinated children by 88% compared to
unvaccinated children (2 versus 18 cases per 1000 individuals). A live, attenuated influenza
vaccine lowered the rate of disease in children up to age 7 by 48% compared to a TIV (4.2%
versus 8.1%).
CONCLUSION
The newer vaccines possess improved efficacy when used for primary and booster immunization in certain age and risk groups, and they are superior in this respect to conventional vaccines based on viral cleavage products and subunits. The risk/benefit profiles of all currently
available vaccines vary depending on the age group or risk group in which they are used.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24314622

From the full report:

“... the adjuvant ASO3 [squalene] was found to be
associated with an up to 17-fold increase in the
frequency of narcolepsy among 4- to 18-year-olds.”

Eurosurveillance, Volume 18 • December 2013
Rapid communications

routine 30 days post-MMR immunisation period used
by the Canadian adverse event following immunization
(AEFI) surveillance system.

Case Of Vaccine-Associated Measles
Five Weeks Post-Immunization,
British Columbia, Canada, October
2013
Author Information
M Murti ()1, M Krajden2, M Petric2
J Hiebert3, F Hemming1, B Hefford4
M Bigham1, P Van Buynder1
1. Fraser Health Authority
Surrey, British Columbia, Canada
2. Public Health Microbiology and
Reference Laboratory
British Columbia Centre for Disease Control
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
3. National Microbiology Laboratory
Public Health Agency of Canada
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
4. 1-1400 George St., White Rock
British Columbia, Canada
We describe a case of vaccine-associated measles in a
two-year-old patient from British Columbia, Canada, in
October 2013, who received her first dose of measlescontaining vaccine 37 days prior to onset of prodromal
symptoms. Identification of this delayed vaccine-associated case occurred in the context of an outbreak investigation of a measles cluster.
Based on our review of the literature, this report documents the first case of MMR vaccine-associated measles,
37 days post-immunisation, well beyond 21 days and the

Measles-containing vaccines are used globally, have
been part of the British Columbia immunisation schedule since 1969, and have an impressive record of safety
validated by careful, ongoing AEFI surveillance. Rash
and/or mild clinical illness following MMR vaccine are
not uncommon [7]. Clinically significant vaccine-associated illness is rare, but when it occurs it is indistinguishable from wild-type measles, except by genotyping [8].
Detection of vaccine virus has been documented up to 14
days post-immunisation by RT-PCR, and up to 16 days
by immunofluorescence microscopy of urine sediment
[9-12]. Complications from vaccine-associated measles
have been documented in both immune-competent and
compromised individuals [13,14]. Of note, only one case
report of transmission from vaccine-associated measles
has been identified [15,16].
Possible explanations for this prolonged shedding of
measles vaccine virus include interference with the immune response by host or vaccine factors. Immunoglobulin administration early in the incubation period has
been reported to extend the time to onset of symptoms,
but in this child there was no such history and no known
immunosuppressive illness [5]. The two-fold rise between acute and convalescent measles-specific IgG suggests the vaccine-mediated immune response had been
underway prior to the onset of symptoms. Investigations
clarified that there were no shipping, handling or coldchain deviations for the specific vaccine used, and that
it was administered by a public health nurse trained in
immunisations. The potential immunological impact of
the older age of the child at the time of receiving the first
dose of MMR vaccine, 33 months versus the typical 1215 months of age, and the co-administration of meningococcal C and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are areas
for future investigation.

Full Report
http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=20649

“We describe a case of vaccine-associated
measles in a two-year-old patient from
British Columbia, Canada, in October 2013,
who received her first dose of measlescontaining vaccine 37 days prior to onset
of prodromal symptoms. Identification of
this delayed vaccine-associated case
occurred in the context of an outbreak
investigation of a measles cluster. Possible
explanations for this prolonged shedding
of measles vaccine virus include
interference with the immune response
by host or vaccine factors.”

American Journal Of Obstetrics & Gynecology • December 2013

The fetal inflammatory response syndrome
is a risk factor for morbidity in preterm neonates
Author information
Hofer N1, Kothari R, Morris N, Müller W, Resch B.
Research Unit for Neonatal Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology
Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
The aim of this study was to show and discuss an association between fetal inflammatory response syndrome (FIRS) and an adverse neonatal outcome defined as combined severe neonatal morbidity and mortality in preterm neonates hospitalized in
our neonatal intensive care unit.
STUDY DESIGN
This was an observational study including all preterm neonates hospitalized in our
neonatal intensive care unit over a 21 month period. FIRS was defined as cord blood
interleukin (IL)-6 greater than 11 pg/mL. Main outcome parameter was an adverse
neonatal outcome defined as hospital mortality and/or the presence of any of 5 prespecified morbidities (bronchopulmonary dysplasia, periventricular leukomalacia,
intraventricular hemorrhage, and early- or late-onset sepsis).
RESULTS
Fifty-seven of 176 preterm infants hospitalized during the study period (32%) had an
adverse neonatal outcome and 62 of these 176 infants (35%) had FIRS with median
IL-6 values of 51.8 pg/mL (range, 11.2 to >1000 pg/mL). In a regression analysis,
FIRS was significantly associated with adverse neonatal outcome (P < .001) and with
the single outcome parameters, intraventricular hemorrhage and early-onset sepsis
(P = .006 and P = .018, respectively). In the bivariate analysis, FIRS was associated
with death and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (P = .004 and P < .001, respectively).
IL-6 correlated with adverse neonatal outcome (r = 0.411, P < .001). When comparing the correlation in neonates less than 32 weeks’ gestational age (r = 0.481, P <
.001) with neonates 32 weeks or longer (r = 0.233, P = .019), the difference was
nearly significant (P = .065).
CONCLUSION
FIRS is a risk factor for adverse neonatal outcome in preterm infants. In particular,
the combination of IL-6 greater than 11 pg/mL and low gestational age increased the
risk for severe neonatal morbidity or death.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=23994220

[hospitals do not routinely check
interleukin (IL)-6 cord blood prior to
vaccination, although they could]

Journal Of Autoimmunity • December 2013

Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants (ASIA) 2013:
Unveiling the pathogenic, clinical and diagnostic aspects
Author information
Perricone C1, Colafrancesco S, Mazor RD, Soriano A, Agmon-Levin N, Shoenfeld Y.
The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Israel
Reumatologia, Dipartimento di Medicina Interna e Specialità Mediche
Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
Abstract
In 2011 a new syndrome termed ‘ASIA Autoimmune/Inflammatory Syndrome Induced by
Adjuvants’ was defined pointing to summarize for the first time the spectrum of immunemediated diseases triggered by an adjuvant stimulus such as chronic exposure to silicone,
tetramethylpentadecane, pristane, aluminum and other adjuvants, as well as infectious components, that also may have an adjuvant effect. All these environmental factors have been
found to induce autoimmunity by themselves both in animal models and in humans: for
instance, silicone was associated with siliconosis, aluminum hydroxide with post-vaccination phenomena and macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome. Several mechanisms have been
hypothesized to be involved in the onset of adjuvant-induced autoimmunity; a genetic favorable background plays a key role in the appearance on such vaccine-related diseases and
also justifies the rarity of these phenomena. This paper will focus on protean facets which
are part of ASIA, focusing on the roles and mechanisms of action of different adjuvants
which lead to the autoimmune/inflammatory response. The data herein illustrate the critical
role of environmental factors in the induction of autoimmunity. Indeed, it is the interplay of
genetic susceptibility and environment that is the major player for the initiation of breach of
tolerance.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24238833

“In 2011 a new syndrome termed ‘ASIA
Autoimmune/Inflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants’
was defined pointing to summarize for the first time the
spectrum of immune-mediated diseases triggered by an
adjuvant stimulus such as chronic exposure to silicone,
tetramethylpentadecane, pristane, aluminum and other
adjuvants, as well as infectious components, that also
may have an adjuvant effect.”

Current Medicinal Chemistry • 2013

Autoimmune (auto-inflammatory) syndrome
induced by adjuvants (ASIA)—
animal models as a proof of concept
Author information
Cruz-Tapias P1, Agmon-Levin N, Israeli E, Anaya JM, Shoenfeld Y.
Head of Zabludowitz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer 52621, Israel
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
ASIA syndrome, “Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory) Syndromes Induced by Adjuvants” includes at least four conditions which share a similar complex of signs
and symptoms and have been defined by hyperactive immune responses: siliconosis, macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome, Gulf war syndrome and post-vaccination phenomena. Exposure to adjuvants has been documented in these four medical conditions, suggesting that the common denominator to these syndromes is a
trigger entailing adjuvant activity. An important role of animal models in proving
the ASIA concept has been established. Experimentally animal models of autoimmune diseases induced by adjuvants are currently widely used to understand
the mechanisms and etiology and pathogenesis of these diseases and might thus
promote the development of new diagnostic, predictive and therapeutic methods.
In the current review we wish to unveil the variety of ASIA animal models associated with systemic and organ specific autoimmune diseases induced by adjuvants.
We included in this review animal models for rheumatoid arthritis-like disease,
for systemic lupus erythematosus-like disease, autoimmune thyroid disease-like
disease, antiphospholipid syndrome, myocarditis and others. All these models
support the concept of ASIA, as the Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory) Syndrome
Induced by Adjuvants.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23992328

“We included in this review animal models
for rheumatoid arthritis-like disease,
for systemic lupus erythematosus-like disease,
autoimmune thyroid disease-like disease,
antiphospholipid syndrome, myocarditis and others. All these
models support the concept of ASIA, as the Autoimmune
(Auto-inflammatory) Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants.”

“... vaccine-induced Febrile Seizures could be a problem, particularly in genetically predisposed children.”
Expert Review of Vaccines • 2013

Vaccines and febrile seizures
Abstract
Vaccine administration is the second leading cause of febrile seizures (FS). FS occurrence in children is a serious
concern because it leads to public apprehension of vaccinations. This review discusses the clinical implications
of FS, its potential link to vaccinations and its impact on official recommendations for vaccinations in children.
Vaccines such as the pertussis antigen-containing vaccine, the measles-containing vaccine and the influenza vaccine have been linked to FS. However, FS events are very rare and are not usually associated with downstream
complications or severe neurologic diseases. Considering their significant health benefits, vaccinations have not
been restricted in the pediatric population. Nevertheless, vaccine-induced FS could be a problem, particularly in
genetically predisposed children. Therefore, post-marketing surveillance studies are required to accurately assess
the incidence of FS and identify individuals who are particularly susceptible to FS after vaccination.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1586/14760584.2013.814781

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Mortality among recipients
of the Merck V710 Staphylococcus aureus vaccine
after postoperative S. aureus infections:
an analysis of possible contributing host factors
Author information
McNeely TB1, Shah NA, Fridman A, Joshi A,
Hartzel JS, Keshari RS, Lupu F, DiNubile MJ.
Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA USA
Abstract
In a blinded randomized trial, preoperative receipt of the Merck V710 Staphylococcus aureus vaccine was associated with a higher mortality rate than placebo in patients who later developed postoperative S. aureus infections. Of the
tested patients, all 12 V710 recipients (but only 1 of 13 placebo recipients) with
undetectable serum IL2 levels prior to vaccination and surgery died after postoperative S. aureus infection. The coincidence of 3 factors (low prevaccination
IL-2 levels, receipt of V710, and postoperative S. aureus infection) appeared to
substantially increase mortality in our study population after major cardiothoracic surgery. Furthermore, 9 of the 10 V710 recipients with undetectable preoperative IL17a levels and postoperative S. aureus infections died. Although the
current study is hypothesis-generating and the exact pathophysiology remains
speculative, these findings raise concern that immune predispositions may adversely impact the safety and efficacy of staphylococcal vaccines actively under
development. The potential benefits of an effective vaccine against S. aureus
justify continued but cautious pursuit of this elusive goal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483690

“In a blinded randomized trial, preoperative
receipt of the Merck V710 Staphylococcus
aureus vaccine was associated with a higher
mortality rate than placebo in patients who
later developed postoperative S. aureus infections. Of the tested patients, all 12 V710 recipients (but only 1 of 13 placebo recipients) with
undetectable serum IL2 levels prior to
vaccination and surgery died after
postoperative S. aureus infection.”

Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Hepatitis B vaccine adverse events in China:
risk control and regulation
Author information
Meina L1, Xiaodong L, Lulu Z.
1. The Second Military Medical University
Faculty of Health Service; Institute of Military Health Management
PLA; Shanghai, China
Abstract
The death of 17 children raised public fears over infant hepatitis B
vaccination in China. Though the relation between hepatitis B and
children’s death was denied after prudent investigation, the negative
impact remained. In order to prevent or minimize adverse events after
vaccination, special strategy including regulation and reimbursement
should be developed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25483642

“The death of 17 children
raised public fears over infant
hepatitis B vaccination in China.”

Current Medical Chemistry • 2014

Selective elevation of circulating CCL2/MCP1 levels
in patients with longstanding post-vaccinal
macrophagic myofasciitis and ASIA
Author information
Cadusseau J, Ragunathan-Thangarajah N, Surenaud M, Hue S, Authier FJ, Gherardi RK1.
Université Paris Est, Faculté de Sciences et Technologie
Créteil, 94000, France
romain.gherardi@hmn.aphp.fr
Abstract
Several medical conditions sharing similar signs and symptoms may be related to immune adjuvants. These conditions described as ASIA (Autoimmune/inflammatory Syndrome Induced
by Adjuvants), include a condition characterized by macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) assessing long-term persistence of vaccine derived-alum adjuvants into macrophages at sites of previous immunization. Despite increasing data describing clinical manifestations of ASIA have
been reported, biological markers are particularly lacking for their characterization and follow
up. We report an extensive cytokine screening performed in serum from 44 MMF patients
compared both to sex and age matched healthy controls and to patients with various types of
inflammatory neuromuscular diseases. Thirty cytokines were quantified using combination of
Luminex® technology and ELISA. There was significant mean increase of serum levels of
the monocytechemoattractant protein 1 (CCL2/MCP-1) in MMF patients compared to healthy
subjects. MMF patients showed no elevation of other cytokines. This contrasted with inflammatory patients in whom CCL2/MCP-1 serum levels were unchanged, whereas several other
inflammatory cytokines were elevated (IL1∼, IL5 and CCL3/MIP1∼). These results suggest
that CCL2 may represent a biological marker relevant to the pathophysiology of MMF rather
than a non specific inflammatory marker and that it should be checked in the other syndromes
constitutive of ASIA.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24083602

“These conditions described as ASIA, include
a condition characterized by macrophagic myofasciitis
(MMF) assessing long-term persistence of vaccine
derived-alum adjuvants into macrophages at sites
of previous immunization.”

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Immunological persistence in 5 year olds
previously vaccinated with
hexavalent DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib
at 3, 5, and 11 months of age
Author information
Silfverdal SA1, Assudani D,
Kuriyakose S, Van Der Meeren O.
1. Department of Clinical Sciences
Pediatrics; Umeå University
Umeå, Sweden
Abstract
The combined diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis-hepatitis B-poliomyelitis/Haemophilus influenza vaccine (DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib:
Infanrix™ hexa, GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines) is used for primary
vaccination of infants in a range of schedules world-wide. Antibody
persistence after 4 DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib doses in the first 2 y of life
has been documented, but long-term persistence data following the
3, 5, 11-12 months (3-5-11) infant vaccination schedule, employed
for example in Nordic countries, are limited. We assessed antibody
persistence in 57 5-year-old children who had received either DTPaHBV-IPV/Hib or DTPa-IPV/Hib (Infanrix™-IPV/Hib, GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines) in the 3-5-11 schedule. Among DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib
recipients, 7/12 retained seroprotective antibody concentrations for
diphtheria, 10/12 for tetanus, 5/12 for hepatitis and 10/12 for Hib.
Detectable antibodies were observed for 0/12 children for pertussis
toxin (PT), 12/12 for filamentous haemagglutinin (FHA) and 8/12 for
pertactin (PRN). Among DTPa-IPV/Hib recipients, 28/45 retained
seroprotective anti-diphtheria concentrations, 34/44 for tetanus and
40/45 for Hib. Detectable antibodies were observed for 9/45 children
for PT, 41/45 for FHA and 34/45 for PRN. Antibody persistence in
DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib and DTPa-IPV/Hib-vaccinees appeared similar
in 5 y olds to that previously observed in children of a similar age who
had received 4 prior doses of DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib (or DTPa-IPV/
Hib). As in subjects primed with 4 prior doses, we observed that antibodies markedly declined by 5 y of age, calling for the administration
of a pre-school booster dose in order to ensure continued protection
against pertussis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483640

[regarding vaccine non-responders
and low-responders:

In this study 7 of 12 five year old children
retained seroprotective antibody concentrations
for diphtheria, 10 of 12 for tetanus, 5 of 12 for hepatitis
and 10 of 12 for Hib. The pro-vaccine lobby never
discusses non-responders and low responders and
the large variance in human response to vaccination.
Even vaccinated people can be fully non-responsive
or so low-responsive that they can communicate
diseases as easily as non-vaccinated people making
vaccination an entirely uncertain medical procedure
and adding substance and support to the position
that vaccination is not always effective]

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Consumer reporting
of adverse events following immunization
Author information
Clothier HJ1, Selvaraj G, Easton ML,
Lewis G, Crawford NW, Buttery JP.
1. SAEFVIC; Murdoch Childrens Research Institute
Melbourne; School of Population & Global Health
University of Melbourne; Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Abstract
Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation (AEFI) is an
essential component of vaccine safety monitoring. The most commonly utilized passive surveillance systems rely predominantly on
reporting by health care providers (HCP). We reviewed adverse event
reports received in Victoria, Australia since surveillance commencement in July 2007, to June 2013 (6 years) to ascertain the contribution
of consumer (vaccinee or their parent/guardian) reporting to vaccine
safety monitoring and to inform future surveillance system development directions. Categorical data included were: reporter type; serious
and non-serious AEFI category; and, vaccinee age group. Chi-square
test and 2-sample test of proportions were used to compare categories;
trend changes were assessed using linear regression. Consumer reporting increased over the 6 years, reaching 21% of reports received in
2013 (P<0.001), most commonly for children aged less than 7 years.
Consumer reports were 5% more likely to describe serious AEFI than
HCP (P=0.018) and 10% more likely to result in specialist clinic attendance (P<0.001). Although online reporting increased to 32% of all
report since its introduction in 2010, 85% of consumers continued to
report by phone. Consumer reporting of AEFI is a valuable component
of vaccine safety surveillance in addition to HCP reporting. Changes
are required to AEFI reporting systems to implement efficient consumer AEFI reporting, but may be justified for their potential impact
on signal detection sensitivity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483686

“Consumer reporting
increased over the 6 years,
reaching 21% of reports
received in 2013 (P<0.001),
most commonly for children
aged less than 7 years.”

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Immunocompetent mouse models
to evaluate intrahepatic T cell responses
to HCV vaccines
Author information
Yu W1, Grubor-Bauk B,
Mullick R, Das S, Gowans EJ.
1. Discipline of Surgery
University of Adelaide
Basil Hetzel Institute
Adelaide, SA, Australia
Abstract
Despite considerable progress in the development of immunocompetent
mouse models using different high end technologies, most available small
animal models for HCV study are unsuitable for challenge experiments,
which are vital for vaccine development, as they fail to measure the T
cell response in liver. A recently developed intra-hepatic challenge model
results in HCV antigen expression in mouse hepatocytes and through the
detection of the surrogate marker, SEAP, in serum, the effect of prior vaccination can be monitored longitudinally.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483684

[vaccination is inherently experimental.
There are so many unknowns
that this is indisputable]

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

The persistence of anti-HBs antibody
and anamnestic response 20 years after primary vaccination
with recombinant hepatitis B vaccine at infancy
Author information
Bagheri-Jamebozorgi M1, Keshavarz J, Nemati M,
Mohammadi-Hossainabad S, Rezayati MT, Nejad-Ghaderi M,
Jamalizadeh A, Shokri F, Jafarzadeh A.
Molecular Medicine Research Center
Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences
Rafsanjan, Iran
Abstract
Hepatitis B (HB) vaccine induces protective levels of antibody response (anti-HBs≥10 mIU/
mL) in 90-99% of vaccinees. The levels of anti-HBs antibody decline after vaccination. The
aim of this study was to evaluate the persistence of anti-HBs antibodies and immunologic
memory in healthy adults at 20 years after primary vaccination with recombinant HB vaccine. Blood samples were collected from 300 adults at 20 years after primary HB vaccination
and their sera were tested for anti-HBs antibody by ELISA technique. A single booster dose
of HB vaccine was administered to a total of 138 subjects, whose anti-HBs antibody titer
was <10 mIU/mL. The sera of subjects were re-tested for the anti-HBs antibody levels at 4
weeks after booster vaccination. At 20 years after primary vaccination 37.0% of participants
had protective levels of antibody with geometric mean titer (GMT) of 55.44±77.01 mIU/mL.
After booster vaccination, 97.1% of vaccinees developed protective levels of antibody and
the GMT rose from 2.35±6.49 mIU/mL to 176.28±161.78 mIU/mL. 125/138 (90.6%) of revaccinated subjects also showed an anamnestic response to booster vaccination. At 20 years
after primary vaccination with HB vaccine, low proportion of the subjects had protective
levels of antibody. However, the majority of the re-vaccinated subjects developed protective
levels of anti-HBs and showed an anamnestic response after booster vaccination. Additional
follow-up studies are necessary to determine the duration of immunological memory.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483689

“At 20 years after
primary vaccination
37.0% of participants
had protective levels of antibody ...”

Human Vaccines And Immunotherapeutics • 2014

Serum and mucosal antibody responses
to inactivated polio vaccine after sublingual immunization
using a thermoresponsive gel delivery system
Author information
White JA1, Blum JS, Hosken NA, Marshak JO,
Duncan L, Zhu C, Norton EB, Clements JD, Koelle DM,
Chen D, Weldon WC, Oberste MS, Lal M.
Abstract
Administering vaccines directly to mucosal surfaces can induce both serum and mucosal immune responses. Mucosal responses may prevent establishment of initial infection at the port of
entry and subsequent dissemination to other sites. The sublingual route is attractive for mucosal
vaccination, but both a safe, potent adjuvant and a novel formulation are needed to achieve an
adequate immune response. We report the use of a thermoresponsive gel (TRG) combined with
a double mutant of a bacterial heat-labile toxin (dmLT) for sublingual immunization with a trivalent inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) in mice. This TRG delivery system, which changes
from aqueous solution to viscous gel upon contact with the mucosa at body temperature, helps
to retain the formulation at the site of delivery and has functional adjuvant activity from the inclusion of dmLT. IPV was administered to mice either sublingually in the TRG delivery system
or intramuscularly in phosphate-buffered saline. We measured poliovirus type-specific serum
neutralizing antibodies as well as polio-specific serum Ig and IgA antibodies in serum, saliva,
and fecal samples using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Mice receiving sublingual vaccination via the TRG delivery system produced both mucosal and serum antibodies, including
IgA. Intramuscularly immunized animals produced only serum neutralizing and binding Ig but
no detectable IgA. This study provides proof of concept for sublingual immunization using the
TRG delivery system, comprising a thermoresponsive gel and dmLT adjuvant.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25483682

“This study provides
proof of concept for
sublingual immunization ...”

Vaccine • January 2014

Nanoparticle vaccines
Liang Zhaoa, 1, Arjun Setha, 1, Nani Wibowoa, Chun-Xia Zhaoa,
Neena Mitterb, Chengzhong Yua, Anton P.J. Middelberga
a. The University of Queensland
Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology
St. Lucia QLD 4072, Australia
b. The University of Queensland
Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation
St. Lucia QLD 4072, Australia
Abstract
Nanotechnology increasingly plays a significant role in vaccine development. As
vaccine development orientates toward less immunogenic “minimalist” compositions, formulations that boost antigen effectiveness are increasingly needed. The
use of nanoparticles in vaccine formulations allows not only improved antigen stability and immunogenicity, but also targeted delivery and slow release. A number
of nanoparticle vaccines varying in composition, size, shape, and surface properties have been approved for human use and the number of candidates is increasing.
However, challenges remain due to a lack of fundamental understanding regarding the in vivo behavior of nanoparticles, which can operate as either a delivery
system to enhance antigen processing and/or as an immunostimulant adjuvant to
activate or enhance immunity. This review provides a broad overview of recent advances in prophylactic nanovaccinology. Types of nanoparticles used are outlined
and their interaction with immune cells and the biosystem are discussed. Increased
knowledge and fundamental understanding of nanoparticle mechanism of action
in both immunostimulatory and delivery modes, and better understanding of in
vivo biodistribution and fate, are urgently required, and will accelerate the rational
design of nanoparticle-containing vaccines.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X13016319

“As vaccine development orientates
toward less immunogenic “minimalist”
compositions, formulations that boost
antigen effectiveness are increasingly
needed. The use of nanoparticles in
vaccine formulations allows not only
improved antigen stability and immunogenicity, but also targeted delivery and slow
release. A number of nanoparticle vaccines
varying in composition, size, shape, and
surface properties have been approved for
human use and the number of candidates
is increasing.”

Nucleic Acids Research • January 2014

Updates on the web-based VIOLIN
vaccine database and analysis system
Author information
He Y1, Racz R, Sayers S, Lin Y, Todd T, Hur J, Li X, Patel M,
Zhao B, Chung M, Ostrow J, Sylora A, Dungarani P, Ulysse G,
Kochhar K, Vidri B, Strait K, Jourdian GW, Xiang Z.
Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Michigan
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan
Center for Computational Medicine and Biology, University of Michigan
Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan
College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan
School of Public Health, University of Michigan
Division of Comparative Medicine, University of South Florida
Department of Neurology, University of Michigan
College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan
Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School
Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School
Abstract
The integrative Vaccine Investigation and Online Information Network (VIOLIN) vaccine research database and analysis system (http://www.violinet.org) curates, stores, analyses and integrates various
vaccine-associated research data. Since its first publication in NAR in 2008, significant updates have
been made. Starting from 211 vaccines annotated at the end of 2007, VIOLIN now includes over 3240
vaccines for 192 infectious diseases and eight noninfectious diseases (e.g. cancers and allergies). Under
the umbrella of VIOLIN, >10 relatively independent programs are developed. For example, Protegen
stores over 800 protective antigens experimentally proven valid for vaccine development. VirmugenDB
annotated over 200 ‘virmugens’, a term coined by us to represent those virulence factor genes that can
be mutated to generate successful live attenuated vaccines. Specific patterns were identified from the
genes collected in Protegen and VirmugenDB. VIOLIN also includes Vaxign, the first web-based vaccine candidate prediction program based on reverse vaccinology. VIOLIN collects and analyzes different vaccine components including vaccine adjuvants (Vaxjo) and DNA vaccine plasmids (DNAVaxDB).
VIOLIN includes licensed human vaccines (Huvax) and veterinary vaccines (Vevax). The Vaccine Ontology is applied to standardize and integrate various data in VIOLIN. VIOLIN also hosts the Ontology
of Vaccine Adverse Events (OVAE) that logically represents adverse events associated with licensed
human vaccines.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3964998/

“The integrative Vaccine Investigation and
Online Information Network (VIOLIN) vaccine research
database and analysis system curates, stores, analyses
and integrates various vaccine-associated research data.
Starting from 211 vaccines annotated at the end of 2007,
VIOLIN now includes over 3,240 vaccines for 192 infectious
diseases and eight noninfectious diseases ...”

Vaccine • January 2014

Co-administration of live measles and yellow fever vaccines
and inactivated pentavalent vaccines is associated with increased
mortality compared with measles and yellow fever vaccines only
An observational study from Guinea-Bissau
Author information
Fisker AB1, Ravn H2, Rodrigues A3, Østergaard MD4, Bale C5, Benn CS6, Aaby P7.
1. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau; Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark. Electronic address: a.fisker@bandim.org.
2. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau; Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark. Electronic address: hjn@ssi.dk.
3. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Electronic address: a.rodrigues@bandim.org.
4. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Electronic address: mariedrivsholm@gmail.com.
5. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Electronic address: c.bale@bandim.org.
6. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau; Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark. Electronic address: cb@ssi.dk.
7. Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Apartado 861, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau; Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark. Electronic address: p.aaby@bandim.org

Abstract
BACKGROUND
Studies from low-income countries indicate that co-administration of inactivated diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) vaccine
and live attenuated measles vaccine (MV) is associated with increased mortality compared with receiving MV only. Pentavalent
(DTP-H. Influenza type B-Hepatitis B) vaccine is replacing DTP in many low-income countries and yellow fever vaccine (YF)
has been introduced to be given together with MV. Pentavalent and YF vaccines were introduced in Guinea-Bissau in 2008. We
investigated whether co-administration of pentavalent vaccine with MV and yellow fever vaccine has similar negative effects.
METHODS
In 2007-2011, we conducted a randomised placebo-controlled trial of vitamin A at routine vaccination contacts among children aged 6-23 months in urban and rural Guinea-Bissau. In the present study, we included 2331 children randomised to
placebo who received live vaccines only (MV or MV+YF) or a combination of live and inactivated vaccines (MV+DTP or
MV+YF+pentavalent). Mortality was compared in Cox proportional hazards models stratified for urban/rural enrolment adjusted
for age and unevenly distributed baseline factors.
RESULTS
While DTP was still used 685 children received MV only and 358 MV+DTP; following the change in programme, 940 received
MV+YF only and 348 MV+YF+pentavalent. During 6 months of follow-up, the adjusted mortality rate ratio (MRR) for coadministered live and inactivated vaccines compared with live vaccines only was 3.24 (1.20-8.73). For MV+YF+pentavalent
compared with MV+YF only, the adjusted MRR was 7.73 (1.79-33.4).
CONCLUSION
In line with previous studies of DTP, the present results indicate that pentavalent vaccine co-administered with MV and YF is
associated with increased mortality.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24325827

“In line with previous studies of DTP,
the present results indicate that pentavalent
vaccine co-administered with MV and YF is
associated with increased mortality.”

Autoimmunity Review • January 2014

A review on the association between
inflammatory myopathies and vaccination
Author information
Stübgen JP.
Department of Neurology
Weill Cornell Medical College/New York Presbyterian Hospital
525 East 68th Street, New York, NY 10065-4885, USA
pstuebge@med.cornell.edu
Abstract
Several viruses and vaccines are among the environmental factors implicated as triggers of autoimmune inflammatory myopathies. Case histories report on the onset of
dermatomyositis/polymyositis after immunization with various vaccines of patients
with probable genetic predisposition. However, retrospective and epidemiological
studies failed to ascertain an association between DM/PM and vaccines: no significant
increase in the incidence of DM/PM was reported after large vaccination campaigns.
The risk for vaccine-induced adverse events may be enhanced by adjuvants. Macrophagic myofasciitis is a novel inflammatory myopathy ascribed to an ongoing local
immune reaction to a vaccine adjuvant. Isolated prospective studies showed that the
administration of unadjuvanted, non-live vaccine to patients with DM/PM caused no
short-term harmful effects to DM/PM immune processes. However, more research is
warranted to clarify the incidence of vaccine-preventable infections, harmful effects
of vaccination, and the influence of any immunomodulating agents on vaccination efficacy. Vaccination is an important disease prevention tool in modern medicine. This
review does not address risk-benefit or cost-benefit analyses, and does not advocate
the use of specific vaccines or vaccination programs. Despite a great deal of scientific
uncertainty, the concept of a possible causal link between immunization and inflammatory myopathies should not be totally rejected.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001753

“Macrophagic myofasciitis is a
novel inflammatory myopathy ascribed to an
ongoing local immune reaction to a vaccine adjuvant ...
more research is warranted to clarify the incidence of
vaccine-preventable infections, harmful effects of vaccination,
and the influence of any immunomodulating agents on vaccination efficacy. Despite a great deal of scientific uncertainty, the concept
of a possible causal link between immunization and inflammatory
myopathies should not be totally rejected.”

Journal Of Autoimmunity • January 2014

Sjögren’s syndrome:
another facet of the
autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants
(ASIA)
Author information
Colafrancesco S1, Perricone C1,
Priori R2, Valesini G2, Shoenfeld Y3.
1. Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialities, Rheumatology Unit, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
2. Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialities, Rheumatology Unit, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
3. The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Incumbent of the Laura Schwarz-Kipp Chair for Research of Autoimmune Diseases
Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il

Abstract
Recently, a new syndrome, namely the “Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants”
(ASIA) has been defined. In this syndrome different conditions characterized by common signs and
symptoms and induced by the presence of an adjuvant are included. The adjuvant is a substance capable of boosting the immune response and of acting as a trigger in the development of autoimmune
diseases. Post-vaccination autoimmune phenomena represent a major issue of ASIA. Indeed, despite
vaccines represent a mainstay in the improvement of human health, several of these have been implicated as a potential trigger for autoimmune diseases. Sjogren’s Syndrome (SjS) is a systemic chronic
autoimmune inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of an inflammatory involvement of
exocrine glands accompanied by systemic manifestations. Own to the straight association between infectious agents exposure (mainly viruses) and sicca syndrome development, the possible link between
vaccine and SjS is not surprising. Indeed, a few cases of SjS following vaccine delivery have been
reported. At the same extent, the induction of SjS following silicone exposure has been described too.
Thus, the aim of this review was to focus on SjS and its possible development following vaccine or
silicone exposure in order to define another possible facet of the ASIA syndrome.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24774584

“despite vaccines represent a mainstay
in the improvement of human health, several of these have
been implicated as a potential trigger for autoimmune diseases.
Sjogren’s Syndrome (SjS) is a systemic chronic autoimmune
inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of an
inflammatory involvement of exocrine glands accompanied
by systemic manifestations.”

New England Journal Of Medicine • February 2014

Risk of intussusception after monovalent rotavirus vaccination
Author information
Weintraub ES1, Baggs J, Duffy J, Vellozzi C,
Belongia EA, Irving S, Klein NP, Glanz JM, Jacobsen SJ,
Naleway A, Jackson LA, DeStefano F.
From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Immunization Safety Office, Atlanta (E.S.W., J.B., J.D., C.V., F.D.)
Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation, Marshfield, WI (E.A.B.)
Center for Health Research, Kaiser Permanente Northwest, Portland, OR (S.I., A.N.)
Vaccine Study Center, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland (N.P.K.)
Kaiser Permanente Colorado, Aurora (J.M.G.)
Kaiser Permanente Southern California, Pasadena (S.J.J.)
Group Health Research Institute, Seattle (L.A.J.)
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Although current rotavirus vaccines were not associated with an increased risk of intussusception in large trials before licensure, recent
postlicensure data from international settings suggest the possibility of a small increase in risk of intussusception after monovalent rotavirus
vaccination. We examined this risk in a population in the United States.
METHODS
Participants were infants between the ages of 4 and 34 weeks who were enrolled in six integrated health care organizations in the Vaccine
Safety Datalink (VSD) project. We reviewed medical records and visits for intussusception within 7 days after monovalent rotavirus vaccination from April 2008 through March 2013. Using sequential analyses, we then compared the risk of intussusception among children receiving
monovalent rotavirus vaccine with historical background rates. We further compared the risk after monovalent rotavirus vaccination with the
risk in a concurrent cohort of infants who received the pentavalent rotavirus vaccine.
RESULTS
During the study period, 207,955 doses of monovalent rotavirus vaccine (including 115,908 first doses and 92,047 second doses) were
administered in the VSD population. We identified 6 cases of intussusception within 7 days after the administration of either dose of vaccine. For the two doses combined, the expected number of intussusception cases was 0.72, resulting in a significant relative risk of 8.4. For
the pentavalent rotavirus vaccine, 1,301,810 doses were administered during the study period, with 8 observed intussusception cases (7.11
expected), for a nonsignificant relative risk of 1.1. The relative risk of chart-confirmed intussusception within 7 days after monovalent rotavirus vaccination, as compared with the risk after pentavalent rotavirus vaccination, was 9.4 (95% confidence interval, 1.4 to 103.8). The
attributable risk of intussusception after the administration of two doses of monovalent rotavirus vaccine was estimated to be 5.3 per 100,000
infants vaccinated.
CONCLUSIONS
In this prospective postlicensure study of more than 200,000 doses of monovalent rotavirus vaccine, we observed a significant increase in the
rate of intussusception after vaccination, a risk that must be weighed against the benefits of preventing rotavirus-associated illness.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24422678

“In this prospective postlicensure study
of more than 200,000 doses of monovalent
rotavirus vaccine, we observed a significant
increase in the rate of intussusception after
vaccination, a risk that must be weighed
against the benefits of preventing
rotavirus-associated illness.”

Trends In Microbiology • February 2014

Do we need a new vaccine to
control the re-emergence of pertussis?
Author information
Mills KH, Ross PJ, Allen AC, Wilk MM.
School of Biochemistry and Immunology
Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute
Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
kingston.mills@tcd.ie
Abstract
Bordetella pertussis causes whooping cough and is re-emerging in
developed countries despite widespread immunization with acellular pertussis vaccines (Pa), which are less effective than the whole
cell vaccines that they replaced. Efficacy of Pa could be improved
by switching from alum to alternative adjuvants that generate more
potent cell mediated immunity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24485284

“Bordetella pertussis causes
whooping cough and is re-emerging
in developed countries despite widespread
immunization with acellular pertussis vaccines ...”

Immunology Research • February 2014

Evolution of multiple sclerosis in France
since the beginning of hepatitis B vaccination
Author information
Le Houézec D
REVAHB (“Réseau Vaccin Hépatite B” in French)
32 rue du Clos Herbert, 14000, Caen, France
dominique.le.houezec@freesbee.fr
Abstract
Since the implementation of the mass vaccination campaign against hepatitis B in France, the appearance of multiple sclerosis, sometimes occurring
in the aftermath of vaccinations, led to the publication of epidemiological
international studies. This was also justified by the sharp increase in the
annual incidence of multiple sclerosis reported to the French health insurance in the mid-1990s. Almost 20 years later, a retrospective reflection can
be sketched from these official data and also from the national pharmacovigilance agency. Statistical data from these latter sources seem to show a
significant correlation between the number of hepatitis B vaccinations performed and the declaration to the pharmacovigilance of multiple sclerosis
occurring between 1 and 2 years later. The application of the Hill’s criteria
to these data indicates that the correlation between hepatitis B vaccine and
multiple sclerosis may be causal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25395338

“The application of the Hill’s criteria
to these data indicates that the correlation between
hepatitis B vaccine and multiple sclerosis may be causal.”

Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics content • February 2014

Toward a mechanism-based
in vitro safety test for pertussis toxin
Stefan FC Vaessena, Martijn WP Bruystersb, Rob J Vandebrielb*,
Saertje Verkoeijena, Rogier Bosc, Cyrille AM Krula & Arnoud M Akkermansb
Research Centre Technology & innovation
innovative testing in Life sciences and Chemistry
University of Applied Sciences; Utrecht, the Netherlands
Center for Health Protection
National institute for Public Health and the environment
Bilthoven, the Netherlands
Central Committee on Research involving Human Subjects
Den Haag, the Netherlands
Abstract
Pertussis vaccines are routinely administered to infants to protect them from whooping
cough. Still, an adequate safety test for pertussis toxin (PT), one of the main antigens
in these vaccines, is not available. The histamine sensitization test is currently the only
assay accepted by regulatory authorities to test for the absence of active PT in vaccines.
This is however, a lethal animal test with poor reproducibility. In addition, it is not clear
whether the assumed underlying mechanism, i.e., ADP-ribosylation of G proteins, is the
only effect that should be considered in safety evaluation of PT. The in vitro safety test
for PT that we developed is based on the clinical effects of PT in humans. For this, human
cell lines were chosen based on the cell types involved in the clinical effects of PT. These
cell lines were exposed to PT and analyzed by microarray. In this review, we discuss the
clinical effects of PT and the mechanisms that underlie them. The approach taken may
provide as an example for other situations in which an in vitro assay based on clinical
effects in humans is required.
Full Report
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.4161/hv.28001

From the full report:
“Taken together, the main clinical effects
in humans where Pertussis Toxin is involved are
increased insulin secretion with resulting
hypoglycemia, leukocytosis, lung edema and
inflammatory responses, together resulting in
pulmonary hypertension and pneumonia.
Moreover, PT can induce systemic hypotension,
and is possibly involved in inducing
neurological problems.”

BMC Bioinformatics • March 2014

DNAVaxDB:
the first web-based DNA vaccine database and its data analysis
Racz R, Li X, Patel M,
Xiang Z, He Y.
Abstract
Since the first DNA vaccine studies were done in the 1990s, thousands more studies have followed. Here we report the development and analysis of DNAVaxDB (http://www.violinet.org/
dnavaxdb), the first publically available web-based DNA vaccine database that curates, stores,
and analyzes experimentally verified DNA vaccines, DNA vaccine plasmid vectors, and protective antigens used in DNA vaccines. All data in DNAVaxDB are annotated from reliable resources,
particularly peer-reviewed articles. Among over 140 DNA vaccine plasmids, some plasmids were
more frequently used in one type of pathogen than others; for example, pCMVi-UB for G-bacterial DNA vaccines, and pCAGGS for viral DNA vaccines. Presently, over 400 DNA vaccines
containing over 370 protective antigens from over 90 infectious and non-infectious diseases have
been curated in DNAVaxDB. While extracellular and bacterial cell surface proteins and adhesin
proteins were frequently used for DNA vaccine development, the majority of protective antigens
used in Chlamydophila DNA vaccines are localized to the inner portion of the cell. The DNA vaccine priming, other vaccine boosting vaccination regimen has been widely used to induce protection against infection of different pathogens such as HIV. Parasitic and cancer DNA vaccines were
also systematically analyzed. User-friendly web query and visualization interfaces are available
in DNAVaxDB for interactive data search. To support data exchange, the information of DNA
vaccines, plasmids, and protective antigens is stored in the Vaccine Ontology (VO). DNAVaxDB
is targeted to become a timely and vital source of DNA vaccines and related data and facilitate
advanced DNA vaccine research and development.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4094999/

“... the first publically available
web-based DNA vaccine database
that curates, stores, and analyzes
experimentally verified DNA vaccines,
DNA vaccine plasmid vectors, and protective antigens
used in DNA vaccines. Presently, over 400 DNA vaccines
containing over 370 protective antigens from over
90 infectious and non-infectious diseases have
been curated in DNAVaxDB.”

Current Medicinal Chemistry • March 2014

Sudden infant death
following hexavalent vaccination:
a neuropathologic study
Author information
Matturri L, Del Corno G, Lavezzi AM1
.
“Lino Rossi” Research Center
Department of Biomedical
Surgical and Dental Sciences
University of Milan, Italy
Via della Commenda, 19 - 20122 Milan, Italy
anna.lavezzi@unimi.it
Abstract
We examined a large number of sudden infant death
syndrome victims in order to point out a possible causal
relationship between a previous hexavalent vaccination
and the sudden infant death. We selected 110 cases submitted to in-depth histological examination of the autonomic nervous system and provided with detailed clinical
and environmental information. In 13 cases (11.8%) the
death occurred in temporal association with administration of the hexavalent vaccine (from 1 to 7 days). In none
of these victims congenital developmental alterations of
the main nervous structures regulating the vital functions
were observed. Only the hypoplasia of the arcuate nucleus was present in 5 cases. In one case in particular an
acquired hyperacute encephalitis of the tractus solitarii
nucleus was diagnosed in the brainstem. This study does
not prove a causal relationship between the hexavalent
vaccination and SIDS. However, we hypothesize that
vaccine components could have a direct role in sparking
off a lethal outcome in vulnerable babies. In conclusion,
we sustain the need that deaths occurring in a short space
of time after hexavalent vaccination are appropriately
investigated and submitted to a post-mortem examination particularly of the autonomic nervous system by an
expert pathologist to objectively evaluate the possible
causative role of the vaccine in SIDS.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24083600

“we hypothesize
that vaccine components
could have a direct role
in sparking off a lethal outcome
in vulnerable babies.”

Journal Of Investigative Medicine • High Impact Case Reports • March 2014

Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia With Chronic Fatigue
After HPV Vaccination as Part of the
“Autoimmune/Auto-inflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants”:
Case Report and Literature Review
Author information
Tomljenovic L1, Colafrancesco S2, Perricone C2, Shoenfeld Y3.
1. Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
2. Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
3. Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Abstract
We report the case of a 14-year-old girl who developed postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)
with chronic fatigue 2 months following Gardasil vaccination. The patient suffered from persistent headaches,
dizziness, recurrent syncope, poor motor coordination, weakness, fatigue, myalgias, numbness, tachycardia,
dyspnea, visual disturbances, phonophobia, cognitive impairment, insomnia, gastrointestinal disturbances,
and a weight loss of 20 pounds. The psychiatric evaluation ruled out the possibility that her symptoms were
psychogenic or related to anxiety disorders. Furthermore, the patient tested positive for ANA (1:1280), lupus anticoagulant, and antiphospholipid. On clinical examination she presented livedo reticularis and was
diagnosed with Raynaud’s syndrome. This case fulfills the criteria for the autoimmune/auto-inflammatory
syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA). Because human papillomavirus vaccination is universally recommended to teenagers and because POTS frequently results in long-term disabilities (as was the case in our
patient), a thorough follow-up of patients who present with relevant complaints after vaccination is strongly
recommended.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26425598

“The patient suffered from
persistent headaches, dizziness, recurrent
syncope, poor motor coordination, weakness,
fatigue, myalgias, numbness, tachycardia,
dyspnea, visual disturbances, phonophobia,
cognitive impairment, insomnia, gastrointestinal
disturbances, and a weight loss of 20 pounds.”

PLoS One • March 2014

Mitochondrial dysfunction in Gulf War illness
revealed by 31Phosphorus Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy:
a case-control study
Author information
Koslik HJ1, Hamilton G2, Golomb BA3.
1. Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
2. Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
3. Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA;
Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA

Abstract
BACKGROUND
Approximately 1/3 of 1990-1 Gulf War veterans developed chronic multisymptom health problems. Implicated exposures bear mechanisms that adversely affect mitochondria. Symptoms emphasize fatigue, cognition and muscle (brain
and muscle are aerobically demanding); with protean additional domains affected, compatible with mitochondrial impairment. Recent evidence supports treatments targeting cell bioenergetics (coenzyme10) to benefit Gulf War illness symptoms. However, no evidence has directly documented mitochondrial or bioenergetic impairment in Gulf War illness.
OBJECTIVE
We sought to objectively assess for mitochondrial dysfunction, examining post-exercise phosphocreatine-recovery time
constant (PCr-R) using (31)Phosphorus Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy ((31)P-MRS), in Gulf War veterans with
Gulf War illness compared to matched healthy controls. PCr-R has been described as a “robust and practical” index of
mitochondrial status.
DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS
Case-control study from 2012-2013. Fourteen community-dwelling Gulf War veterans and matched controls from the
San Diego area comprised 7 men meeting CDC and Kansas criteria for Gulf War illness, and 7 non-deployed healthy
controls matched 1:1 to cases on age, sex, and ethnicity.
OUTCOME MEASURE
Calf muscle phosphocreatine was evaluated by (31)P-MRS at rest, through 5 minutes of foot pedal depression exercise,
and in recovery, to assess PCr-R. Paired t-tests compared cases to matched controls.
RESULTS
PCr-R was significantly prolonged in Gulf War illness cases vs their matched controls: control values, mean ± SD, 29.0
± 8.7 seconds; case values 46.1 ± 18.0 seconds; difference 17.1 ± 14.9 seconds; p = 0.023. PCr-R was longer for cases
relative to their matched controls for all but one pair; moreover while values clustered under 31 seconds for all but one
control, they exceeded 35 seconds (with a spread up to 70 seconds) for all but one case.
DISCUSSION
These data provide the first direct evidence supporting mitochondrial dysfunction in Gulf War illness. Findings merit
replication in a larger study and/or corroboration with additional mitochondrial assessment tools.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24675771

“These data provide
the first direct evidence
supporting mitochondrial
dysfunction in
Gulf War illness.”

Journal Of Investigative Medicine
High Impact Case Reports • March 2014

Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia
With Chronic Fatigue After HPV Vaccination
as Part of the “Autoimmune/Auto-inflammatory Syndrome
Induced by Adjuvants”
Lucija Tomljenovic, PhD1,2, Serena Colafrancesco, MD1,3,
Carlo Perricone, MD1,3, Yehuda Shoenfeld, MD, FRCP (Hon), MaACR1,4
1. Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
2. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
3. Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
4. Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
We report the case of a 14-year-old girl who developed postural orthostatic tachycardia
syndrome (POTS) with chronic fatigue 2 months following Gardasil vaccination. The patient suffered from persistent headaches, dizziness, recurrent syncope, poor motor coordination, weakness, fatigue, myalgias, numbness, tachycardia, dyspnea, visual disturbances,
phonophobia, cognitive impairment, insomnia, gastrointestinal disturbances, and a weight
loss of 20 pounds. The psychiatric evaluation ruled out the possibility that her symptoms
were psychogenic or related to anxiety disorders. Furthermore, the patient tested positive
for ANA (1:1280), lupus anticoagulant, and antiphospholipid. On clinical examination she
presented livedo reticularis and was diagnosed with Raynaud’s syndrome. This case fulfills
the criteria for the autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA).
Because human papillomavirus vaccination is universally recommended to teenagers and
because POTS frequently results in long-term disabilities (as was the case in our patient),
a thorough follow-up of patients who present with relevant complaints after vaccination is
strongly recommended.
http://hic.sagepub.com/content/2/1/2324709614527812.abstract

“We report the case of a 14-year-old girl
who developed postural orthostatic tachycardia
syndrome (POTS) with chronic fatigue 2 months
following Gardasil vaccination. The patient suffered
from persistent headaches, dizziness, recurrent
syncope, poor motor coordination, weakness, fatigue,
myalgias, numbness, tachycardia, dyspnea, visual
disturbances, phonophobia, cognitive impairment,
insomnia, gastrointestinal disturbances, and a weight
loss of 20 pounds. This case fulfills the criteria for
the autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome
induced by adjuvants (ASIA).”

Clinical And Experimental Rheumatology • March 2014

Alum, an aluminum-based adjuvant,
induces Sjögren’s syndrome-like disorder in mice
Author information
Bagavant H1, Nandula SR, Kaplonek P, Rybakowska PD, Deshmukh US.
Division of Nephrology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
VA and Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program
Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
harini-bagavant@omrf.org
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
Adjuvant-induced innate immune responses have been suspected to play a role in
the initiation of certain autoimmune disorders. This study investigates the role of
alum, an aluminum-based adjuvant in the induction of Sjögren’s syndrome-like disorder in mice.
METHODS
Inbred, female New Zealand Mixed (NZM) 2758 strain of mice were injected with
alum. Control mice were treated similarly with PBS. The mice were monitored for
salivary gland dysfunction by measuring pilocarpine-induced salivation. Presence
of lymphocytic infiltrates within the submandibular glands was studied by histopathology. Autoantibodies to Ro and La proteins were analysed by ELISA and the
presence of anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) was analysed by indirect immunofluorescence.
RESULTS
By eight weeks after treatment, the saliva production in the alum-treated mice was
significantly decreased in comparison to the PBS-treated mice. This functional loss
persisted till the termination of experiments at 20 wks. The incidence and severity
of sialoadenitis was significantly higher in the alum-treated mice. Although there
were no differences in the levels of anti-Ro/La autoantibodies in sera of alum and
PBS-treated groups, the alum group showed higher ANA reactivity.
CONCLUSIONS
In the NZM2758 mice, alum induces a Sjögren’s syndrome-like disorder that is
characterised by chronic salivary gland dysfunction and the presence of lymphocytic infiltrates within the salivary glands. Thus, the potential of aluminum-based
adjuvants for induction of autoimmunity should be closely monitored in individuals
genetically susceptible to developing autoimmune disorders.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24739520

“Adjuvant-induced innate immune responses
have been suspected to play a role in the
initiation of certain autoimmune disorders.
This study investigates the role of alum, an
aluminum-based adjuvant in the induction
of Sjögren’s syndrome-like disorder in mice.”

Behavioral And Brain Functions • April 2014

A key role for an impaired detoxification mechanism
in the etiology and severity of autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Alabdali A, Al-Ayadhi L, El-Ansary A1.
Biochemistry Department, Science College
King Saud University, P,O box 22452, Zip code 11495
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
elansary@ksu.edu.sa
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is a syndrome with a number of etiologies and different
mechanisms that lead to abnormal development. The identification of autism biomarkers in patients with different degrees of clinical presentation (i.e., mild, moderate and severe) will give
greater insight into the pathogenesis of this disease and will enable effective early diagnostic
strategies and treatments for this disorder.
METHODS
In this study, the concentration of two toxic heavy metals, lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg), were measured in red blood cells, while glutathione-s-transferase (GST) and vitamin E, as enzymatic and
non-enzymatic antioxidants, respectively, were measured in the plasma of subgroups of autistic
patients with different Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) and Childhood Autism Rating Scale
(CARS) scores. The results were compared to age- and gender-matched healthy controls.
RESULTS
The obtained data showed that the patients with autism spectrum disorder had significantly higher Pb and Hg levels and lower GST activity and vitamin E concentrations compared with the
controls. The levels of heavy metals (Hg and Pb), GST and vitamin E were correlated with the
severity of the social and cognitive impairment measures (SRS and CARS). Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) analysis and predictiveness curves indicated that the four parameters
show satisfactory sensitivity, very high specificity and excellent predictiveness. Multiple regression analyses confirmed that higher levels of Hg and Pb, together with lower levels of GST and
vitamin E, can be used to predict social and cognitive impairment in patients with autism spectrum disorders.
CONCLUSION
This study confirms earlier studies that implicate toxic metal accumulation as a consequence of
impaired detoxification in autism and provides insight into the etiological mechanism of autism.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4017810/

“This study confirms earlier studies
that implicate toxic metal accumulation
as a consequence of impaired detoxification
in autism and provides insight into the
etiological mechanism of autism.”

Epidemiology And Infection • April 2014

Pertussis resurgence:
waning immunity and pathogen adaptation—
two sides of the same coin
Author information
Mooi FR1, Van Der Maas NA2, De Melker HE2.
1. Laboratory for Infectious Disease
Centre for Infectious Disease Control
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
Bilthoven, The Netherlands
2. Epidemiology and Surveillance
Centre for Infectious Disease Control
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Abstract
Pertussis or whooping cough has persisted and resurged in the face of vaccination and has become one of the most prevalent vaccine-preventable diseases
in Western countries. The high circulation rate of Bordetella pertussis poses a
threat to infants that have not been (completely) vaccinated and for whom pertussis is a severe, life-threatening, disease. The increase in pertussis is mainly
found in age groups in which immunity has waned and this has resulted in the
perception that waning immunity is the main or exclusive cause for the resurgence of pertussis. However, significant changes in B. pertussis populations
have been observed after the introduction of vaccinations, suggesting a role
for pathogen adaptation in the persistence and resurgence of pertussis. These
changes include antigenic divergence with vaccine strains and increased production of pertussis toxin. Antigenic divergence will affect both memory recall and the efficacy of antibodies, while higher levels of pertussis toxin may
increase suppression of the innate and acquired immune system. We propose
these adaptations of B. pertussis have decreased the period in which pertussis
vaccines are effective and thus enhanced the waning of immunity. We plead
for a more integrated approach to the pertussis problem which includes the
characteristics of the vaccines, the B. pertussis populations and the interaction
between the two.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23406868

“We propose
these adaptations of B. pertussis
have decreased the period in which
pertussis vaccines are effective
and thus enhanced the
waning of immunity.”

Environmental Pollution • April 2014

Perinatal multiple exposure to neurotoxic
(lead, methylmercury, ethylmercury, and aluminum)
substances and neurodevelopment
at six and 24 months of age
Author information
Marques RC1, Bernardi JV2, Dórea JG3,
de Fatima R Moreira M4, Malm O5.
1. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Campus Macaé, CEP 27930-560 RJ, Brazil
2. University of Brasília, Brasília, 70919-970 DF, Brasil
3. University of Brasília, Brasília, 70919-970 DF, Brasil
4. Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, RJ, Brazil
5. Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
jg.dorea@gmail.com
Abstract
We studied neurodevelopment in infants from two communities. Children living in the vicinity of tin-ore kilns and smelters - TOKS; n = 51) were compared to children from a fishing village (Itapuã; n = 45). Mean hair-Hg (HHg) concentrations were significantly higher in Itapuã
children which received significantly (p = 0.0000001) less mean ethylmercury (88.6 μg)
from Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCV) than the TOKS children (120 μg). Breast-milk
Pb concentrations were significantly higher in the TOKS mothers (p = 0.000017; 10.04 vs.
3.9 μg L(-1)). Bayley mental development index (MDI) and psychomotor development index
(PDI) were statistically significant (respectively p < 0.0000001, p = 0.000007) lower for the
TOKS children only at 24 months of age. Multivariate regression analysis showed that MDI
was negatively affected by breast-milk Pb and by HHg. PDI was positively affected by breastfeeding and negatively affected by ethylmercury. Milestone achievements were negatively
affected by breast-milk Pb (age of walking) and by HHg (age of talking).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24486466

“Milestone achievements
were negatively affected by
breast-milk lead (age of walking)
and by Mean hair-mercury (age of talking).”

International Journal Of Epidemiology • May 2014

The non-specific effects of vaccines
and other childhood interventions:
the contribution of INDEPTH
Health and Demographic Surveillance Systems
Author Information
Osman Sankoh,1,2,3,* Paul Welaga,1,4 Cornelius Debpuur,1,4 Charles Zandoh,1,5 Stephney Gyaase,1,5 Mary Atta
Poma,1,6 Martin Kavao Mutua,1,7 SM Manzoor Ahmed Hanifi,1,8 Cesario Martins,1,9 Eric Nebie,1,10 Moubassira
Kagoné,1,10 Jacques BO Emina,1 and Peter Aaby1,9
1. INDEPTH Network, Accra, Ghana
2. School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
3. Faculty of Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
4. Navrongo Health Research Centre, Ghana Health Service, Navrongo, Ghana
5. Kintampo Health Research Centre, Ghana Health Service, Kintampo, Ghana
6. Dodowa Health Research Centre, Ghana Health Service, Dodowa, Ghana
7. African Population and Health Research Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
8. Chakaria Community Health Project Community Health Division, ICDDRB, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh
9. Bandim Health Project, Bandim, Guiné-Bissau
10. Centre de Recherche en Santé de Nouna (CRSN), Nouna, Burkina Faso
Abstract
Most childhood interventions (vaccines, micronutrients) in low-income countries are justified by their assumed effect on
child survival. However, usually the interventions have only been studied with respect to their disease/deficiency-specific
effects and not for their overall effects on morbidity and mortality. In many situations, the population-based effects have
been very different from the anticipated effects; for example, the measles-preventive high-titre measles vaccine was associated with 2-fold increased female mortality; BCG reduces neonatal mortality although children do not die of tuberculosis in the neonatal period; vitamin A may be associated with increased or reduced child mortality in different situations;
effects of interventions may differ for boys and girls. The reasons for these and other contrasts between expectations and
observations are likely to be that the immune system learns more than specific prevention from an intervention; such
training may enhance or reduce susceptibility to unrelated infections. INDEPTH member centres have been in an ideal
position to document such additional non-specific effects of interventions because they follow the total population long
term. It is proposed that more INDEPTH member centres extend their routine data collection platform to better measure
the use and effects of childhood interventions. In a longer perspective, INDEPTH may come to play a stronger role in
defining health research issues of relevance to low-income countries.
Conclusion
Existing studies suggest a general pattern, namely that the live vaccines (BCG, measles vaccine, OPV and vaccinia) are
associated with beneficial non-specific effects, leading to reduced all-cause mortality, whereas the inactivated, alum-adjuvated DTP vaccine is associated with increased susceptibility to other unrelated infections, particularly in females.
Full Report: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4052142/

“... the inactivated,
alum-adjuvated DTP vaccine
is associated with increased
susceptibility to other unrelated
infections, particularly in females.”

Parasitology Research • May 2014

Cytotoxic effect of organic solvents
and surfactant agents on Acanthamoeba castellanii cysts
Author information
Ezz Eldin HM1, Sarhan RM.
Medical Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
hayamezz@hotmail.com
Abstract
Acanthamoeba castellanii is a protozoan parasite that may cause sight-threatening keratitis in
some individuals. Its eradication is difficult because the trophozoites encyst making organisms
highly resistant to anti-amoebic drugs. To test new anti-Acanthamoeba agents, usually having
low water solubility, organic solvents and surfactant agents should be used. Therefore, the lethal
effect of different concentrations of the solvents acetone, methanol, ethanol, and DMSO and
surfactant agents Tween 20, Tween 80, and Triton X-100 was tested. The minimal inhibitory
concentrations (MIC) were determined against Acanthamoeba cysts. Results of the present study
showed that the MIC for ethanol, methanol, acetone and DMSO was 25, 12.5, 12.5, and 10%,
respectively and for Tween 20, Tween 80, and Triton X-100 was 0.25, 0.06, and 0.03%, respectively. There was no significant inhibitory effect on the multiplication of Acanthamoeba cysts as
compared to parasite control when using the concentrations 3.12% for ethanol, 1.6% for methanol and acetone, 1.25% for DMSO, and 0.016% for Tween 20. On the other hand, both Tween 80
and Triton X-100 showed highly significant difference in comparison to parasite control almost
among all the range of concentrations used in this study, and both showed lethal effect of 19 and
27.2%, respectively at their least concentration.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24638907

“... both Tween 80 and Triton X-100 showed ...
lethal effect of 19 and 27.2%, respectively
at their least concentration.”

“Adjuvants are necessary components to warrant the efficacy of vaccines,
however the overstimulation of the immune system is also associated with adverse effects.”
International Immunopharmacology • May 2014

Systemic immunotoxicity reactions induced by adjuvanted vaccines
Author information
Batista-Duharte A1, Portuondo D2, Pérez O3, Carlos IZ2.
1. Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Toxicology and Biomedicine Center (TOXIMED), Medical Science University
Autopista Nacional Km. 1 1/2, CP 90400 Santiago de Cuba, Cuba; Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquita Filho (UNESP), Rua Expedicionarios do Brasil 1621
CEP 14801-902 Araraquara, SP, Brazil; CAPES-PVE/Brasil Grant, Foreigner Visiting Professor Program, Brazil
2. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquita Filho (UNESP)
Rua Expedicionarios do Brasil 1621, CEP 14801-902 Araraquara, SP, Brazil
3. Immunology Department, Institute of Preclinical and Basic Sciences (ICBP) “Victoria de Girón”
University of Medical Sciences of Havana. 146 No. 2504. e/ 25 Ave and 31 Ave, Playa, Havana, Cuba

Abstract
Vaccine safety is a topic of concern for the treated individual, the family, the health care personnel, and the others
involved in vaccination programs as recipients or providers. Adjuvants are necessary components to warrant the
efficacy of vaccines, however the overstimulation of the immune system is also associated with adverse effects.
Local reactions are the most frequent manifestation of toxicity induced by adjuvanted vaccines and, with the exception of the acute phase response (APR), much less is known about the systemic reactions that follow vaccination. Their low frequency or subclinical expression meant that this matter has been neglected. In this review, various systemic reactions associated with immune stimulation will be addressed, including: APR, hypersensitivity,
induction or worsening of autoimmune diseases, modification of hepatic metabolism and vascular leak syndrome
(VLS), with an emphasis on the mechanism involved. Finally, the authors analyze the current focus of discussion
about vaccine safety and opportunities to improve the design of new adjuvanted vaccines in the future.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24607449

Autism • Causes & Prevalence • June 2014

Etiology of autism spectrum disorders:
Genes, environment, or both?
C Shaw1*, S Sheth1, D Li1, L Tomljenovic1
(1) University of British Columbia
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
cashawlab@gmail.com
Abstract
Thus far, most of the research on both neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders has been focused on finding the presumed underlying genetic causes, while much
less emphasis has been put on potential environmental factors. While some forms of autism are clearly genetic, the fact remains that heritability factors cannot adequately explain all reported cases nor their drastic increase over the last few decades. In particular,
studies on twins have now shown that common environmental factors account for 55% of
their risk for developing autism while genetic susceptibility explains only 37% of cases.
Because the prenatal environment and early postnatal environment are shared between
twins and because overt symptoms of autism emerge around the end of the first year of
life, it is likely that at least some of the environmental factors contributing to the risk of
autism exert their deleterious neurodevelopmental effect during this early period of life.
Indeed, evidence has now emerged showing that autism may in part result from early-life
immune insults induced by environmental xenobiotics. One of the most common xenobiotic with immuno-stimulating as well as neurotoxic properties to which infants under two
years of age are routinely exposed worldwide is the aluminum (Al) vaccine adjuvant. In
this review we discuss the mechanisms by which Al can induce adverse neurological and
immunological effects and how these may provide important clues of Al’s putative role
in autism. Because of the tight connection between the development of the immune and
the central nervous system, the possibility that immune-overstimulation in early infancy
via vaccinations may play a role in neurobehavioural disorders needs to be carefully considered.
Conclusion
There is now sufficient evidence from both human and animal studies showing that cumulative exposure to aluminium adjuvants is not as benign as previously assumed. Given
that vaccines are the only medical intervention that we attempt to deliver to every living
human on earth and that by far the largest target population for vaccination are healthy
children, a better appreciation and understanding of vaccine adjuvant risks appears warranted.
http://www.oapublishinglondon.com/article/1368

“Indeed, evidence has now emerged showing that
autism may in part result from early-life immune
insults induced by environmental xenobiotics. One of
the most common xenobiotic with immuno-stimulating as well as neurotoxic properties to which infants
under two years of age are routinely exposed worldwide is the aluminum (Al) vaccine adjuvant. In this
review we discuss the mechanisms by which Al can
induce adverse neurological and immunological
effects and how these may provide important clues
of Aluminum’s putative role in autism.”

“… the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that Thimerosal is safe
and there is no relationship between [T]himerosal[-]containing vaccines and autism rates in children.
This is puzzling because, in a study conducted directly by CDC epidemiologists,
a 7.6-fold increased risk of autism from exposure to Thimerosal during infancy was found.”
Biomedical Research International • June 2014

Methodological issues and evidence of malfeasance
in research purporting to show thimerosal in vaccines is safe
Author information
Hooker B1, Kern J2, Geier D3, Haley B4, Sykes L5, King P5, Geier M3.
1. Simpson University, 2211 College View Drive, Redding, CA 96001
2. Institute of Chronic Illness, Inc., 14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD 20905
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75235
3. Institute of Chronic Illness, Inc., 14 Redgate Court, Silver Spring, MD 20905
4. University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506
5. CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
Abstract
There are over 165 studies that have focused on Thimerosal, an organic-mercury (Hg) based compound, used as a preservative in many childhood vaccines, and found it to be harmful. Of these, 16
were conducted to specifically examine the effects of Thimerosal on human infants or children with
reported outcomes of death; acrodynia; poisoning; allergic reaction; malformations; auto-immune reaction; Well’s syndrome; developmental delay; and neurodevelopmental disorders, including tics, speech
delay, language delay, attention deficit disorder, and autism. In contrast, the United States Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention states that Thimerosal is safe and there is “no relationship between
[T]himerosal[-]containing vaccines and autism rates in children.” This is puzzling because, in a study
conducted directly by CDC epidemiologists, a 7.6-fold increased risk of autism from exposure to Thimerosal during infancy was found. The CDC’s current stance that Thimerosal is safe and that there is no
relationship between Thimerosal and autism is based on six specific published epidemiological studies
coauthored and sponsored by the CDC. The purpose of this review is to examine these six publications
and analyze possible reasons why their published outcomes are so different from the results of investigations by multiple independent research groups over the past 75+ years.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4065774/

International Journal Of Epidemiology • June 2014

The non-specific effects of vaccines
and other childhood interventions:
the contribution of INDEPTH
Health and Demographic Surveillance Systems
Author information
Sankoh O1, Welaga P2, Debpuur C2, Zandoh C2, Gyaase S2,
Poma MA2, Mutua MK2, Hanifi SM2, Martins C2, Nebie E2,
Kagoné M2, Emina JB3, Aaby P2.
INDEPTH Network, Accra, Ghana, School of Public Health
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
Abstract
Most childhood interventions (vaccines, micronutrients) in low-income countries are justified by
their assumed effect on child survival. However, usually the interventions have only been studied
with respect to their disease/deficiency-specific effects and not for their overall effects on morbidity and mortality. In many situations, the population-based effects have been very different
from the anticipated effects; for example, the measles-preventive high-titre measles vaccine was
associated with 2-fold increased female mortality; BCG reduces neonatal mortality although children do not die of tuberculosis in the neonatal period; vitamin A may be associated with increased
or reduced child mortality in different situations; effects of interventions may differ for boys and
girls. The reasons for these and other contrasts between expectations and observations are likely
to be that the immune system learns more than specific prevention from an intervention; such
training may enhance or reduce susceptibility to unrelated infections. INDEPTH member centres
have been in an ideal position to document such additional non-specific effects of interventions
because they follow the total population long term. It is proposed that more INDEPTH member
centres extend their routine data collection platform to better measure the use and effects of
childhood interventions. In a longer perspective, INDEPTH may come to play a stronger role in
defining health research issues of relevance to low-income countries.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4052142/

“In many situations,
the population-based effects have been very different
from the anticipated effects; for example, the measles-preventive
high-titre measles vaccine was associated with
2-fold increased female mortality ...”

“Our results indicated that food emulsifier applied in relatively high concentrations
in even the most frequently consumed foods can increase the absorption of DEHP,
and its role may be related to the structure and function damages of mitochondria in enterocytes.”
Toxicology Science • June 2014

Food emulsifier polysorbate 80 increases intestinal absorption
of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in rats
Author information
Lu Y1, Wang YY, Yang N, Zhang D, Zhang FY, Gao HT, Rong WT, Yu SQ, Xu Q.
Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Supramolecular Medicinal Materials and Applications
College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University
Nanjing 210046, The People’s Republic of China
Abstract
The aim of the present research was to explore whether food emulsifier polysorbate 80 can enhance the absorption of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and its possible mechanism. We established the high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for detecting DEHP and its major metabolite, mono-ethylhexyl phthalate
(MEHP) in rat plasma, and then examined the toxicokinetic and bioavailability of DEHP with or without polysorbate 80 in rats. The study of its mechanism to increase the absorption of phthalates demonstrated that polysorbate 80 can induce mitochondrial dysfunction in time- and concentration-dependence manners in Caco-2 cells
by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential, diminishing the production of the adenosine triphosphate, and
decreasing the activity of electron transport chain. Our results indicated that food emulsifier applied in relatively
high concentrations in even the most frequently consumed foods can increase the absorption of DEHP, and its role
may be related to the structure and function damages of mitochondria in enterocytes.
Full Report
http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/139/2/317.long

Journal Of Infectious Disease • July 2014

Sex-based biology
and the rational design
of influenza vaccination strategies
Author information
Klein SL1, Pekosz A1.
W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
Abstract
Biological (ie, sex) differences as well as cultural (ie, gender) norms influence
the acceptance and efficacy of vaccines for males and females. These differences
are often overlooked in the design and implementation of vaccination strategies.
Using seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccines, we document profound differences between the sexes in the acceptance, correlates of protection, and adverse
reactions following vaccination in both young and older adults. Females develop
higher antibody responses, experience more adverse reactions to influenza vaccines, and show greater vaccine efficacy than males. Despite greater vaccine efficacy in females, both young and older females are often less likely to accept
influenza vaccines than their male counterparts. Identification of the biological
mechanisms, including the hormones and genes, that underlie differential responses to vaccination is necessary. We propose that vaccines should be matched to an
individual’s biological sex, which could involve systematically tailoring diverse
types of FDA-approved influenza vaccines separately for males and females. One
goal for vaccines designed to protect against influenza and even other infectious
diseases should be to increase the correlates of protection in males and reduce adverse reactions in females in an effort to increase acceptance and vaccine-induced
protection in both sexes.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4157517/

“Biological (ie, sex) differences
as well as cultural (ie, gender) norms
influence the acceptance and efficacy of vaccines
for males and females. These differences are often
[always] overlooked in the design and implementation
of vaccination strategies.”

“Seventy-nine infants received a total of 1,303 prescriptions comprising 77 formulations and 70 active drugs.
Eighty-six excipients were identified, of which, 9 were harmful excipients (HE) and 48 were potentially harmful excipients (PHE).”
European Journal Of Pediatrics • July 2014

Toxic excipients in medications for neonates in Brazil
Author information
Souza A Jr1, Santos D, Fonseca S, Medeiros M, Batista L, Turner M, Coelho H.
Mother and Child Hospital of Brasilia, SGAS, Av. L2 Sul, Quadra 608
Módulo A Asa Sul, Brasília, Federal District, Brazil
alcidesiojr@gmail.com
Abstract
The aim was to describe the exposure to excipients among neonates hospitalised in the neonatal intensive care
unit (NICU) of a public hospital in Brasilia, Brazil. This was a retrospective study based on medicines that were
prescribed electronically to neonates (≤28 days) who were admitted to the NICU of a hospital in Brasilia between
January 1 and March 31, 2012. Excipients were identified from the medicine package leaflets and were classified
according to toxicity. Seventy-nine infants received a total of 1,303 prescriptions comprising 77 formulations
and 70 active drugs. Eighty-six excipients were identified, of which, 9 were harmful excipients (HE) and 48 were
potentially harmful excipients (PHE). Almost all the neonates (98.7 %) were exposed to at least one HE and PHE.
Preterm neonates (n = 64; 1,502 neonate days) presented high risk of exposure to polysorbate 80 (3.26/100 neonate days), sodium hydroxide (3.39), PG (3.19) and propylparaben (3.06). Full-term neonates (n = 15; 289 neonate
days) presented risks in relation to phenol (4.84), ethanol (3.8) and sodium citrate (3.46).
CONCLUSION
Neonates in NICUs in Brazil are exposed to a wide variety of HE and PHE with unpredictable results.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24500397

Translational Neurodegeneration • August 2014

Measles-mumps-rubella vaccination
timing and autism among young African American boys:
a reanalysis of CDC data
Author information
Hooker BS.
Simpson University, Redding, CA, USA.
Abstract
BACKGROUND
A significant number of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder suffer a loss
of previously-acquired skills, suggesting neurodegeneration or a type of progressive encephalopathy with an etiological basis occurring after birth. The purpose of this study is to
investigate the effectof the age at which children got their first Measles-Mumps-Rubella
(MMR) vaccine on autism incidence. This is a reanalysis of the data set, obtained from the
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Protection (CDC), used for the Destefano et al. 2004
publication on the timing of the first MMR vaccine and autism diagnoses.
METHODS
The author embarked on the present study to evaluate whether a relationship exists between
child age when the first MMR vaccine was administered among cases diagnosed with autism and controls born between 1986 through 1993 among school children in metropolitan
Atlanta. The Pearson’s chi-squared method was used to assess relative risks of receiving
an autism diagnosis within the total cohort as well as among different race and gender categories.
RESULTS
When comparing cases and controls receiving their first MMR vaccine before and after
36 months of age, there was a statistically significant increase in autism cases specifically
among African American males who received the first MMR prior to 36 months of age.
Relative risks for males in general and African American males were 1.69 (p=0.0138) and
3.36 (p=0.0019), respectively. Additionally, African American males showed an odds ratio
of 1.73 (p=0.0200) for autism cases in children receiving their first MMR vaccine prior to
24 months of age versus 24 months of age and thereafter.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study provides new epidemiologic evidence showing that African American
males receiving the MMR vaccine prior to 24 months of age or 36 months of age are more
likely to receive an autism diagnosis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25114790

“The present study provides
new epidemiologic evidence showing that
African American males receiving the MMR vaccine
prior to 24 months of age or 36 months of age
are more likely to receive an autism diagnosis.”

Vaccine • September 2014

Abstract

Interaction between neonatal vitamin A supplementation
and timing of measles vaccination:
a retrospective analysis of three randomized trials
from Guinea-Bissau

BACKGROUND
In Guinea-Bissau we conducted three trials of neonatal vitamin A supplementation
(NVAS) from 2002 to 2008. None of the trials found a beneficial effect on mortality.
From 2003 to 2007, an early measles vaccine (MV) trial was ongoing, randomizing
children 1:2 to early MV at 4.5 months or no early MV, in addition to the usual MV at 9
months. We have previously found interactions between vitamin A and vaccines.

Author information

OBJECTIVE
We investigated whether there were interactions between NVAS and early MV.

Benn CS1, Martins CL2, Fisker AB3, Diness BR3,
Garly ML3, Balde I2, Rodrigues A2, Whittle H4, Aaby P5.
1. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA)
Bandim Health Project, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
Institute of Clinical Research
University of Southern Denmark/Odense University Hospital, Denmark
cb@ssi.dk.
2. Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
3. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA)
Bandim Health Project, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
4. The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK
5. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA)
Bandim Health Project, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau

DESIGN
We compared the mortality of NVAS and placebo recipients: first, from 4.5 to 8 months
for children randomized to early MV or no early MV; and second, from 9 to 17 months
in children who had received two MV or one MV. Mortality rates (MR) were compared
in Cox models producing mortality rate ratios (MRR).
RESULTS
A total of 5141 children were randomized to NVAS (N=3015) or placebo (N=2126)
and were later randomized to early MV (N=1700) or no early MV (N=3441). Between
4.5 and 8 months, NVAS compared with placebo was associated with higher mortality
in early MV recipients (MR=30 versus MR=0, p=0.01), but not in children who did
not receive early MV (p for interaction between NVAS and early MV=0.03). From 9
to 17 months NVAS was not associated with mortality. Overall, from 4.5 to 17 months
NVAS was associated with increased mortality in early MV recipients (Mortality rate
ratio=5.39 (95% confidence interval: 1.62, 17.99)).
CONCLUSIONS
These observations indicate that NVAS may interact with vaccines given several
months later. This may have implications for the planning of future child intervention
programs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25131735

“These observations
indicate that neonatal
vitamin A supplementation
may interact with vaccines
given several months later.”

BMC Pediatrics • August 2014

Neonatal vitamin A supplementation
associated with a cluster of deaths and poor early growth
in a randomised trial among low-birth-weight boys of vitamin A
versus oral polio vaccine at birth
Najaaraq Lund,1,2,3 Sofie Biering-Sørensen,1 Andreas Andersen,1 Ivan Monteiro,3
Luis Camala,4 Mathias Jul Jørgensen,3 Peter Aaby,1,3 and Christine Stabell Benn1,5
1Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project
Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
2Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
3Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
4Maternidade, Hospital Nacional Simão Mendes, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
5OPEN, Institute of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark/Odense University Hospital
Odense, Denmark
Abstract
Background
The effect of oral polio vaccine administered already at birth (OPV0) on child survival was not examined before
being recommended in 1985. Observational data suggested that OPV0 was harmful for boys, and trials have
shown that neonatal vitamin A supplementation (NVAS) at birth may be beneficial for boys. We set out to test this
research question in a randomised trial.
Methods
The trial was carried out at the Bandim Health Project, Guinea-Bissau. We planned to enrol 900 low-birth weight
(LBW) boys in a randomised trial to investigate whether NVAS instead of OPV0 could lower infant mortality for
LBW boys. At birth, the children were randomised to OPV (usual treatment) or VAS (intervention treatment) and
followed for 6 months for growth and 12 months for survival. Hazard Ratios (HR) for mortality were calculated
using Cox regression. We compared the individual anthropometry measurements to the 2006 WHO growth reference. We compared differences in z-scores by linear regression. Relative risks (RR) of being stunted or underweight were calculated in Poisson regression models with robust standard errors.
Results
In the rainy season we detected a cluster of deaths in the VAS group and the trial was halted immediately with
232 boys enrolled. The VAS group had significantly higher mortality than the OPV group in the rainy season
(HR: 9.91 (1.23 – 80)). All deaths had had contact with the neonatal nursery; of seven VAS boys enrolled during
one week in September, six died within two months of age, whereas only one died among the six boys receiving
OPV (p = 0.05). Growth (weight and arm-circumference) in the VAS group was significantly worse until age 3
months.
Conclusion
VAS at birth instead of OPV was not beneficial for the LBW boys in this study. With the premature closure of the
trial it was not possible to answer the research question. However, the results of this study call for extra caution
when testing the effect of NVAS in the future.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4236664/

[example of the experimental nature of vaccination.
This test using Vitamin A Supplementation versus
Oral Polio Vaccine resulted in the deaths of 6 African boys]

Human & Experimental Toxicology • August 2014

Vaccination to prevent varicella:
Goldman and King’s response to Myers’ interpretation
of Varicella Active Surveillance Project data
Author information
Goldman GS1, King PG2.
1. Independent Computer Scientist, Pearblossom, CA, USA
gsgoldman@roadrunner.com
2. Facility Automation Management Engineering (FAME) Systems, Lake Hiawatha, NJ,
USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
There is increasing evidence that herpes zoster (HZ) incidence rates among children and
adults (aged <60 years) with a history of natural varicella are influenced primarily by the
frequency of exogenous exposures, while asymptomatic endogenous reactivations help to
cap the rate at approximately 550 cases/100,000 person-years when exogenous boosting
becomes rare. The Antelope Valley Varicella Active Surveillance Project was funded by the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1995 to monitor the effects of varicella vaccination in one of the three representative regions of the United States. The stability in the
data collection and number of reporting sites under varicella surveillance from 1995-2002
and HZ surveillance during 2000-2001 and 2006-2007 contributed to the robustness of the
discerned trends.
DISCUSSION
Varicella vaccination may be useful for leukemic children; however, the target population
in the United States is all children. Since the varicella vaccine inoculates its recipients with
live, attenuated varicella-zoster virus (VZV), clinical varicella cases have dramatically declined. Declining exogenous exposures (boosts) from children shedding natural VZV have
caused waning cell-mediated immunity. Thus, the protection provided by varicella vaccination is neither lifelong nor complete. Moreover, dramatic increases in the incidence of adult
shingles cases have been observed since HZ was added to the surveillance in 2000. In 2013,
this topic is still debated and remains controversial in the United States.
SUMMARY
When the costs of the booster dose for varicella and the increased shingles recurrences are
included, the universal varicella vaccination program is neither effective nor cost-effective.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24275643

“When the costs of the booster dose
for varicella and the increased shingles
recurrences are included, the universal
varicella vaccination program is neither
effective nor cost-effective.”

Vaccine • September 2014

Interaction between neonatal vitamin A supplementation
and timing of measles vaccination: a retrospective analysis of
three randomized trials from Guinea-Bissau
Author information
Benn CS1, Martins CL2, Fisker AB3, Diness BR3,
Garly ML3, Balde I2, Rodrigues A2, Whittle H4, Aaby P5.
1. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project
2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark; OPEN, Institute of Clinical Research,University of Southern Denmark/Odense University Hospital, Denmark
2. Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau.
3. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.
4. The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK.
5. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project, Artillerivej 5
2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark; Bandim Health Project, Indepth Network, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau

“These
observations
indicate that
neonatal
vitamin A

Abstract
BACKGROUND
In Guinea-Bissau we conducted three trials of neonatal vitamin A supplementation (NVAS) from 2002 to 2008. None of the trials found a beneficial effect on mortality. From 2003 to 2007, an early measles vaccine (MV) trial was ongoing, randomizing children 1:2 to early MV at 4.5
months or no early MV, in addition to the usual MV at 9 months. We have previously found interactions between vitamin A and vaccines.
OBJECTIVE
We investigated whether there were interactions between NVAS and early MV.
DESIGN
We compared the mortality of NVAS and placebo recipients: first, from 4.5 to 8 months for children randomized to early MV or no early MV;
and second, from 9 to 17 months in children who had received two MV or one MV. Mortality rates (MR) were compared in Cox models producing mortality rate ratios (MRR).
RESULTS
A total of 5141 children were randomized to NVAS (N=3015) or placebo (N=2126) and were later randomized to early MV (N=1700) or no early
MV (N=3441). Between 4.5 and 8 months, NVAS compared with placebo was associated with higher mortality in early MV recipients (MR=30
versus MR=0, p=0.01), but not in children who did not receive early MV (p for interaction between NVAS and early MV=0.03). From 9 to 17
months NVAS was not associated with mortality. Overall, from 4.5 to 17 months NVAS was associated with increased mortality in early MV
recipients (Mortality rate ratio=5.39 (95% confidence interval: 1.62, 17.99)).
CONCLUSIONS
These observations indicate that NVAS may interact with vaccines given several months later.
This may have implications for the planning of future child intervention programs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25131735

supplementation
may interact
with vaccines
given several
months later.”

“This is the first report of measles transmission from a twice vaccinated individual.”
Oxford Journals Clinical Infectious Diseases • October 2014

Outbreak of Measles Among Persons With Prior Evidence of Immunity
New York City, 2011
Author Information
Jennifer B. Rosen1, Jennifer S. Rota2, Carole J. Hickman2, Sun Sowers2, Sara Mercader2, Paul A. Rota2,
William J. Bellini2, Ada J. Huang3, Margaret K. Doll1, Jane R. Zucker1,2, and Christopher M. Zimmerman1
1. Bureau of ImmunizationNew York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene
New York City, New York
2. National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Atlanta, GA
3. Westchester County Department of Health, New Rochelle, New York
Abstract
Background
Measles was eliminated in the United States through high
vaccination coverage and a public health system able to
rapidly respond to measles. Measles may occur among
vaccinated individuals, but secondary transmission from
such individuals has not been documented.
Methods
Suspected cases and contacts exposed during a measles
outbreak in New York City in 2011 were investigated.
Medical histories and immunization records were obtained. Cases were confirmed by detection of measlesspecific IgM and/or RNA. Tests for measles IgG, IgG
avidity, measurement of measles neutralizing antibody
titers, and genotyping were performed to characterize
the cases.
Results
The index case had two doses of measles-containing
vaccine. Of 88 contacts, four secondary cases were confirmed that had either two doses of measles-containing

vaccine or a past positive measles IgG antibody. All cases
had laboratory confirmation of measles infection, clinical symptoms consistent with measles, and high avidity
IgG antibody characteristic of a secondary immune response. Neutralizing antibody titers of secondary cases
reached >80,000 mIU/mL 3-4 days post-rash onset while
that of the index was <500 mIU/mL 9 days post-rash onset. No additional cases occurred among 231 contacts of
secondary cases.
Conclusions
This is the first report of measles transmission from a
twice vaccinated individual. The clinical presentation
and laboratory data of the index were typical of measles
in a naïve individual. Secondary cases had robust anamnestic antibody responses. No tertiary cases occurred despite numerous contacts. This outbreak underscores the
need for thorough epidemiologic and laboratory investigation of suspected measles cases regardless of vaccination status.

http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2014/02/27/cid.ciu105

Indian Journal Of Medical Ethics • October 2014

Thimerosal as discrimination:
vaccine disparity in the UN Minamata Convention on mercury
Sykes LK1, Geier DA2, King PG1, Kern JK3,
Haley BE1, Chaigneau CG1, Megson MN4, Love JM5, Reeves RE1, Geier MR2.
Author information
1. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, MD United States
2. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, MD; Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, MD
3. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc, Silver Spring, MD United States
4. Pediatric and Adolescent Ability Center, Richmond, VA United States
5. CoMeD, Inc, Silver Spring, MD
Abstract
When addressing toxins, one unmistakable parallel exists between biology and politics: developing children and developing nations are those most vulnerable to toxic exposures. This disturbing parallel is the
subject of this critical review, which examines the use and distribution of the mercury (Hg)-based compound, thimerosal, in vaccines. Developed in 1927, thimerosal is 49.55% Hg by weight and breaks down
in the body into ethyl-Hg chloride, ethyl-Hg hydroxide and sodium thiosalicylate. Since the early 1930s,
there has been evidence indicating that thimerosal poses a hazard to the health of human beings and is
ineffective as an antimicrobial agent. While children in the developed and predominantly western nations
receive doses of mostly no-thimerosal and reduced-thimerosal vaccines, children in the developing nations
receive many doses of several unreduced thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs). Thus, thimerosal has
continued to be a part of the global vaccine supply and its acceptability as a component of vaccine formulations remained unchallenged until 2010, when the United Nations (UN), through the UN Environment Programme, began negotiations to write the global, legally binding Minamata Convention on Hg. During the
negotiations, TCVs were dropped from the list of Hg-containing products to be regulated. Consequently,
a double standard in vaccine safety, which previously existed due to ignorance and economic reasons, has
now been institutionalised as global policy. Ultimately, the Minamata Convention on Hg has sanctioned
the inequitable distribution of thimerosal by specifically exempting TCVs from regulation, condoning a
two-tier standard of vaccine safety: a predominantly no-thimerosal and reduced-thimerosal standard for
developed nations and a predominantly thimerosal-containing one for developing nations. This disparity
must now be evaluated urgently as a potential form of institutionalised discrimination.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25101548

“the Minamata Convention on Mercury
has sanctioned the inequitable distribution of thimerosal
by specifically exempting TCVs from regulation, condoning
a two-tier standard of vaccine safety; a predominantly
no-thimerosal and reduced-thimerosal standard for developed
nations and a predominantly thimerosal-containing one for
developing nations. This disparity must now be evaluated
urgently as a potential form of institutionalized discrimination.”

Annals Of Medical And Health Sciences Research • November 2014

Hepatitis B vaccination
and associated oral manifestations:
a non-systematic review of literature and case reports
Author information
Tarakji B1, Ashok N1, Alakeel R2, Azzeghaibi S1,
Umair A1, Darwish S1, Mahmoud R3, Elkhatat E3.

“A total of 82 articles were identified
which included 58 case series or case reports,
15 review articles, 4 cross sectional studies,
3 prospective cohort studies, one retrospective
cohort study and a case control study. After

Abstract
Hepatitis B vaccine has been administered in children and adults routinely to reduce the incidence of the disease. Even though, hepatitis B vaccine is considered
as highly safe, some adverse reactions have been reported. A literature search was
carried out in PubMed, accessed via the National Library of Medicine PubMed
interface, searching used the following keywords: Hepatitis B vaccine and complications from 1980 to 2014. A total of 1147 articles were obtained out of which
articles, which discuss the complications occurring orally or occurring elsewhere in
the body, which have the potential to manifest orally after hepatitis B vaccination
were selected. A total of 82 articles were identified which included 58 case series
or case reports, 15 review articles, 4 cross sectional studies, 3 prospective cohort
studies, one retrospective cohort study and a case control study. After reviewing the
literature, we observed that complications seen after Hepatitis B vaccination are
sudden infant death syndrome, multiple sclerosis, chronic fatigue syndrome, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, vasculititis optic neuritis, anaphylaxis, systemic
lupus erytymatosus, lichen planus and neuro-muscular disorder. Of these complications, some are manifested orally or have the potential to manifest orally. Although,
most of the complications are self-limiting, some are very serious conditions, which
require hospitalization with immediate medical attention.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4250977/

reviewing the literature, we observed that complications seen after Hepatitis B vaccination
are sudden infant death syndrome, multiple
sclerosis, chronic fatigue syndrome, idiopathic
thrombocytopenic purpura, vasculititis
optic neuritis, anaphylaxis, systemic lupus
erytymatosus, lichen planus and neuro-muscular disorder. Of these complications, some
are manifested orally or have the potential to
manifest orally.”

Environmental Health • November 2014

Longitudinal analysis of the association between
removal of dental amalgam, urine mercury
and 14 self-reported health symptoms
Author information
Zwicker JD1, Dutton DJ, Emery JC.
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Mercury vapor poses a known health risk with no clearly established safe level of exposure. Consequently there
is debate over whether the level of prolonged exposure to mercury vapor from dental amalgam fillings, combining approximately 50% mercury with other metals, is sufficiently high to represent a risk to health. The objective
of our study is to determine if mercury exposure from amalgam fillings is associated with risk of adverse health
effects.
METHODS
In a large longitudinal non-blind sample of participants from a preventative health program in Calgary, Canada
we compared number of amalgam fillings, urine mercury measures and changes in 14 self-reported health symptoms, proposed to be mercury dependent sub-clinical measures of mental and physical health. The likelihood of
change over one year in a sample of persons who had their fillings removed was compared to a sample of persons
who had not had their fillings removed. We use non-parametric statistical tests to determine if differences in urine
mercury were statistically significant between sample groups. Logistic regression models were used to estimate
the likelihood of observing symptom improvement or worsening in the sample groups.
RESULTS
At baseline, individuals with dental amalgam fillings have double the measured urine mercury compared to a
control group of persons who have never had amalgam fillings. Removal of amalgam fillings decreases measured
urine mercury to levels in persons without amalgam fillings. Although urine mercury levels in our sample are considered by Health Canada to be too low to pose health risks, removal of amalgam fillings reduced the likelihood
of self-reported symptom deterioration and increased the likelihood of symptom improvement in comparison to
people who retained their amalgam fillings.
CONCLUSIONS
Our findings suggest that mercury exposure from amalgam fillings adversely impact health and therefore are a
health risk. The use of safer alternative materials for dental fillings should be encouraged to avoid the increased
risk of health deterioration associated with unnecessary exposure to mercury.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4273453/

“Our findings suggest
that mercury exposure from amalgam fillings
adversely impact health and therefore are a health risk.”

Journal Of Autoimmunity • November 2014

Immunization with hepatitis B vaccine
accelerates SLE-like disease in a murine model
Author information
Agmon-Levin N1, Arango MT2, Kivity S3,
Katzav A4, Gilburd B5, Blank M5, Tomer N5,
Volkov A6, Barshack I6, Chapman J4, Shoenfeld Y7
1. Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621
Israel; Sackler Medical School, Tel Aviv University, Israel
2. Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621
Israel; Doctoral Program in Biomedical Sciences Universidad del Rosario, Bogota 111221, Colombia
Center for Autoimmune Diseases Research - CREA, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota 111221, Colombia
3. Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621
Israel; Sackler Medical School, Tel Aviv University, Israel
The Dr. Pinchas Borenstein Talpiot Medical Leadership Program 2013, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
4. Department of Neurology and Sagol Neuroscience Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
5. Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
6. Institute of Pathology, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer 52621, Israel
7. Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
Incumbent of the Laura Schwarz-Kip Chair for Autoimmunity, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il

Abstract
Hepatitis-B vaccine (HBVv) can prevent HBV-infection and associated liver diseases. However, concerns regarding its safety, particularly among patients with autoimmune diseases (i.e. SLE) were raised.
Moreover, the aluminum adjuvant in HBVv was related to immune mediated adverse events. Therefore,
we examined the effects of immunization with HBVv or alum on SLE-like disease in a murine model.
NZBWF1 mice were immunized with HBVv (Engerix), or aluminum hydroxide (alum) or phosphate
buffered saline (PBS) at 8 and 12 weeks of age. Mice were followed for weight, autoantibodies titers,
blood counts, proteinuria, kidney histology, neurocognitive functions (novel object recognition, staircase,
Y-maze and the forced swimming tests) and brain histology. Immunization with HBVv induced acceleration of kidney disease manifested by high anti-dsDNA antibodies (p < 0.01), early onset of proteinuria (p < 0.05), histological damage and deposition of HBs antigen in the kidney. Mice immunized with
HBVv and/or alum had decreased cells counts mainly of the red cell lineage (p < 0.001), memory deficits
(p < 0.01), and increased activated microglia in different areas of the brain compare with mice immunized
with PBS. Anxiety-like behavior was more pronounced among mice immunized with alum. In conclusion, herein we report that immunization with the HBVv aggravated kidney disease in an animal model of
SLE. Immunization with either HBVv or alum affected blood counts, neurocognitive functions and brain
gliosis. Our data support the concept that different component of vaccines may be linked with immune
and autoimmune mediated adverse events.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25042822

“... concerns regarding its safety,
[hepatitis B vaccine] particularly among patients
with autoimmune diseases (i.e. SLE) were raised.
Moreover, the aluminum adjuvant in HBVv was
related to immune mediated adverse events. Our
data support the concept that different component
of vaccines may be linked with immune and
autoimmune mediated adverse events.”

Frontiers In Neurology • November 2014

Clinical features in patients
with long-lasting macrophagic myofasciitis
Author information
Rigolet M1, Aouizerate J2, Couette M3, Ragunathan-Thangarajah N2,
Aoun-Sebaiti M3, Gherardi RK4, Cadusseau J5, Authier FJ4.
1. Faculty of Medicine, INSERM U955-Team 10, Créteil, France
2. Faculty of Medicine, INSERM U955-Team 10, Créteil, France
Reference Center for Neuromuscular Diseases Garches-Necker-Mondor-Hendaye
3. Neurology Department, Henri Mondor University Hospital, Créteil, France
4. Faculty of Medicine, INSERM U955-Team 10, Créteil, France
Reference Center for Neuromuscular Diseases Garches-Necker-Mondor-Hendaye
Créteil, France; Paris Est-Créteil University, Créteil, France
5. Reference Center for Neuromuscular Diseases Garches-Necker-Mondor-Hendaye
Créteil, France; Paris Est-Créteil University, Créteil, France
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is an emerging condition characterized by specific muscle
lesions assessing abnormal long-term persistence of aluminum hydroxide within macrophages
at the site of previous immunization. Affected patients usually are middle-aged adults, mainly presenting with diffuse arthromyalgias, chronic fatigue, and marked cognitive deficits, not
related to pain, fatigue, or depression. Clinical features usually correspond to that observed in
chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis. Representative features of MMF-associated cognitive dysfunction include dysexecutive syndrome, visual memory impairment,
and left ear extinction at dichotic listening test. Most patients fulfill criteria for non-amnestic/dysexecutive mild cognitive impairment, even if some cognitive deficits appear unusually
severe. Cognitive dysfunction seems stable over time despite marked fluctuations. Evoked
potentials may show abnormalities in keeping with central nervous system involvement, with
a neurophysiological pattern suggestive of demyelination. Brain perfusion SPECT shows
a pattern of diffuse cortical and subcortical abnormalities, with hypoperfusions correlating
with cognitive deficiencies. The combination of musculoskeletal pain, chronic fatigue, and
cognitive disturbance generates chronic disability with possible social exclusion. Classical
therapeutic approaches are usually unsatisfactory making patient care difficult.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4246686/

“The combination of
musculoskeletal pain, chronic fatigue, and
cognitive disturbance generates chronic disability with
possible social exclusion. Classical therapeutic
approaches are usually unsatisfactory
making patient care difficult.”

Environmental Health • November 2014

Longitudinal analysis
of the association between removal of dental amalgam,
urine mercury and 14 self-reported health symptoms
Author information
Zwicker JD1, Dutton DJ, Emery JC.
School of Public Policy, University of Calgary
Calgary, AB T2P 1H9, Canada
zwicker1@ucalgary.ca
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Mercury vapor poses a known health risk with no clearly established safe level of exposure. Consequently there
is debate over whether the level of prolonged exposure to mercury vapor from dental amalgam fillings, combining approximately 50% mercury with other metals, is sufficiently high to represent a risk to health. The objective
of our study is to determine if mercury exposure from amalgam fillings is associated with risk of adverse health
effects.
METHODS
In a large longitudinal non-blind sample of participants from a preventative health program in Calgary, Canada
we compared number of amalgam fillings, urine mercury measures and changes in 14 self-reported health symptoms, proposed to be mercury dependent sub-clinical measures of mental and physical health. The likelihood of
change over one year in a sample of persons who had their fillings removed was compared to a sample of persons
who had not had their fillings removed. We use non-parametric statistical tests to determine if differences in urine
mercury were statistically significant between sample groups. Logistic regression models were used to estimate
the likelihood of observing symptom improvement or worsening in the sample groups.
RESULTS
At baseline, individuals with dental amalgam fillings have double the measured urine mercury compared to a
control group of persons who have never had amalgam fillings. Removal of amalgam fillings decreases measured
urine mercury to levels in persons without amalgam fillings. Although urine mercury levels in our sample are considered by Health Canada to be too low to pose health risks, removal of amalgam fillings reduced the likelihood
of self-reported symptom deterioration and increased the likelihood of symptom improvement in comparison to
people who retained their amalgam fillings.
CONCLUSIONS
Our findings suggest that mercury exposure from amalgam fillings adversely impact health and therefore are a
health risk. The use of safer alternative materials for dental fillings should be encouraged to avoid the increased
risk of health deterioration associated with unnecessary exposure to mercury.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4273453/

“Our findings suggest that mercury exposure
from amalgam fillings adversely impact
health and therefore are a health risk.”

Clinical And Experimental Immunology • December 2014

Vaccine-associated varicella and rubella infections
in severe combined immunodeficiency with isolated CD4
lymphocytopenia and mutations in IL7R detected by tandem
whole exome sequencing and chromosomal microarray
Author information
Bayer DK1, Martinez CA, Sorte HS, Forbes LR, Demmler-Harrison GJ,
Hanson IC, Pearson NM, Noroski LM, Zaki SR, Bellini WJ, Leduc MS, Yang Y,
Eng CM, Patel A, Rodningen OK, Muzny DM, Gibbs RA, Campbell IM, Shaw CA,
Baker MW, Zhang V, Lupski JR, Orange JS, Seeborg FO, Stray-Pedersen A.
Department of Pediatrics
Section of Immunology, Allergy, and Rheumatology
Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children’s Hospital
Houston, TX, USA
Abstract
In areas without newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), diseasedefining infections may lead to diagnosis, and in some cases, may not be identified prior to
the first year of life. We describe a female infant who presented with disseminated vaccineacquired varicella (VZV) and vaccine-acquired rubella infections at 13 months of age. Immunological evaluations demonstrated neutropenia, isolated CD4 lymphocytopenia, the presence of CD8(+) T cells, poor lymphocyte proliferation, hypergammaglobulinaemia and poor
specific antibody production to VZV infection and routine immunizations. A combination of
whole exome sequencing and custom-designed chromosomal microarray with exon coverage
of primary immunodeficiency genes detected compound heterozygous mutations (one single
nucleotide variant and one intragenic copy number variant involving one exon) within the
IL7R gene. Mosaicism for wild-type allele (20-30%) was detected in pretransplant blood and
buccal DNA and maternal engraftment (5-10%) demonstrated in pretransplant blood DNA.
This may be responsible for the patient’s unusual immunological phenotype compared to
classical interleukin (IL)-7R∼ deficiency. Disseminated VZV was controlled with anti-viral
and immune-based therapy, and umbilical cord blood stem cell transplantation was successful. Retrospectively performed T cell receptor excision circle (TREC) analyses completed
on neonatal Guthrie cards identified absent TREC. This case emphasizes the danger of live
viral vaccination in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) patients and the importance
of newborn screening to identify patients prior to high-risk exposures. It also illustrates the
value of aggressive pathogen identification and treatment, the influence newborn screening
can have on morbidity and mortality and the significant impact of newer genomic diagnostic
tools in identifying the underlying genetic aetiology for SCID patients.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25046553

“This case emphasizes the danger of
live viral vaccination in severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID) patients and the
importance of newborn screening to identify
patients prior to high-risk exposures.”

Yale Journal Of Biology And Medicine • December 2014

‘Poisonous, Filthy, Loathsome, Damnable Stuff’:
The Rhetorical Ecology of Vaccination Concern
Author Information
Bernice L. Hausman, PhD, Mecal Ghebremichael, BS, Philip Hayek, MA, and Erin Mack, BS
Department Of English, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA
Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
Abstract
In this article, we analyze newspaper articles and advertisements mentioning vaccination from 1915 to 1922 and refer to historical studies of
vaccination practices and attitudes in the early 20th century in order to
assess historical continuities and discontinuities in vaccination concern.
In the Progressive Era period, there were a number of themes or features
that resonated with contemporary issues and circumstances: 1) fears of
vaccine contamination; 2) distrust of medical professionals; 3) resistance to compulsory vaccination; and 4) the local nature of vaccination
concern. Such observations help scholars and practitioners understand
vaccine skepticism as longstanding, locally situated, and linked to the
sociocultural contexts in which vaccination occurs and is mandated for
particular segments of the population. A rhetorical approach offers a way
to understand how discourses are engaged and mobilized for particular
purposes in historical contexts. Historically situating vaccine hesitancy
and addressing its articulation with a particular rhetorical ecology offers
scholars and practitioners a robust understanding of vaccination concerns that can, and should, influence current approaches to vaccination
skepticism.
Introduction
On June 26, 2014, Eric Kodish, MD, a medical ethicist at the Cleveland
Clinic, wrote in the Washington Post that “The anti-vaccination movement is a relatively new one that has taken hold over the past decade.
Started by a small community of parents, it is based on myths that have
been perpetuated by the power of the Internet and endorsements from
celebrities such as actress Jenny McCarthy, who has suggested that vaccinations may have caused her son’s autism” [1]. This statement encapsulates mainstream public health attitudes toward vaccine skepticism in
the early 21st century — that it constitutes a unified national movement,
that the movement is relatively new, and that it has gained authority due
to the power of the Internet and celebrity endorsements.

Indeed, it does seem as if the medical and public health consensus concerning the value of vaccination is unraveling culturally in the United
States. Medical researchers routinely study health messaging about vaccination, finding most recently that popular public health promotion
programs do not convince committed non-vaccinators to change their
minds [2]. A discourse of crisis pervades media reporting on outbreaks
of infectious disease, and every flu season brings with it a series of escalating media exhortations to be vaccinated. Physicians report increasing
frustrations with parents who refuse to vaccinate their children or who
seek a different vaccination schedule [3,4]. The American Academy of
Pediatrics (AAP) has had to state unequivocally that it is against firing
patients as a result of their vaccination status [5]; and, as with Erik Kodish, medical ethicists accuse parents who do not vaccinate their children
of negligence [1,6].
Yet national vaccination rates for most routine infectious diseases of
childhood in the United States remain high, suggesting that ongoing concerns about vaccination occur in tandem with the general success of public health efforts to vaccinate children against what were once routine
childhood diseases. National immunization rates suggest that there is no
widespread refusal to vaccinate (see Table 1). Kodish repeats a common
statistic indicating “1 in 10 parents in the United States now forgo or
delay vaccinations for their kids,” yet without more information about
what those parents eventually do, it is difficult to accept that statement
as a threat to national public health [1]. After all, in those families are
children whose parents simply delay vaccinations due to child illness at
the time of the doctors’ visit or due to a specific decision to slow the pace
of vaccination during infancy. In either case, Table 1 suggests that by 36
months, most children are caught up with individual vaccines and many
of the national rates for those vaccines are at herd immunity levels.

www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4257028/

Immunology Research • December 2014

Evolution of multiple sclerosis in France
since the beginning of hepatitis B vaccination
Author information
Le Houézec D1.
REVAHB (“Réseau Vaccin Hépatite B” in French)
32 rue du Clos Herbert, 14000
Caen, France
dominique.le.houezec@freesbee.fr
Abstract
Since the implementation of the mass vaccination campaign against hepatitis B
in France, the appearance of multiple sclerosis, sometimes occurring in the aftermath of vaccinations, led to the publication of epidemiological international
studies. This was also justified by the sharp increase in the annual incidence of
multiple sclerosis reported to the French health insurance in the mid-1990s. Almost 20 years later, a retrospective reflection can be sketched from these official
data and also from the national pharmacovigilance agency. Statistical data from
these latter sources seem to show a significant correlation between the number of
hepatitis B vaccinations performed and the declaration to the pharmacovigilance
of multiple sclerosis occurring between 1 and 2 years later. The application of the
Hill’s criteria to these data indicates that the correlation between hepatitis B vaccine and multiple sclerosis may be causal.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25395338

“The application of the Hill’s criteria
to these data indicates that the correlation
between hepatitis B vaccine and
multiple sclerosis may be causal.”

Immunology Research • December 2014

Chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia
following immunization with the hepatitis B vaccine:
another angle of the
‘autoimmune (auto-inflammatory) syndrome induced by adjuvants’

(ASIA)
Author information
Agmon-Levin N1, Zafrir Y, Kivity S,
Balofsky A, Amital H, Shoenfeld Y.
The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Chaim Sheba Medical Center, 52621, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to gather information regarding demographic and clinical
characteristics of patients diagnosed with either fibromyalgia (FM) or chronic fatigue (CFS)
following hepatitis B vaccination (HBVv) and furthermore to apply the recently suggested
criteria of autoimmune (auto-inflammatory) syndromes induced by adjuvants (ASIA), in the
aim of identifying common characteristics that may suggest an association between fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue and HBV vaccination. Medical records of 19 patients with CFS and/or
fibromyalgia following HBVv immunization were analyzed. All of which were immunized
during 1990-2008 in different centers in the USA. All medical records were evaluated for
demographics, medical history, the number of vaccine doses, as well as immediate and long
term post-immunization adverse events and clinical manifestations. In addition, available
blood tests, imaging results, treatments and outcomes were analyzed. ASIA criteria were
applied to all patients. The mean age of patients was 28.6 ± 11 years, of which 68.4 % were
females. 21.05 % had either personal or familial background of autoimmune disease. The
mean latency period from the last dose of HBVv to onset of symptoms was 38.6 ± 79.4
days, ranging from days to a year. Eight (42.1 %) patients continued with the immunization
program despite experiencing adverse events. Manifestations that were commonly reported
included neurological manifestations (84.2 %), musculoskeletal (78.9 %), psychiatric (63.1
%), fatigue (63.1 %), gastrointestinal complains (58 %) and mucocutaneous manifestations
(36.8 %). Autoantibodies were detected in 71 % of patients tested. All patients fulfilled the
ASIA criteria. This study suggests that in some cases CFS and FM can be temporally related
to immunization, as part of ASIA syndrome. The appearance of adverse event during immunization, the presence of autoimmune susceptibility and higher titers of autoantibodies
all can be suggested as risk factors. ASIA criteria were fulfilled in all patients eluding the
plausible link between ASIA and CFS/FM.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25427994

“This study suggests that
in some cases Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
and fibromyalgia (FM) can be temporally related to
immunization, as part of ASIA syndrome.”

“... a causal link with vaccine cannot be excluded in some individuals.”
Immunology Research • December 2014

A sudden onset of a pseudo-neurological syndrome
after HPV-16/18 AS04-adjuvated vaccine: might it be an
autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA)
presenting as a somatoform disorder?
Author information
Poddighe D1, Castelli L, Marseglia GL, Bruni P.
Department of Pediatrics, Azienda Ospedaliera di Melegnano, Milan, Italy
dimimedpv@yahoo.it
Abstract
In last centuries, vaccines reduced the incidence of several infectious diseases. In last decades, some
vaccines aimed at preventing also some cancers, where viruses play a causative role. However, several adverse events have been described after vaccines, but a causal relationship has been established
only in a minority of cases. Here, we describe a pseudo-neurological syndrome occurred shortly after
the administration of the bivalent HPV vaccine. Some autoimmune disorders, including neurological
demyelinating diseases, have been reported after HPV vaccines, but the patient showed no organic lesions. The patient was diagnosed as having a functional somatoform syndrome, which was supposed
to be autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA), seen the temporal link with
vaccination and the presence of anti-phospholipid autoantibodies. Immunological mechanisms of vaccines-and of adjuvants-have not been completely elucidated yet, and although there is no evidence of
statistical association with many post-vaccination events, a causal link with vaccine cannot be excluded
in some individuals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25388965

Psychoneuroendocrinology • January 2015

Altered inflammatory activity
associated with reduced hippocampal volume
and more severe posttraumatic stress symptoms
in Gulf War veterans
Author information
O’Donovan A1, Chao LL2, Paulson J3,
Samuelson KW4, Shigenaga JK2, Grunfeld C2,
Weiner MW2, Neylan TC2.
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Inflammation may reduce hippocampal volume by blocking neurogenesis and promoting neurodegeneration. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked
with both elevated inflammation and reduced hippocampal volume. However, few
studies have examined associations between inflammatory markers and hippocampal volume, and none have examined these associations in the context of PTSD.
METHODS
We measured levels of the inflammatory markers interleukin-6 (IL-6) and soluble
receptor II for tumor necrosis factor (sTNF-RII) as well as hippocampal volume in
246 Gulf War veterans with and without current and past PTSD as assessed with
the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assays were used to measure inflammatory markers, and 1.5Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and Freesurfer version 4.5 were used to quantify hippocampal volume. Hierarchical linear regression and analysis of covariance models were
used to examine if hippocampal volume and PTSD status would be associated with
elevated levels of IL-6 and sTNF-RII.
RESULTS
Increased sTNF-RII, but not IL-6, was significantly associated with reduced hippocampal volume (∼=-0.14, p=0.01). The relationship between sTNF-RII and hippocampal volume was independent of potential confounds and covariates, including PTSD status. Although we observed no PTSD diagnosis-related differences in
either IL-6 or sTNF-RII, higher PTSD severity was associated with significantly
increased sTNF-RII (∼=0.24, p=0.04) and reduced IL-6 levels (∼=-0.24, p=0.04).
CONCLUSIONS
Our results indicate that specific inflammatory proteins may be associated with
brain structure and function as indexed by hippocampal volume and PTSD symptoms.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25465168

“Our results indicate that
specific inflammatory proteins
may be associated with brain structure
and function as indexed by hippocampal
volume and PTSD symptoms.”

“Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) characterized by specific muscle lesions assessing long-term persistence
of aluminum hydroxide within macrophages at the site of previous immunization has been
reported with increasing frequency in the past 10 years.
The vaccines containing this adjuvant may trigger MMF in some patients.”
Rheumatology International • January 2015

Macrophagic myofasciitis and vaccination:
consequence or coincidence?
Author information
Santiago T1, Rebelo O, Negrão L, Matos A.
Rheumatology Unit
Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra
Praceta Prof. Mota Pinto, 3000-075
Coimbra, Portugal
tlousasantiago@hotmail.com
Abstract
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) characterized by specific muscle lesions assessing long-term persistence of aluminum hydroxide within
macrophages at the site of previous immunization has been reported
with increasing frequency in the past 10 years. We describe clinical and
laboratory findings in patients with MMF. We did a retrospective analysis of 16 cases observed in our Neuropathology Laboratory, between
January 2000 and July 2013. The mean age of the 16 patients was 48.8
± 18.0 years; 80.0 % were female. Chronic fatigue syndrome was found
in 8 of 16 patients. Half of the patients had elevated creatinine kinase
levels, and 25.0 % had a myopathic electromyogram. Thirteen patients
received intramuscular administration of aluminum-containing vaccine
prior to the onset of symptoms. MMF may mirror a distinctive pattern
of an inflammatory myopathy. The vaccines containing this adjuvant
may trigger MMF in some patients.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24923906

Harefuah • February 2015

The sick building syndrome
as a part of ‘ASIA’

(autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants)
by Maoz-Segal R, Agmon-Levin N, Israeli E, Shoenfeld Y.
Abstract
The entity ‘sick building syndrome’ is poorly defined and comprises of a set
of symptoms resulting from environmental exposure to a work or a living
environment. The symptoms are mainly “allergic”-like and include nasal,
eye, and mucous membrane irritation, dry skin as well as respiratory symptoms and general symptoms such as fatigue, lethargy, headaches and fever.
The Autoimmune [Auto-inflammatory] Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants
(ASIA) is a wider term which describes the role of various environmental
factors in the pathogenesis of immune mediated diseases. Factors entailing
an immune adjuvant activity such as infectious agents, silicone, aluminium
salts and others were found in association with defined and non-defined
immune mediated diseases. The sick building syndrome and ASIA share a
similar complex of signs and symptoms and probably the same immunological mechanisms which further support a common denominator.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25856869

“Factors entailing an immune adjuvant activity
such as infectious agents, silicone, aluminium salts
and others were found in association with defined
and non-defined immune mediated diseases.”

“... 2,207 cases were considered probably or possibly related to vaccination.
These represent the largest ASIA cohort ever reported ...”
Immunology Research • February 2015

The epidemiological profile of ASIA syndrome
after HPV vaccination: an evaluation based on the
Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting Systems
Author information
Pellegrino P1, Perrone V, Pozzi M,
Carnovale C, Perrotta C, Clementi E, Radice S.
Unit of Clinical Pharmacology
Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences
University Hospital “Luigi Sacco”, University of Milan
Via GB Grassi 74, 20157, Milan, Italy
Abstract
The term “ASIA-Autoimmune/inflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants” describes an umbrella of clinical
conditions sharing similar signs or symptoms, including post-vaccination phenomena. No information is available
on the epidemiology of the ASIA syndrome, especially following HPV vaccination. We carried out an analysis of
the VAERS database to retrieve all cases of suspected ASIA syndrome according to the Shoenfeld and AgmonLevin’s guideline for the diagnosis. After causality assessment and case validation, 2,207 cases were considered
probably or possibly related to vaccination. These represent the largest ASIA cohort ever reported and allowed us
to estimate epidemiological and clinical characteristic of this syndrome. The commonest clinical manifestation
observed were pyrexia (58%), myalgia (27%) and arthralgia or arthritis (19%), and the estimated reporting rate
was of 3.6 cases per 100,000 doses of HPV vaccine distributed (95% CI 3.4-3.7). This study presents the first systematic estimation of ASIA incidence and expands the knowledge on this pathology. Further analyses are needed
to identify genetic and non-genetic risk factors for ASIA syndrome.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25381482

BMC Infectious Disease • February 2015

Pertussis outbreak in university students
and evaluation of acellular pertussis vaccine effectiveness in Japan
Author information
Hara M1, Fukuoka M2, Tashiro K3, Ozaki I4,
Ohfuji S5, Okada K6, Nakano T7, Fukushima W8, Hirota Y9,10.
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Recent studies worldwide have reported increasing numbers of adults diagnosed with Bordetella pertussis despite receiving childhood vaccinations. This study describes a pertussis outbreak at a university medical faculty
campus and examines the effectiveness of diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccination completed during
infancy in Japan.
METHODS
After the outbreak, self-administered questionnaires and serum samples were collected from students on campus
to determine the incidence of pertussis and underlying diseases. Pertussis was diagnosed on the basis of clinical
criteria and serum anti-pertussis toxin antibody levels. Using data collected from 248 first and second grade students who had submitted copies of their vaccination records, we evaluated the effectiveness of DTaP vaccination
in infancy against adult pertussis.
RESULTS
Questionnaire responses were obtained from 636 students (of 671 registered students; 95% response rate). Of 245
students who reported a continuous cough during the outbreak period, 84 (attack rate: 13.2%) were considered
“probable” pertussis cases that met clinical criteria. The outbreak occurred mainly in first and second grade students in the Faculty of Medicine. Of 248 students who provided vaccination records, 225 had received 4 DTaP
doses (coverage: 90.7%); the relative risk of the complete vaccination series compared to those with fewer than 4
doses or no doses for probable cases was 0.48 (95% confidence interval: 0.24-0.97).
CONCLUSIONS
Waning protection was suspected due to over time. Booster vaccination for teenagers and development of highly
efficacious pertussis vaccines are needed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25656486

“Waning protection was suspected ...”

“The emerging epidemic of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas worldwide
continues to defy our understanding ...”
Immunology Research • February 2015

Adjuvants and lymphoma risk as part of the ASIA spectrum
Author information
Butnaru D1, Shoenfeld Y.
The Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases
Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
dana_medis@iberserv.es
Abstract
The emerging epidemic of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas worldwide continues to defy our understanding and forces the search for the causative factors. Adjuvants are known to act as triggers of immune and inflammatory responses. Animal experiments have demonstrated that long-term inflammation is related to aggravation
of the immune network resulting in cellular and humoral responses leading to autoimmunity and lymphoma
development. Chronic stimulation of the immune system is thought to be the key mechanism through which
infectious diseases as well as autoimmune diseases can lead to lymphomagenesis. Many adjuvants can act similarly perturbing immune system’s function, inducing a state of prolonged immune activation related to chronic
lymphatic drainage. Several mechanisms were proposed by which adjuvants induce inflammation, and they are
discussed herein. Some of them are triggering inflammasome; others bind DNA, lipid moieties in cells, induce
uric acid production or act as lipophilic and/or hydrophobic substances. The sustained inflammation increases the
risk of genetic aberrations, where the initial polyclonal activation ends in monoclonality. The latter is the hallmark
of malignant lymphoma. Thus, chronic adjuvant stimulation may lead to lymphoma.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25582758

Archives Of Toxicology • February 2015

Ethylmercury and Hg2+ induce the formation
of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)
by human neutrophil granulocytes
Author information
Haase H1,2, Hebel S3, Engelhardt G3, Rink L4.
Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology
Berlin Institute of Technology
Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25
13355, Berlin, Germany
Medical Faculty, Institute of Immunology
RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Pauwelsstrasse 30
52074, Aachen, Germany
haase@tu-berlin.de.
Abstract
Humans are exposed to different mercurial compounds from various sources, most frequently
from dental fillings, preservatives in vaccines, or consumption of fish. Among other toxic effects, these substances interact with the immune system. In high doses, mercurials are immunosuppressive. However, lower doses of some mercurials stimulate the immune system,
inducing different forms of autoimmunity, autoantibodies, and glomerulonephritis in rodents.
Furthermore, some studies suggest a connection between mercury exposure and the occurrence
of autoantibodies against nuclear components and granulocyte cytoplasmic proteins in humans.
Still, the underlying mechanisms need to be clarified. The present study investigates the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in response to thimerosal and its metabolites ethyl
mercury (EtHg), thiosalicylic acid, and mercuric ions (Hg2+). Only EtHg and Hg2+ triggered
NETosis. It was independent of PKC, ERK1/2, p38, and zinc signals and not affected by the
NADPH oxidase inhibitor DPI. Instead, EtHg and Hg2+ triggered NADPH oxidase-independent production of ROS, which are likely to be involved in mercurial-induced NET formation.
This finding might help understanding the autoimmune potential of mercurial compounds. Some
diseases, to which a connection with mercurials has been shown, such as Wegener’s granulomatosis and systemic lupus erythematosus, are characterized by high prevalence of autoantibodies
against neutrophil-specific auto-antigens. Externalization in the form of NETs may be a source
for exposure to these self-antigens. In genetically susceptible individuals, this could be one step
in the series of events leading to autoimmunity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25701957

“lower doses of some mercurials
stimulate the immune system,
inducing different forms of autoimmunity,
autoantibodies, and glomerulonephritis in rodents.
Furthermore, some studies suggest a connection
between mercury exposure and the occurrence of
autoantibodies ... This finding might help understanding
the autoimmune potential of mercurial compounds.”

Journal Of Applied Toxicology • March 2015

Tween-80 and impurity
induce anaphylactoid reaction in zebrafish
Author information
Yang R1, Lao QC, Yu HP, Zhang Y,
Liu HC, Luan L, Sun HM, Li CQ.
National Institutes for Food and Drug Control
China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA)
No. 2 Tiantan Xili, Dongcheng District
Beijing, 100050, China

“A number of recent reports suspected

Abstract

that Tween-80 in injectable medicines,

A number of recent reports suspected that Tween-80 in injectable
medicines, including traditional Chinese medicine injections could
cause life-threatening anaphylactoid reaction, but no sound conclusion was drawn. A drug-induced anaphylactoid reaction is hard
to be assayed in vitro and in conventional animal models. In this
study, we developed a microplate-based quantitative in vivo zebrafish assay for assessing anaphylactoid reaction and live whole
zebrafish mast cell tryptase activity was quantitatively measured
at a wavelength of 405 nm using N-benzoyl-dl-arginine p-nitroanilide as a substrate. We assessed 10 batches of Tween-80 solutions
from various national and international suppliers and three Tween80 impurities (ethylene glycol, 2-chloroethanol and hydrogen
peroxide) in this model and found that three batches of Tween80 (nos 2, 20080709 and 20080616) and one Tween-80 impurity,
hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), induced anaphylactoid reactions in
zebrafish. Furthermore, we found that H2 O2 residue and peroxide
value were much higher in Tween-80 samples 2, 20080709 and
20080616. These findings suggest that H2 O2 residue in combination with oxidized fatty acid residues (measured as peroxide
value) or more likely the oxidized fatty acid residues in Tween-80
samples, but not Tween-80 itself, may induce anaphylactoid reaction. High-throughput zebrafish tryptase assay developed in this
report could be used for assessing safety of Tween-80-containing
injectable medicines and potentially for screening novel mast cellmodulating drugs.

including traditional Chinese medicine

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25345596

injections could cause life-threatening
anaphylactoid reaction, but no sound
conclusion was drawn. These findings
suggest that H2 O2 residue in combination
with oxidized fatty acid residues (measured
as peroxide value) or more likely the
oxidized fatty acid residues in Tween-80
samples, but not Tween-80 itself, may
induce anaphylactoid reaction.”

Journal Of Pediatrics • April 2015

Adverse events
following Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines
in the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
1990-2013
Author information
Moro PL1, Jankosky C2, Menschik D2,
Lewis P3, Duffy J3, Stewart B3, Shimabukuro TT3.
1. Immunization Safety Office
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
pmoro@cdc.gov
2. Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research
US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD
3. Immunization Safety Office
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Abstract
Objective
To characterize adverse events (AEs) after Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccines reported to the US Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a spontaneous reporting surveillance system.
Study Design
We searched VAERS for US reports after Hib vaccines among reports received from January 1, 1990, to December 1, 2013. We reviewed a random sample of reports and accompanying medical records for reports classified
as serious. All reports of death were reviewed. Physicians assigned a primary clinical category to each reviewed
report. We used empirical Bayesian data mining to identify AEs that were disproportionally reported after Hib
vaccines.
Results
VAERS received 29,747 reports after Hib vaccines; 5179 (17%) were serious, including 896 reports of deaths.
Median age was 6 months (range 0-1022 months). Sudden infant death syndrome was the stated cause of death
in 384 (51%) of 749 death reports with autopsy/death certificate records. The most common nondeath serious
AE categories were neurologic (80; 37%), other noninfectious (46; 22%) (comprising mainly constitutional signs
and symptoms); and gastrointestinal (39; 18%) conditions. No new safety concerns were identified after clinical
review of reports of AEs that exceeded the data mining statistical threshold.
Conclusion
Review of VAERS reports did not identify any new or unexpected safety concerns for Hib vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25598306

“VAERS received 29,747 reports
after Hib vaccines; 5179 (17%) were serious,
including 896 reports of deaths.

Median age was 6 months (range 0-1022 months).
Sudden infant death syndrome was the stated cause
of death in 384 (51%) of 749 death reports with
autopsy/death certificate records.

The most common nondeath serious AE categories
were neurologic (80; 37%), other noninfectious
(46; 22%) (comprising mainly constitutional signs and
symptoms); and gastrointestinal (39; 18%) conditions.”

The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal • April 2015

Seroprevalence of pertussis in the Gambia:
evidence for continued circulation of bordetella pertussis
despite high vaccination rates
Author information
Scott S1, van der Sande M, Faye-Joof T, Mendy M, Sanneh B,
Barry Jallow F, de Melker H, van der Klis F, van Gageldonk P, Mooi F, Kampmann B.
From the *Medical Research Council (MRC) Unit, The Gambia, Fajara, The Gambia, West Africa; †Department
of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom;
‡National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Centre for Infectious Diseases Control (CIb),
Bilthoven, The Netherlands; §Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, Utrecht University, Utrecht,
The Netherlands; ¶International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France; and Department of Paediatrics,
Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Bordetella pertussis can cause severe respiratory disease and death in children. In recent years, large outbreaks
have occurred in high-income countries; however, little is known about pertussis incidence in sub-Saharan Africa.
METHODS
We evaluated antibody responses to pertussis toxin (Ptx) from individuals aged between 2 and 90 years in rural Gambia. IgG-Ptx was measured using luminex xMAP technology. IgG-Ptx geometric mean concentrations
(GMC) and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated. The proportion seropositive (>20 EU/mL or ≥62.5
EU/mL) and GMCs were compared by age, sex, ethnic group, vaccination status, birth order and number of siblings per household using logistic and linear regression.
RESULTS
76.3% had anti-Ptx levels <20 EU/mL, 17.5% had concentrations between 20 and 62.5 EU/mL, 4.4% had concentrations between 62.5 and 125 EU/mL and 1.8% had concentrations ≥125 EU/mL. The overall Ptx antibody
GMC was 6.4 EU/mL (95% confidence interval: 5.8-6.9). Higher antibody concentrations were observed in older
populations with evidence for an increase in infection risk with increasing age (1.9% yearly increase, 95% confidence interval: 1.3-2.5). No child under 6 years of age had GMC above 62.5 EU/mL but 29.5% had concentrations
between 20 and 62.5 EU/mL.
CONCLUSIONS
These data provide evidence that B. pertussis is being transmitted within this population despite high vaccination
coverage. Re-infection may occur implying that immunity from childhood vaccination may not be lifelong. In the
absence of data on actual clinical cases of pertussis, seroprevalence studies remain valuable tools to assess the
transmission dynamics of B. pertussis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25764094

“These data provide evidence that B. pertussis
is being transmitted within this population
despite high vaccination coverage. Re-infection may
occur implying that immunity from childhood
vaccination may not be lifelong.”

Springerplus • April 2015

The mechanisms of action of vaccines
containing aluminum adjuvants:
an in vitro vs in vivo paradigm
Tirth Raj Ghimire
Division of Veterinary and Primate Health
Global Primate Network, Kathmandu, Nepal
Department of Zoology, Birendra Multiple Campus
Tribhuvan University, Chitwan, Nepal
The theory of ‘inflammation’
The use of adjuvants in vaccination is usually associated with some degree of injection site
inflammation, and this process is considered an essential part of adjuvant function (Qin et
al. 2009). This is consistent with the ‘Danger Theory’ of immune activation as proposed by
Polly Matzinger in 1994 (Matzinger 1994). According to this theory, initiation of the immune
response is not dependent on microbial recognition, but rather on the ability of pathogens or
other agents such as adjuvants to cause tissue damage. The danger signals released from damaged tissues then have the capacity to drive inflammation and initiate an adaptive immune
response (Matzinger 1994). This provides an important mechanistic theory for alum adjuvants
with many reports of inflammatory effects at the injection site and the induction of danger
signals from cells following alum interaction. For example, nodule or granuloma formation
in humans and animals following alum injection has been reported from the 1930s to present
day (Glenny 1931; Harrison 1935; Farago 1940; Holt 1950; White et al. 1955; Munks et al.
2010; Lu and Hogenesch 2013; Vogelbruch et al. 2000; Bordet et al. 2001; Chong et al. 2006;
Rock et al. 2010; Marsee et al. 2008). The development of alum granuloma is independent of
the route of immunization and occurs from a few days to several years (e.g., up to >12 years)
following immunization, supporting the hypothesis that vaccines containing alum lead to a
short-term inflammatory effect in a normal environment as well as long-term inflammatory
effects in a pathological environment, at the site of injection (Gherardi et al. 2001; Kool et al.
2008a). It has been shown that alum induces uric acid or monosodium urate (MSU) crystal as
a danger signal (Kool et al. 2008a). Subsequently, other signals such as heat shock protein 70
(HSP70) (Wang et al. 2012), and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Marichal et al. 2011; McKee
et al. 2013) have been illustrated as inducers of alum-mediated immune responses, indicating
that the mechanisms by which alum particles induce inflammation is central to understanding
its adjuvant properties.
A clear causal association of alum in triggering immune responses via cellular death and or
enhancing the quality, duration, and magnitude of T- and B- cell responses will make a significant contribution to the rational design of effective and safe vaccines and development of new
adjuvants for future use.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4406982/

“The use of adjuvants in vaccination
is usually associated with some degree of
injection site inflammation, and this process
is considered an essential part of adjuvant function.
This is consistent with the ‘Danger Theory’ of immune
activation as proposed by Polly Matzinger in 1994.
According to this theory, initiation of the immune response
is not dependent on microbial recognition, but rather on the
ability of pathogens or other agents such as adjuvants
to cause tissue damage.”

Ugeskrift For Laeger • April 2015

Aluminium allergy and granulomas
induced by vaccinations for children
Author information
Andersen RM1, Zachariae C, Johansen JD.
Videncenter for Allergi
Hud- og Allergiafdelingen
Gentofte Hospital
Niels Andersens vej 65
2900 Hellerup
jeanne.Duus.Johansen@regionh.dk
Abstract
Vaccination with aluminium-adsorbed vaccines can induce aluminium allergy with persistent itching subcutaneous nodules at
the injection site - vaccination granulomas. In this article we give
an overview of childhood aluminium-adsorbed vaccines available
in Denmark. Through literature studies we examine the incidence,
the symptoms and the prognosis for the vaccination granulomas
and the allergy. Finally we discuss the status in Denmark.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25350883

“Vaccination with aluminium-adsorbed
vaccines can induce aluminium allergy with
persistent itching subcutaneous nodules at
the injection site - vaccination granulomas.”

Prescrire International • May 2015

Efficacy of the HPV vaccine in late 2014
[No authors listed]
Abstract
Initial evaluation of the HPV 6, 11, 16, 18 vaccine showed about
a 40% reduction in high-grade cervical dysplasia due to all virus
genotypes among young women aged 16 to 23 years who were
not yet sexually active. These results were obtained after 4 years
of follow-up and were confirmed after an additional 3 years.
Clinical assessment of the HPV 16, 18 vaccine yielded similar
results. The interval between initial HPV infection and diagnosis
of cervical cancer seems to be at least 20 years. Comparisons
of vaccinated and unvaccinated cohorts are consistent with the
results of clinical trials, but follow-up is still too short because
most of the women studied have not reached the age at which the
incidence of high-grade dysplasia peaks. The available evidence
shows no replacement of HPV vaccine genotypes by other highly oncogenic genotypes but, once again, follow-up is relatively
short. In late 2014, follow-up is still too short to show whether
HPV vaccination prevents cervical cancer in young women before they become sexually active. Earlier clinical trials showing
efficacy in preventing high-grade dysplasia have not been challenged by epidemiological data. Overall, it will be several more
years before conclusive evidence is obtained. In 2015, screening
remains the cornerstone for reducing the incidence of invasive
cervical cancer.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26034805

“ In late 2014, follow-up is still
too short to show whether HPV
vaccination prevents cervical
cancer in young women before
they become sexually active.
Earlier clinical trials showing
efficacy in preventing high-grade
dysplasia have not been challenged
by epidemiological data. Overall,
it will be several more years before
conclusive evidence is obtained.
In 2015, screening remains the
cornerstone for reducing the
incidence of invasive cervical cancer.”

Clinics In Dermatology • May 2015

Cutaneous reactions to vaccinations
Author information
Rosenblatt AE1, Stein SL2.
1. Department of Medicine, Section of Dermatology
University of Chicago, Pritzker School of Medicine
5841 S. Maryland Ave MC 5067, Chicago, IL 60637
2. Department of Medicine, Section of Dermatology
University of Chicago, Pritzker School of Medicine
5841 S. Maryland Ave MC 5067, Chicago, IL 60637
Department of Pediatrics
University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine
5841 S. Maryland Ave MC, 5067 Chicago, IL 60637
Abstract
Vaccinations are important for infectious disease prevention; however, there are adverse effects of vaccines, many of which are cutaneous. Some of these reactions are
due to nonspecific inflammation and irritation at the injection site, whereas other
reactions are directly related to the live attenuated virus. Rarely, vaccinations have
been associated with generalized hypersensitivity reactions, such as erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, urticaria, acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis, and drug hypersensitivity syndrome. The onset of certain inflammatory dermatologic conditions, such as lichen planus, granuloma annulare, and pemphigoid,
were reported to occur shortly after vaccine administration. Allergic contact dermatitis can develop at the injection site, typically due to adjuvant ingredients in the
vaccine, such as thimerosal and aluminum. Vaccinations are important to promote
development of both individual and herd immunity. Although most vaccinations are
considered relatively safe, there may be adverse effects associated with any vaccine.
Cutaneous manifestations make up a large portion of the types of reactions associated with vaccines. There are many different reasons for the development of a cutaneous reaction to a vaccination. Some are directly related to the injection of a live
attenuated virus, such as varicella or vaccinia (for immunity to smallpox), whereas
others cause more nonspecific erythema and swelling at the injection site, as a result
of local inflammation or irritation. Vaccinations have also been associated in rare
reports with generalized hypersensitivity reactions, such as erythema multiforme,
Stevens-Johnson syndrome, urticaria, acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis,
and drug hypersensitivity syndrome. There have been case reports associating the
administration of a vaccine with the new onset of a dermatologic condition, such as
lichen planus, granuloma annulare, and Sweet syndrome. Finally, allergic contact
dermatitis can develop at the injection site, typically due to adjuvant ingredients in
the vaccine, such as thimerosal and aluminum.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25889134

“there are adverse effects of vaccines,
many of which are cutaneous ...
vaccinations have been associated with
generalized hypersensitivity reactions,
such as
erythema multiforme,
Stevens-Johnson syndrome,
urticaria,
acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis,
and drug hypersensitivity syndrome.

The onset of certain inflammatory
dermatologic conditions, such as
lichen planus,
granuloma annulare,
and pemphigoid,
were reported to occur shortly
after vaccine administration.”

Expert Review Of Vaccines • June 2015

The avian influenza vaccine Emerflu
Why did it fail?
Author information
Young BE1, Sadarangani SP, Leo YS.
Communicable Diseases Centre
Institute of Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology
Communicable Diseases Centre,
144 Moulmein Road, Singapore
Abstract
Emerflu is an inactivated, split-virion pandemic preparedness vaccine, containing 30 μg of hemagglutinin (HA)
and 600 μg of aluminum hydroxide adjuvant. It is administered in two doses, 3 weeks apart. Only moderate immunogenicity was evident from clinical studies with the
vaccine in adults, and HA antibody responses were below
the criteria established by the EMA and US FDA for licensure. With the exception of Australia, the vaccine remains
unlicensed. Further clinical development appears to have
been suspended, and newer adjuvants such as MF59 and
AS03 have since demonstrated safety and superior immunogenicity with lower HA doses. Emerflu is symbolic
of the failure of aluminum salts as an adjuvant for influenza vaccines. Reasons for this failure are unclear, and
may reflect problems with the adjuvant-antigen complex
or interference in the immune response by heterosubtypic
immunity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26098721

“Emerflu is symbolic
of the failure of aluminum salts
as an adjuvant for
influenza vaccines.”

“These results provide a neurobiological substrate for brain dysfunction
in aluminum hydroxide adjuvant-induced MMF patients.”
PLoS One • June 2015

Neuropsychological Correlates
of Brain Perfusion SPECT
in Patients with Macrophagic Myofasciitis
Author information
Van Der Gucht A1, Aoun Sebaiti M2, Itti E1,
Aouizerate J3, Evangelista E1, Chalaye J1, Gherardi RK3,
Ragunathan-Thangarajah N4, Bachoud-Levi AC5, Authier FJ3.
1. Department of Nuclear Medicine, H. Mondor Hospital
Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris/Paris-Est University, Créteil, F-94010, France
2. Department of Neurology, H. Mondor Hospital
Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris/Paris-Est University, Créteil, F-94010, France
3. Department of Pathology, H. Mondor Hospital
Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris/Paris-Est University
Créteil, F-94010, France; Reference Center for Neuromuscular Disorders
H. Mondor Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, F-94010, France
INSERM U955-Team 10, Créteil, F-94010, France
4. Reference Center for Neuromuscular Disorders, H. Mondor Hospital
Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, F-94010, France
INSERM U955-Team 10, Créteil, F-94010, France
5. Department of Neurology, H. Mondor Hospital,
Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris/Paris-Est University
Créteil, F-94010, France; INSERM U955-Team 1, Créteil, F-94010, France

Abstract
BACKGROUND
Patients with aluminum hydroxide adjuvant-induced macrophagic myofasciitis
(MMF) complain of arthromyalgias, chronic fatigue and cognitive deficits. This
study aimed to characterize brain perfusion in these patients.

METHODS
Brain perfusion SPECT was performed in 76 consecutive patients (aged 49±10 y)
followed in the Garches-Necker-Mondor-Hendaye reference center for rare neuromuscular diseases. Images were acquired 30 min after intravenous injection of
925 MBq 99mTc-ethylcysteinate dimer (ECD) at rest. All patients also underwent
a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests, within 1.3±5.5 mo from
SPECT. Statistical parametric maps (SPM12) were obtained for each test using
linear regressions between each performance score and brain perfusion, with adjustment for age, sex, socio-cultural level and time delay between brain SPECT and
neuropsychological testing.
RESULTS
SPM analysis revealed positive correlation between neuropsychological scores
(mostly exploring executive functions) and brain perfusion in the posterior associative cortex, including cuneus/precuneus/occipital lingual areas, the periventricular
white matter/corpus callosum, and the cerebellum, while negative correlation was
found with amygdalo-hippocampal/entorhinal complexes. A positive correlation
was also observed between brain perfusion and the posterior associative cortex
when the time elapsed since last vaccine injection was investigated.
CONCLUSIONS
Brain perfusion SPECT showed a pattern of cortical and subcortical changes in accordance with the MMF-associated cognitive disorder previously described. These
results provide a neurobiological substrate for brain dysfunction in aluminum hydroxide adjuvant-induced MMF patients.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4451975/

“The fluorescent nanodiamond technology is able to overcome the limitations of previously used
organic fluorophores, thus appearing as a choice methodology for studying distribution, persistence
and long-term neurotoxicity of alum adjuvants and beyond ...”
BMC Medicine • June 2015

Fluorescent nanodiamonds
as a relevant tag for the assessment
of alum adjuvant particle biodisposition
Author information
Eidi H1,2, David MO3, Crépeaux G4, Henry L5, Joshi V6,
Berger MH7, Sennour M8, Cadusseau J9,10, Gherardi RK11, Curmi PA12.
1. Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) - UMR 1204
Université Evry-Val d’Essonne, Laboratoire Structure-Activité des Biomolécules Normales et Pathologiques, Evry, France
2. Inserm - U955, Université Paris Est, Faculté de Médecine, Créteil, France - housam.eidi@gmail.com
3. Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) - UMR 1204, Université Evry-Val d’Essonne
Laboratoire Structure-Activité des Biomolécules Normales et Pathologiques, Evry, France - MO.David@iut.univ-evry.fr
4. Inserm - U955, Université Paris Est, Faculté de Médecine, Créteil, France - guillemette.crepeaux@gmail.com
5. Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) - UMR 1204, Université Evry-Val d’Essonne
Laboratoire Structure-Activité des Biomolécules Normales et Pathologiques, Evry, France. laetitia.henry@wanadoo.fr
6. Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) - UMR 1204, Université Evry-Val d’Essonne
Laboratoire Structure-Activité des Biomolécules Normales et Pathologiques, Evry, France. vandana.joshi@univ-evry.fr
7. Laboratoire Pierre-Marie Fourt, Centre des Matériaux de l’Ecole des Mines de Paris and CNRS UMR 7633
Evry, France. marie-helene.berger@mines-paristech.fr
8. Laboratoire Pierre-Marie Fourt, Centre des Matériaux de l’Ecole des Mines de Paris and CNRS UMR 7633
Evry, France. mohamed.sennour@ensmp.fr
9. Inserm - U955, Université Paris Est, Faculté de Médecine, Créteil, France. josette.cadusseau@inserm.fr
10. Faculté des Sciences et Technologie UPEC, Créteil, France. josette.cadusseau@inserm.fr
11. Inserm - U955, Université Paris Est, Faculté de Médecine, Créteil, France. romain.gherardi@hmn.aphp.fr
12. Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) - UMR 1204, Université Evry-Val d’Essonne,
Laboratoire Structure-Activité des Biomolécules Normales et Pathologiques, Evry, France. pcurmi@univ-evry.fr

Abstract
BACKGROUND
Aluminum oxyhydroxide (alum) is a crystalline compound widely used as an immunologic
adjuvant of vaccines. Concerns linked to alum particles have emerged following recognition
of their causative role in the so-called macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) lesion in patients

with myalgic encephalomyelitis, revealing an unexpectedly long-lasting biopersistence of
alum within immune cells and a fundamental misconception of its biodisposition. Evidence
that aluminum-coated particles phagocytozed in the injected muscle and its draining lymph
nodes can disseminate within phagocytes throughout the body and slowly accumulate in the
brain further suggested that alum safety should be evaluated in the long term. However, lack
of specific staining makes difficult the assessment of low quantities of bona fide alum adjuvant
particles in tissues.
METHODS
We explored the feasibility of using fluorescent functionalized nanodiamonds (mfNDs) as a
permanent label of alum (Alhydrogel(®)). mfNDs have a specific and perfectly photostable
fluorescence based on the presence within the diamond lattice of nitrogen-vacancy centers
(NV centers). As the NV center does not bleach, it allows the microspectrometric detection of
mfNDs at very low levels and in the long-term. We thus developed fluorescent nanodiamonds
functionalized by hyperbranched polyglycerol (mfNDs) allowing good coupling and stability
of alum:mfNDs (AluDia) complexes. Specificities of AluDia complexes were comparable to
the whole reference vaccine (anti-hepatitis B vaccine) in terms of particle size and zeta potential.
RESULTS
In vivo, AluDia injection was followed by prompt phagocytosis and AluDia particles remained
easily detectable by the specific signal of the fND particles in the injected muscle, draining
lymph nodes, spleen, liver and brain. In vitro, mfNDs had low toxicity on THP-1 cells and
AluDia showed cell toxicity similar to alum alone. Expectedly, AluDia elicited autophagy, and
allowed highly specific detection of small amounts of alum in autophagosomes.
CONCLUSIONS
The fluorescent nanodiamond technology is able to overcome the limitations of previously
used organic fluorophores, thus appearing as a choice methodology for studying distribution, persistence and long-term neurotoxicity of alum adjuvants and beyond of other types of
nanoparticles.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26082187

International Journal Of Epidemiology • June 2015

An enigma: why vitamin A supplementation does not always reduce mortality
even though vitamin A deficiency is associated with increased mortality
Author information
Benn CS1, Aaby P2, Arts RJ3, Jensen KJ4, Netea MG3, Fisker AB2.
1. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project, Statens Serum Institut
Copenhagen, Denmark, OPEN, Institute of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark
Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
2. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health ProjectStatens Serum Institut
Copenhagen, Denmark, Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
3. Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
4. Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines (CVIVA), Bandim Health Project
Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark

“To prevent Vitamin A deficiency,
WHO recommends high-dose vitamin A
supplementation every 4-6 months for
children aged between 6 months and 5 years of age

Abstract
BACKGROUND
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is associated with increased mortality. To prevent VAD, WHO recommends high-dose vitamin
A supplementation (VAS) every 4-6 months for children aged between 6 months and 5 years of age in countries at risk of
VAD. The policy is based on randomized clinical trials (RCTs) conducted in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Recent RCTs
indicate that the policy may have ceased to be beneficial. In addition, RCTs attempting to extend the benefits to younger
children have yielded conflicting results. Stratified analyses suggest that whereas some subgroups benefit more than expected from VAS, other subgroups may experience negative effects.
METHODS AND RESULTS
We reviewed the potential modifiers of the effect of VAS. The variable effect of VAS was not explained by underlying differences in VAD. Rather, the effect may depend on the sex of the child, the vaccine status and previous supplementation
with vitamin A. Vitamin A is known to affect the Th1/Th2 balance and, in addition, recent evidence suggests that vitamin A
may also induce epigenetic changes leading to down-regulation of the innate immune response. Thus VAS protects against
VAD but has also important and long-lasting immunological effects, and the effect of providing VAS may vary depending
on the state of the immune system.
CONCLUSIONS
To design optimal VAS programmes which target those who benefit and avoid those harmed, more studies are needed. Work
is ongoing to define whether neonatal VAS should be considered in subgroups. In the most recent RCT in older children,
VAS doubled the mortality for males but halved mortality for females. Hence, we urgently need to re-assess the effect of
VAS on older children in large-scale RCTs powered to study effect modification by sex and other potential effect modifiers,
and with nested immunological studies.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4521135/

in countries at risk of Vitamin A deficiency. The policy is
based on randomized clinical trials conducted in the
late 1980s and early 1990s. Recent RCTs indicate that
the policy may have ceased to be beneficial.”

Clinical Rheumatology • July 2015

Hypothesis:
Human papillomavirus vaccination syndromesmall fiber neuropathy and dysautonomia
could be its underlying pathogenesis
Author information
Martínez-Lavín M.
Rheumatology Department
Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez
Juan Badiano 1, 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
drmartinezlavin@gmail.com
Abstract
Vaccination has been one of the most effective public health measures in the
history of medicine. However, seemingly inexplicit adverse reactions have
been described after the injection of the newer vaccines vs. human papillomavirus (HPV). The symptoms more often reported are chronic pain with
paresthesias, headaches, fatigue, and orthostatic intolerance. Adverse reactions appear to be more frequent after HPV vaccination when compared to
other type of immunizations. Different isolated cases and small series have
described the development of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), and fibromyalgia after HPV
vaccination. These are illnesses often difficult to diagnose that have overlapping clinical features. Sympathetic nervous system dysfunction seems to
play a major role in the pathogenesis of these syndromes. Also, small fiber
neuropathy has been recently recognized in CRPS, POTS, and fibromyalgia.
This article forwards the hypothesis that small fiber neuropathy and dysautonomia could be the common underlying pathogenesis to the group of rare,
but severe reactions that follow HPV vaccination. Clinicians should be aware
of the possible association between HPV vaccination and the development of
these difficult to diagnose painful dysautonomic syndromes.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25990003

“Different isolated cases and small series have
described the development of complex regional pain
syndrome (CRPS), postural orthostatic tachycardia
syndrome (POTS), and fibromyalgia after HPV
vaccination. These are illnesses often difficult to
diagnose that have overlapping clinical features.
Sympathetic nervous system dysfunction seems to
play a major role in the pathogenesis of these
syndromes. Also, small fiber neuropathy has been
recently recognized in CRPS, POTS, and fibromyalgia.”

Archives Of Diseases In Childhood • July 2015

Potentially harmful excipients
in neonatal medicines:
a pan-European observational study
Nellis G1, Metsvaht T2, Varendi H3, Toompere K4,
Lass J5, Mesek I6, Nunn AJ7, Turner MA8, Lutsar I6;
ESNEE consortium with Collaborators (31)
Author information
1. Institute of Microbiology, Tartu University, Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia Neonatal Unit, Tartu University Hospital, Childrens Clinic,
Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia
2. Institute of Microbiology, Tartu University, Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia Paediatric Intensive Care Unit, Tartu University Hospital,
Clinic of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia
3. Neonatal Unit, Tartu University Hospital, Childre∼s Clinic, Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia
4. Department of Public Health, Tartu University, Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia
5. Institute of Microbiology, Tartu University, Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia Pharmacy Department, Tartu University Hospital, Estonia
6. Institute of Microbiology, Tartu University, Tartu, Tartumaa, Estonia
7. Alder Hey Children’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK
8. Neonatal Unit, Liverpool Women’s Hospital, Liverpool, UK Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, UK

Abstract
OBJECTIVES
We aimed to describe administration of eight potentially harmful excipients of interest (EOI)-parabens, polysorbate 80, propylene glycol, benzoates, saccharin sodium, sorbitol, ethanol and benzalkonium chloride-to hospitalised neonates in Europe and to identify risk factors for exposure.
METHODS
All medicines administered to neonates during 1 day with individual prescription and demographic data were
registered in a web-based point prevalence study. Excipients were identified from the Summaries of Product
Characteristics. Determinants of EOI administration (geographical region, gestational age (GA), active pharmaceutical ingredient, unit level and hospital teaching status) were identified using multivariable logistical regression analysis.
RESULTS
Overall 89 neonatal units from 21 countries participated. Altogether 2095 prescriptions for 530 products administered to 726 neonates were recorded. EOI were found in 638 (31%) prescriptions and were administered to 456
(63%) neonates through a relatively small number of products (n=142; 27%). Parabens, found in 71 (13%) products administered to 313 (43%) neonates, were used most frequently. EOI administration varied by geographical
region, GA and route of administration. Geographical region remained a significant determinant of the use of
parabens, polysorbate 80, propylene glycol and saccharin sodium after adjustment for the potential covariates
including anatomical therapeutic chemical class of the active ingredient.
CONCLUSIONS
European neonates receive a number of potentially harmful pharmaceutical excipients. Regional differences in
EOI administration suggest that EOI-free products are available and provide the potential for substitution to avoid
side effects of some excipients.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25854872

“We aimed to describe administration of eight
potentially harmful excipients of interest— (EOI)parabens, polysorbate 80, propylene glycol,
benzoates, saccharin sodium, sorbitol, ethanol and
benzalkonium chloride—to hospitalised neonates in
Europe and to identify risk factors for exposure.”

Expert Review Of Vaccines • July 2015

Are we entering a new age for human vaccine adjuvants?
Author information
O’Hagan DT1, Fox CB.
Novartis Vaccines, Cambridge, MA, USA
Abstract
Major advances in adjuvant development for human vaccines have been reported recently for a range of indications, including malaria, influenza and varicella zoster virus. Furthermore, there is an increased understanding
of adjuvant mechanisms of action and a greater emphasis on the importance of formulation and characterization.
This progress may signify a new golden age of vaccine adjuvant discovery and development.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25947042

Brain & Cognition • August 2015

Word-finding impairment
in veterans of the 1991
Persian Gulf War
Author information
Moffett K1, Crosson B2, Spence JS3, Case K4, Levy I5,
Gopinath K6, Shah P7, Goyal A8, Fang Y9, Briggs RW10,
Hart J Jr11, Moore A12, Haley RW13.
1. Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of
Florida, 1225 Center Drive, Room 3151, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
Electronic address: kmoffett@phhp.ufl.edu.
2. Department of Veterans Affairs Rehabilitation Research and Development, Brain Rehabilitation Research Center of Excellence, Malcolm
Randall VA Medical Center, 1601 S.W. Archer Road, Gainesville,
FL 32608-1197, USA; Department of Veterans Affairs Rehabilitation
Research and Development, Center of Excellence for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, 1670 Clairmont Rd., Decatur, GA 30033,
USA; Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Emory University,
101 Woodruff Circle, Suite 6000, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, PO Box 5010, Atlanta,
GA 303025010, USA. Electronic address: bruce.crosson@emory.edu.
3. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and
Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323
Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA. Electronic address:
jss130230@utdallas.edu.
4. Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of
Florida, 1225 Center Drive, Room 3151, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
Electronic address: kim.case@ufl.edu.
5. Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of
Florida, 1225 Center Drive, Room 3151, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
Electronic address: ilana.f.levy@gmail.com.
6. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and
Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323
Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA. Electronic address:
Kaundinya.s.gopinath@emory.edu.
7. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry
Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA. Electronic address: parina.
shah30@yahoo.com.
8. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and
Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323
Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA. Electronic address:
goyala@yorku.ca.
9. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and
Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323
Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA. Electronic address:
fangyan331@gmail.com.
10. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry
Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA; Department of Physics &
Astronomy, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302-5060, USA.
Electronic address: rbriggs1@gsu.edu.

11. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and
Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323
Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA. Electronic address:
jhart@utdallas.edu.
12. Center for Rehabilitation Medicine, Emory University, 101 Woodruff Circle, Suite 6000, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. Electronic address:
annabmoore@gmail.com.
13. Departments of Internal Medicine (Epidemiology Division) and Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry
Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8874, USA. Electronic address: Robert.
Haley@UTSouthwestern.edu.

Abstract
Approximately one quarter of 1991 Persian Gulf War Veterans experience cognitive and physiological sequelae that
continue to be unexplained by known medical or psychological conditions. Difficulty coming up with words and
names, familiar before the war, is a hallmark of the illness.
Three Gulf War Syndrome subtypes have been identified and
linked to specific war-time chemical exposures. The most
functionally impaired veterans belong to the Gulf War Syndrome 2 (Syndrome 2) group, for which subcortical damage due to toxic nerve gas exposure is the suspected cause.
Subcortical damage is often associated with specific complex language impairments, and Syndrome 2 veterans have
demonstrated poorer vocabulary relative to controls. 11 Syndrome 1, 16 Syndrome 2, 9 Syndrome 3, and 14 age-matched
veteran controls from the Seabees Naval Construction Battalion were compared across three measures of complex language. Additionally, functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) was collected during a covert category generation
task, and whole-brain functional activity was compared between groups. Results demonstrated that Syndrome 2 veterans performed significantly worse on letter and category
fluency relative to Syndrome 1 veterans and controls. They
also exhibited reduced activity in the thalamus, putamen,
and amygdala, and increased activity in the right hippocampus relative to controls. Syndrome 1 and Syndrome 3 groups
tended to show similar, although smaller, differences than
the Syndrome 2 group. Hence, these results further demonstrate specific impairments in complex language as well as
subcortical and hippocampal involvement in Syndrome 2
veterans. Further research is required to determine the extent
of language impairments in this population and the significance of altered neurologic activity in the aforementioned
brain regions with the purpose of better characterizing the
Gulf War Syndromes.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26114921

“Results demonstrated that
Syndrome 2 veterans performed
significantly worse on letter and
category fluency relative to
Syndrome 1 veterans and
controls. They also exhibited
reduced activity in the thalamus,
putamen, and amygdala, and
increased activity in the right
hippocampus relative to
controls. Hence, these results
further demonstrate specific
impairments in complex
language as well as subcortical
and hippocampal involvement
in Syndrome 2 veterans.”

Brain Connectivity • August 2015

Shared Brain Connectivity Issues, Symptoms, and Comorbidities
in Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder,
and Tourette Syndrome
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA1, King PG2,
Sykes LK2, Mehta JA3, Geier MR1.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland
2. CoMeD, Inc. , Silver Spring, Maryland
3. Communication Sciences & Disorders
Texas Woman’s University, Denton, Texas
Abstract
The prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and Tourette syndrome (TS), has increased over the past two decades. Currently,
about one in six children in the United States is diagnosed as having a neurodevelopmental disorder. Evidence
suggests that ASD, ADHD, and TS have similar neuropathology, which includes long-range underconnectivity
and short-range overconnectivity. They also share similar symptomatology with considerable overlap in their
core and associated symptoms and a frequent overlap in their comorbid conditions. Consequently, it is apparent
that ASD, ADHD, and TS diagnoses belong to a broader spectrum of neurodevelopmental illness. Biologically,
long-range underconnectivity and short-range overconnectivity are plausibly related to neuronal insult (e.g., neurotoxicity, neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity, sustained microglial activation, proinflammatory cytokines, toxic
exposure, and oxidative stress). Therefore, these disorders may a share a similar etiology. The main purpose
of this review is to critically examine the evidence that ASD, ADHD, and TS belong to a broader spectrum of
neurodevelopmental illness, an abnormal connectivity spectrum disorder, which results from neural long-range
underconnectivity and short-range overconnectivity. The review also discusses the possible reasons for these
neuropathological connectivity findings. In addition, this review examines the role and issue of axonal injury and
regeneration in order to better understand the neuropathophysiological interplay between short- and long-range
axons in connectivity issues.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25602622

“The prevalence of
neurodevelopmental disorders, including
autism spectrum disorder (ASD),
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
and Tourette syndrome (TS), has increased over
the past two decades. Currently, about one in six
children in the United States is diagnosed
as having a neurodevelopmental disorder.”

[this defines a pandemic of neurological disorders]

Clinical And Experimental Rheumatology • August 2015

Autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA)
after quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccination in Colombians:
a call for personalised medicine
Author information
Anaya JM1, Reyes B1, Perdomo-Arciniegas AM2,
Camacho-Rodríguez B2, Rojas-Villarraga A1.
1. Centre for Autoimmune Diseases Research (CREA)
Universidad del Rosario; and Mederi Hospital Universitario Mayor
Bogota, Colombia
2. Banco de Sangre, Tejidos y Células
Hemocentro Distrital, Secretaría de Salud de Bogota
Bogota, Colombia
Abstract
This was a case study in which 3 patients with autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants
(ASIA) after quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccination (HPV) were evaluated and described. All the patients were women. Diagnosis consisted of HLA-B27 enthesitis related arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic
lupus erythematous, respectively. Our results highlight the risk of developing ASIA after HPV vaccination and
may serve to increase the awareness of such a complication. Factors that are predictive of developing autoimmune
diseases should be examined at the population level in order to establish preventive measures in at-risk individuals for whom healthcare should be personalized and participatory.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25962455

“This was a case study in which 3 patients with
autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome induced
by adjuvants (ASIA) after quadrivalent human
papillomavirus vaccination (HPV) were evaluated
and described. All the patients were women.”

Vaccine • September 2015

Spontaneous reports of vasculitis
as an adverse event following immunization:
A descriptive analysis across three international databases

CONCLUSION
Similar reporting patterns of vasculitides were observed in different databases. Implementation of standardized
case definitions for specific vasculitides could improve overall data quality and comparability of reports.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26392009

Felicetti P1, Trotta F2, Bonetto C2, Santuccio C2, Brauchli Pernus Y3, Burgner D4, Chandler R5, Girolomoni G6, Hadden RD7, Kochar S8,
Kucuku M9, Monaco G10, Ozen S11, Pahud B12, Phuong L13, Bachtiar NS14, Teeba A15, Top K16, Varricchio F17, Wise RP18, Zanoni G19,
∼ivkovic S20, Bonhoeffer J21; Brighton Collaboration Vasculitis Working Group

Author information
1. Italian Medicines Agency, Rome, Italy. Electronic address: contact@brightoncollaboration.org
2. Italian Medicines Agency, Rome, Italy
3. Brighton Collaboration Foundation, Basel, Switzerland
4. Monash Children’s Hospital-Clayton, Melbourne, Australia; Murdoch Children’s Research Institute (MCRI)
Department of Paediatrics, Melbourne University, Australia
5. Uppsala Monitoring Centre, Uppsala, Sweden
6. University of Verona, Department of Medicine, Section of Dermatology and Venereology, Verona, Italy
7. King’s College Hospital, London, UK
8. USAID, Deliver Project, JSIPL, New Delhi, India
9. Department of Vaccines Control, National Agency for Medicine & Medical Devices, Tirana, Albania
10. Centre for Pharmacovigilance, The Lombardy Region, Milan, Italy
11. Hacettepe University, Department of Pediatric Rheumatology, Ankara, Turkey
12. Children’s Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, MO, USA
13. Monash Children’s and Royal Children’s Hospitals, Melbourne, Australia
14. Bio Farma Vaccine Institute, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia
15. Centre National Anti Poison et de Pharmacovigilance, Rabat, Morocco
16. Department of Pediatrics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
17. Independent Consultant Vaccinologist, Wakefield, RI, USA
18. MedImmune/AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
19. Immunology Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata Verona, Verona, Italy
20. University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and Neurology service, MSL, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
21. University of Basel Children’s Hospital, Basel, Switzerland; Brighton Collaboration Foundation, Basel, Switzerland

Abstract

“We retrieved 1797 reports of vasculitis in EV, 1171 in VAERS,
and 2606 in VigiBase®. Vasculitis was predominantly reported
in children aged 1-17 years, and less frequently in the elderly
(>65 years). The generic term “vasculitis” was the most
frequently reported AEFI in this category across the three
databases (range 21.9% to 27.5% of all reported vasculitis for
vaccines). For the more specific terms, Henoch-Schoenlein
Purpura (HSP) was most frequently reported, (19.1% on
average), followed by Kawasaki disease (KD) (16.1% on average)
and polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) (9.2% on average). Less
frequently reported subtypes were cutaneous vasculitis (CuV),
vasculitis of the central nervous system (CNS-V), and Behcet’s

BACKGROUND
Vasculitides have been reported as adverse events following immunization (AEFI) following various vaccines. We describe reports of vasculitis to three international spontaneous reporting systems.

syndrome (BS). HSP, PMR and CuV were more frequently

RESULTS
We retrieved 1797 reports of vasculitis in EV, 1171 in VAERS, and 2606 in VigiBase®. Vasculitis was predominantly
reported in children aged 1-17 years, and less frequently in the elderly (>65 years). The generic term “vasculitis” was the
most frequently reported AEFI in this category across the three databases (range 21.9% to 27.5% of all reported vasculitis
for vaccines). For the more specific terms, Henoch-Schoenlein Purpura (HSP) was most frequently reported, (19.1% on
average), followed by Kawasaki disease (KD) (16.1% on average) and polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) (9.2% on average). Less frequently reported subtypes were cutaneous vasculitis (CuV), vasculitis of the central nervous system (CNSV), and Behcet’s syndrome (BS). HSP, PMR and CuV were more frequently reported with influenza vaccines: on average
in 29.3% for HSP reports, 61.5% for PMR reports and in 39.2% for CuV reports. KD was reported with pneumococcal
vaccines in 32.0% of KD reports and with rotavirus vaccines in more than 20% of KD reports. BS was most frequently
reported after hepatitis and HPV vaccines and CNS-V after HPV vaccines.

reports, 61.5% for PMR reports and in 39.2% for CuV reports.

reported with influenza vaccines: on average in 29.3% for HSP
KD was reported with pneumococcal vaccines in 32.0% of KD
reports and with rotavirus vaccines in more than 20% of KD
reports. BS was most frequently reported after hepatitis and
HPV vaccines and CNS-V after HPV vaccines.”

Epidemiologie Mikrobiologie Imunology • September 2015

Antigenic variability of Bordetella pertussis strains
isolated in 1967-2010 in the Czech Republic—
possible explanation for the rise in cases of pertussis?
by Zavadilová J, Lzicarová D, Musílek M, Krízová P, Fabiánová K.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
Comparison of antigenic structures of Bordetella pertussis (B. pertussis) strains isolated
from 1967 to 2010 in the Czech Republic.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Seventy strains of B. pertussis were referred to the National Reference Laboratory (NRL)
for Pertussis and Diphtheria within the surveillance of pertussis from all over the Czech
Republic (CR) between 1967 and 2010. To study the strains, the analysis was performed
of the genome sequences encoding the surface immunogenic structures--the pertussis
toxin S1 subunit gene (ptxA), pertactin gene region 1 (prnA), type 3 fimbriae gene (fim3)-and pertussis toxin promoter (ptxP) responsible for the regulation of the production of
pertussis toxin.
RESULTS
For the study set of B. pertussis strains, the sequencing analysis revealed changes in all
genomic regions studied. The isolates from three periods differ in the allelic profile. In
period I (19671978) with the use of whole cell pertussis vaccine (wP), the following
two profiles were the most common: ptxP(1), ptxA(2), prnA(1), fim3(1) and ptxP(1),
ptxA(1), prnA(3), fim3(1). In period 2 (19902007) with the switch to acellular pertussis
vaccine (aP), the most common profile was: ptxP(3), ptxA(1), prnA(2), fim3(2). Period
3 (20082010) with the use of aP was characterized by the predominance of the following
two profiles which had never been found in period 1: ptxP(3), ptxA(1), prnA(2), fim3(2)
and ptxP(3) ptxA(1), prnA(2), fim3(1).
CONCLUSIONS
Sequencing of the genomic regions ptxP, ptxA, prnA, and fim3 of B. pertussis strains
isolated in the CR between 1967 and 2010 confirmed changes in the allelic variants of
these regions. The incidence of strains carrying the new allelic variants was increasing
after 1995 at the expense of those carrying the original variants. The study results can
be interpreted as a partial genetic escape of pathogenic strains of B. pertussis beyond the
reach of the pertussis vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26448300

“The study results can be interpreted
as a partial genetic escape of pathogenic strains
of B. pertussis beyond the reach
of the pertussis vaccines.”

“Since then [1964], the literature has been flooded with case reports and case series
of granulomatous and systemic autoimmune disorders related to vaccines ...”
Lupus • September 2015

Human adjuvant-related syndrome or
autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants.
Where have we come from? Where are we going?
A proposal for new diagnostic criteria
Author information
Alijotas J.-Reig J.
Systemic Autoimmune Disease Unit, Department of Internal Medicine I
Vall d’Hebron UniversityHospital, Barcelona, Spain
Faculty of Medicine,Universitat Autonoma, Barcelona, Spain
16297jar@comb.es
jalijotas@vhebron.net
Abstract
In 1964, Miyoshi reported a series of patients with diverse symptoms after receiving treatment with silicone
or paraffin fillers. Miyoshi named this condition ‘human adjuvant disease’. Since then, the literature has been
flooded with case reports and case series of granulomatous and systemic autoimmune disorders related to vaccines, infection or other adjuvants such as silicone and other biomaterials. A new term -autoimmune/inflammatory
syndrome induced by adjuvants--has recently been coined for a process that includes several clinical features previously described by Miyoshi plus other clinical and laboratory parameters related to exposure to diverse external
stimuli. Disorders such as siliconosis, Gulf War syndrome, macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome, sick building
syndrome and post-vaccination syndrome have been included in autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by
adjuvants. Disorders such as Spanish toxic oil syndrome and Ardystil syndrome could also be included. Furthermore, biomaterials other than silicone should also be considered as triggering factors for these adjuvant-related
syndromes. New diagnostic criteria in this field have been proposed. Nevertheless, many of these criteria are too
subjective, leading to some patients being diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome or other ‘central sensitization
syndromes’. Diagnostic criteria based only on objective clinical and laboratory data to be further discussed and
validated are proposed herein.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25813870

Journal Of Vaccines & Vaccination • September 2015

Vaccines and Drug-induced Lung Injury
Yamamoto Y*
Respiratory Center
Asahikawa Medical University
Asahikawa, Hokkaido, Japan
Abstract
The corresponding author has no conflict of interest to declare. The author
is invited to submit this manuscript in the Short Communication section.
Drug-induced lung injuries (DLIs) are adverse drug reactions that specifically occur in the pulmonary system. The main causative agents include
cytotoxic drugs, antibiotics, interferon, and anti-rheumatic drugs. More
recently, biological reaction modifiers and molecular targeted drugs have
emerged as causes of DLIs. Interstitial lung diseases are the most common
form of DLIs [1].
Vaccines have rarely been associated with DLIs. One possible reason is that
the causal relationship is difficult to prove. This problem is true for vaccines
against human papilloma virus (HPV). The author has recently reported a
case of interstitial pneumonia that occurred after the vaccination with HPV16/18 adjuvant system 04 (AS04) vaccines (Cervarix) [2]. Detailed information of this case is available on the respiratory medicine case reports
website (http://www.dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.rmcr.2015.06.003).
A middle-aged woman, who had no pre-existing pulmonary diseases, completed three doses of Cervarix. Non-specific interstitial pneumonia developed three months after the last vaccination. A lung biopsy specimen
showed lymphocytic alveolitis, providing evidence that cell-mediated immunity likely contributed to the occurrence. The patient had increased levels of serum biomarkers specific to interstitial pneumonias such as Krebs
von der Lungen (KL)-6 and surfactant protein (SP)-D. Other causes except

the vaccination were eliminated. Of note was that the interstitial pneumonia spontaneously resolved with complete remission of chest radiographic
findings and serum biomarkers. The self-limiting course suggested that the
interstitial pneumonia occurred with a temporal association with the vaccination. A re-challenge test to Cervarix was not conducted for safety reasons.
The interstitial pneumonia was finally diagnosed as a DLI according to the
clinical course, chest images, pathological findings, and specific use of Cervarix. Assuming that all drugs are capable of causing a lung injury is the
first step for diagnosing DLIs [1]. Vaccines are not exceptions in that DLIs
can develop even after the treatment has been completed [1]. Most cases of
vaccine-associated DLIs have been diagnosed by clinical judgments [3-5].
Gold standard tests have not been established for the diagnosis of DLIs;
however the likelihood of an adverse reaction can be semi-quantified using
the Naranjo algoris. Such algorisms can reduce inter- and intra-individual
variations with regard to the assessment [6]. Chest imaging findings are
non-specific but useful for early diagnosis.[1] Measurements of KL-6 and
SP-D may play a supplementary role in the diagnosis of DLIs [1,7]. An exvivo drug stimulation test using peripheral lymphocytes has a quite limited
diagnostic value [7]. Further studies are required to develop diagnostic procedures, which are more sensitive and specific to a drug adverse reaction.
Influenza vaccines can cause several types of DLIs, including acute respiratory distress syndrome [3-5]. Watanabe et al. reviewed 7 cases (4 males and
3 females) of DLIs secondary to the influenza vaccination [5]. The median
age of onset was relatively high (59 years). Previous pulmonary diseases

were present in four cases. All patients had acute symptoms. The time to
onset was 1 to 10 days. They all had severe clinical manifestations, but recovered after receiving corticosteroid therapy. Of note, 6 of the 7 cases were
Asians [5]. Genetic and environmental factors may affect difference in the
susceptibility to DLIs [7].
Unlike influenza vaccines, Cervarix caused a mild and subclinical form of
DLI. How did Cervarix affect the pulmonary system? In the disease process of DLIs, drugs can act as a hapten, interact with immune receptors,
and trigger danger signals [7]. These actions probably underlie the onset of
immune-mediated DLIs [1,7]. These processes were probably attributed to
the Cervarix-associated DLI. As a reason, the pathologically proven lymphocytic alveolitis was suggestive of cell-mediated immune responses [2].
Of the constituents of Cervarix, the AS04 adjuvant appeared to be most
responsible owing to its strong immunogenicity [8].
Large-scale analyses have not shown that AS04-adjuvanted vaccines increase risks for developing autoimmune disorders [9,10]. This trend still
remains significant when the subjects are stratified by age [10]. However,
the immune-mediated diseases assessed are confined to gastrointestinal,
metabolic, musculoskeletal, neuroinflammatory, and skin disorders [10].
Any lung disorders including interstitial pneumonia are not listed. Further
studies are needed to clarify the prevalence, outcomes, and risk factors for
the Cervarix-associated DLI.

Full Report With References
http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/vaccines-and-druginduced-lung-injury-2157-7560-1000291.pdf

Journal Of Biological Chemistry • October 2015

Formaldehyde Crosslinking:
A Tool for the Study of Chromatin Complexes
Author information
Hoffman EA1, Frey BL2, Smith LM2, Auble DT3.
1. The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics
University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908 and
2. The Department of Chemistry and Genome Center of Wisconsin
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706 and
3. The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics
University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
auble@virginia.edu
Abstract
Formaldehyde has been used for decades to probe macromolecular structure and
function and to trap complexes, cells, and tissues for further analysis. Formaldehyde crosslinking is routinely employed for detection and quantification of
protein-DNA interactions, interactions between chromatin proteins, and interactions between distal segments of the chromatin fiber. Despite widespread use
and a rich biochemical literature, important aspects of formaldehyde behavior in
cells have not been well described. Here, we highlight features of formaldehyde
chemistry relevant to its use in analyses of chromatin complexes, focusing on
how its properties may influence studies of chromatin structure and function.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26354429

“ Formaldehyde [a vaccine ingredient] has
been used for decades to probe macromolecular
structure and function and to trap complexes,
cells, and tissues for further analysis. Despite
widespread use and a rich biochemical literature,
important aspects of formaldehyde behavior in
cells have not been well described.”

International Journal Of General Medicine • October 2015

A case of polymyalgia rheumatica
following influenza B infection
Kentaro Iwata1 and Yasushi Mizuno2
1Division of Infectious Diseases
Kobe University Hospital, Kobe, Japan
2Department of General Medicine
Kobe City Medical Center General Hospital
Kobe, Japan
Abstract
Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) is relatively common among the elderly, and is characterized by multiple body aches with an elevated
erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Even though the etiology of PMR remains unknown, a number of infectious agents have been suggested to
cause PMR. Also, there are reports of PMR after influenza vaccination.
The exact role of influenza vaccination on the development of PMR
remains unknown, but may be associated with specific human leukocyte antigens (HLAs), such as HLA-DRB1 and HLA-DQB1. Whether
postvaccination PMR is caused by influenza virus antigen or adjuvants
in the vaccine is another unanswered question. We herein report a case
of an 85-year-old woman who developed PMR shortly after contracting influenza virus B. Even though infections are hypothesized to be
one of the causes of PMR, this is the first-ever case of PMR following
influenza virus infection. Further studies may elucidate the exact role
of influenza virus infection on the etiology and pathogenesis of PMR.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26527896

“this is the first-ever case of Polymyalgia rheumatica
following influenza virus infection. Further studies
may elucidate the exact role of influenza virus infection
on the etiology and pathogenesis of Polymyalgia rheumatica.”

Frontiers In Pediatrics • October 2015

A Prospective Longitudinal Assessment of Medical Records
for Diagnostic Substitution among Subjects Diagnosed with a Pervasive
Developmental Disorder in the United States
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK1, Hooker BS2, Sykes LK3, Geier MR1.
1. The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc , Silver Spring, MD , USA.
2. Simpson University , Redding, CA , USA.
3. CoMeD, Inc , Silver Spring, MD , USA.
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Previously, investigators suggested that diagnostic substitution from other diagnoses, e.g., mental retardation
(MR) and/or cerebral palsy (CP) to pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) is a driving factor behind increases
in autism. This study evaluated potential diagnostic substitution among subjects diagnosed with PDD vs. MR or
CP by examining birth characteristic overlap.
METHODS
SAS(®) and StatsDirect software examined medical records for subjects within the Vaccine Safety Datalink
database who were Health Maintenance Organization-enrolled from birth until diagnosed with an International
Classification of Disease, 9th revision (ICD-9) outcome of PDD (299.xx, n = 84), CP (343.xx, n = 300), or MR
(317.xx, 318.xx, or 319.xx, n = 51).
RESULTS
Subjects with PDD had significantly (p < 0.01) increased: male/female ratio (PDD = 5.5 vs. CP = 1.5 or MR = 1.3),
mean age of initial diagnosis in years (PDD = 3.13 vs. CP = 1.09 or MR = 1.62), mean gestational age in weeks
at birth (PDD = 38.73 vs. CP = 36.20 or MR = 34.84), mean birth weight in grams (PDD = 3,368 vs. CP = 2,767
or MR = 2,406), and mean Appearance-Pulse-Grimace-Activity-Respiration scores at 1 min (PDD = 7.82 vs.
CP = 6.37 or MR = 6.76) and 5 min (PDD = 8.77 vs. CP = 7.92 or MR = 8.04), as compared to subjects diagnosed
with CP or MR.
CONCLUSION
This study suggests diagnostic substitution cannot fully explain increased PDD prevalence during the 1990s
within the United States.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26528457

“This study suggests
diagnostic substitution
cannot fully explain increased pervasive
developmental disorder (PDD) prevalence
during the 1990s within the United States.”

Autoimmunity Review • October 2015

On vaccine’s adjuvants and autoimmunity:
Current evidence and future perspectives
Author information
Pellegrino P1, Clementi E2, Radice S1.
1. Unit of Clinical Pharmacology
Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences
University Hospital “Luigi Sacco”, Università di Milano
20157 Milan, Italy
2. Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea
23842 Bosisio Parini, Lecco, Italy
Unit of Clinical Pharmacology
Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Institute of Neuroscience
University Hospital “Luigi Sacco”, Università di Milano
20157 Milan, Italy
emilio.clementi@unimi.it
Abstract
Adjuvants are compounds incorporated into vaccines to enhance immunogenicity and the development of these molecules has become an expanding field
of research in the last decades. Adding an adjuvant to a vaccine antigen leads
to several advantages, including dose sparing and the induction of a more rapid, broader and strong immune response. Several of these molecules have been
approved, including aluminium salts, oil-in-water emulsions (MF59, AS03
and AF03), virosomes and AS04. Adjuvants have recently been implicated
in the new syndrome named “ASIA-Autoimmune/inflammatory Syndrome
Induced by Adjuvants”, which describes an umbrella of clinical conditions
including post-vaccination adverse reactions. Recent studies implicate a web
of mechanisms in the development of vaccine adjuvant-induced autoimmune
diseases, in particular, in those associated with aluminium-based compounds.
Fewer and unsystematised data are instead available about other adjuvants,
despite recent evidence indicating that vaccines with different adjuvants may
also cause specific autoimmune adverse reactions possible towards different
pathogenic mechanisms. This topic is of importance as the specific mechanism of action of each single adjuvant may have different effects on the course
of different diseases. Herein, we review the current evidence about the mechanism of action of currently employed adjuvants and discuss the mechanisms
by which such components may trigger autoimmunity.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26031899

“Adding an adjuvant to a vaccine antigen
leads to several advantages, including dose sparing
and the induction of a more rapid, broader and strong
immune response. Adjuvants have recently been
implicated in the new syndrome named “ASIA-Autoimmune/inflammatory Syndrome Induced by
Adjuvants”, which describes an umbrella of clinical
conditions including post-vaccination adverse
reactions. Recent studies implicate a web of
mechanisms in the development of vaccine
adjuvant-induced autoimmune diseases, in
particular, in those associated with
aluminium-based compounds.”

Future Microbiology • October 2015

Investigating pertussis toxin
and its impact on vaccination
Author information
Coutte L1, Locht C.
Center for Infection & Immunity of Lille
Institut Pasteur de Lille
1 rue du Prof. Calmette, F-59019
Lille Cedex, France
Abstract
Whooping cough, caused by Bordetella pertussis, remains a major global health problem. Each year around
40 million of pertussis cases resulting in 200,000400,000 annual deaths occur worldwide. Pertussis toxin
is a major virulence factor of B. pertussis. Murine studies have shown its importance in bacterial colonization
and in immunomodulation to evade innate or adaptive
immunity. The toxin is composed of an A protomer expressing ADP-ribosyltransferase activity and a B oligomer, responsible for toxin binding to target cells. The
toxin is also a major protective antigen in all currently
available vaccines. However, vaccine escape mutants
with altered toxin expression have recently been isolated in countries with high vaccination coverage illustrating the need for improved pertussis vaccines.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25689536

“[pertussis toxin] is also
a major protective antigen in all
currently available vaccines. However, vaccine escape
mutants with altered toxin expression have recently
been isolated in countries with high vaccination
coverage illustrating the need for improved
pertussis vaccines.”

Journal Of Biological Chemistry • October 2015

Pertussis Toxin Exploits
Specific Host Cell Signaling Pathways
for Promoting Invasion and Translocation
of Escherichia coli K1 RS218 in Human
Brain-derived Microvascular Endothelial Cells
Author information
Karassek S1, Starost L1, Solbach J1, Greune L1,
Sano Y2, Kanda T2, Kim K3, Schmidt MA4.
1. From the Institute of Infectiology, Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster
2. the Department of Neurology and Clinical Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi, Japan
3. the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Division, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
4. From the Institute of Infectiology, Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster
infekt@uni-muenster.de

Abstract
Pertussis toxin (PTx), an AB5 toxin and major virulence factor of the whooping cough-causing pathogen Bordetella pertussis, has been shown to affect the blood-brain barrier. Dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier may
facilitate penetration of bacterial pathogens into the brain, such as Escherichia coli K1 (RS218). In this study, we
investigated the influence of PTx on blood-brain barrier permissiveness to E. coli infection using human brainderived endothelial HBMEC and TY10 cells as in vitro models. Our results indicate that PTx acts at several key
points of host cell intracellular signaling pathways, which are also affected by E. coli K1 RS218 infection. Application of PTx increased the expression of the pathogen binding receptor gp96. Further, we found an activation of
STAT3 and of the small GTPase Rac1, which have been described as being essential for bacterial invasion involving host cell actin cytoskeleton rearrangements at the bacterial entry site. In addition, we showed that PTx induces
a remarkable relocation of VE-cadherin and ∼-catenin from intercellular junctions. The observed changes in host
cell signaling molecules were accompanied by differences in intracellular calcium levels, which might act as a
second messenger system for PTx. In summary, PTx not only facilitates invasion of E. coli K1 RS218 by activating essential signaling cascades; it also affects intercellular barriers to increase paracellular translocation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26324705

“Pertussis toxin (PTx), [an ingredient in
several vaccines] an AB5 toxin and major virulence
factor of the whooping cough-causing pathogen
Bordetella pertussis, has been shown to affect the
blood-brain barrier. Dysfunction of the blood-brain
barrier may facilitate penetration of bacterial
pathogens into the brain, such as
Escherichia coli K1 (RS218).”

Vaccine • November 2015

Genetic diversity and population dynamics
of Bordetella pertussis in China between 1950-2007
Author information
Xu Y1, Zhang L1, Tan Y1, Wang L1, Zhang S1, Wang J2.
1. Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Health for Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products,
National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, No. 2, Tiantan Xili, Beijing 100050, PR China
2. Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Health for Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products,
National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, No. 2, Tiantan Xili, Beijing 100050, PR China
wangjz@nifdc.org.cn
Abstract
Pertussis is an acute respiratory infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. Although pertussis vaccination was introduced in the 1960s, pertussis is still an endemic disease in China. To better understand
the genetic diversity of the Chinese B. pertussis population, we characterized 115 clinical isolates obtained in
China during 1950-2007 using multilocus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA). Forty-six different
B. pertussis MLVA profiles (MTs) were identified, of which 13 were new MTs. Analysis using a minimum-spanning tree showed that distinct MTs were prevalent during different periods, suggesting that a dynamic change in
B. pertussis MTs occurred over time in China. The predominant MTs in recent isolates from China were different
from those of many developed countries. A decreasing trend in genetic diversity of the B. pertussis population
was observed following the introduction of pertussis vaccines. Similar to the pertactin 2 (prn2) allele, the novel
pertussis toxin promoter (ptxP3) allele first emerged in 2000, but unlike trends elsewhere, ptxP1 remained predominant among the isolates, further reflecting the unique temporal trends in the B. pertussis population in China.
Our results suggest that temporal changes in the B. pertussis population may be closely associated with vaccination coverage and the vaccine types used. These data may lead to an improved understanding of the virulence
mechanism of B. pertussis and facilitate new strategies for controlling this infectious disease.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26409140

“Although pertussis vaccination
was introduced in the 1960s, pertussis
is still an endemic disease in China.
Our results suggest that temporal changes
in the B. pertussis population may be closely
associated with vaccination coverage ...”

[viral mutation or ‘drift’]

Drug Safety • November 2015

Comparative Safety of Vaccine Adjuvants:
A Summary of Current Evidence
and Future Needs
Author information
Petrovsky N.
Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes
Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, 5042, Australia
nikolai.petrovsky@flinders.edu.au
Vaxine Pty Ltd, Adelaide, SA, Australia
nikolai.petrovsky@flinders.edu.au
Abstract
Use of highly pure antigens to improve vaccine safety has led to
reduced vaccine immunogenicity and efficacy. This has led to the
need to use adjuvants to improve vaccine immunogenicity. The ideal
adjuvant should maximize vaccine immunogenicity without compromising tolerability or safety. Unfortunately, adjuvant research
has lagged behind other vaccine areas such as antigen discovery,
with the consequence that only a very limited number of adjuvants
based on aluminium salts, monophosphoryl lipid A and oil emulsions are currently approved for human use. Recent strategic initiatives to support adjuvant development by the National Institutes of
Health should translate into greater adjuvant choices in the future.
Mechanistic studies have been valuable for better understanding of
adjuvant action, but mechanisms of adjuvant toxicity are less well
understood. The inflammatory or danger-signal model of adjuvant
action implies that increased vaccine reactogenicity is the inevitable
price for improved immunogenicity. Hence, adjuvant reactogenicity may be avoidable only if it is possible to separate inflammation
from adjuvant action. The biggest remaining challenge in the adjuvant field is to decipher the potential relationship between adjuvants
and rare vaccine adverse reactions, such as narcolepsy, macrophagic
myofasciitis or Alzheimer’s disease. While existing adjuvants based
on aluminium salts have a strong safety record, there are ongoing
needs for new adjuvants and more intensive research into adjuvants
and their effects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26446142

“Use of highly pure antigens to
improve vaccine safety has led to
reduced vaccine immunogenicity
and efficacy. The biggest remaining
challenge in the adjuvant field is to
decipher the potential relationship
between adjuvants and rare vaccine
adverse reactions, such as narcolepsy,
macrophagic myofasciitis or
Alzheimer’s disease.”

Vaccine • November 2015

A measles outbreak in a middle school
with high vaccination coverage and evidence of prior immunity
among cases, Beijing, P.R. China
Author information
Ma R1, Lu L2, Zhangzhu J1, Chen M1, Yu X1, Wang F3, Peng X3, Wu J1.
1. EPI Department, Beijing Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100013, PR China
2. EPI Department, Beijing Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100013, PR China
3. EPI Department, Shunyi District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 101300, PR China
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Age-appropriate receipt of ≥2 measles-containing vaccine (MCV) doses has been considered evidence of immunity against measles. Transmission of measles is rarely reported among such persons.
METHODS
We report a measles outbreak in a middle school in Beijing that has high coverage with≥2 documented MCV
doses. History of previous measles and documentation of MCV receipt were collected for all individuals. Cases
were identified by active surveillance and confirmed by laboratory tests. Measles immunoglobulin G (IgG) titers
and clinical presentations were obtained for each case.
RESULTS
Of 1331 individuals without a prior history of measles, 1172 (88.1% [95%CI:86.4-91.5%]) and 1078 (81.0%
[95%CI:78.9-83.1%]) had age-appropriate receipt of ≥2 MCV doses by domestic and U.S. CDC/ACIP criteria, respectively. Thirteen measles cases occurred in the outbreak. The index case and 3 secondary cases were
students. The 9 tertiary cases included 2 teachers and 7 students. All 11 student cases received ≥2 age-appropriate MCV doses by Chinese domestic criteria; 8 were age-appropriately vaccinated by U.S. CDC/ACIP criteria.
Measles IgG was detected during the acute phase of measles for all but 2 cases -the first case and 1 tertiary case.
Among students with age-appropriate receipt of ≥2 MCV doses, the length of time since the last MCV was significantly associated with risk of measles: for the 1172 students, the risk was 4.6 [OR5.6;95%CI:1.4-22.9] and 5.5
[OR6.5;95%CI:1.4-29.8] times higher when the last MCV dose was 5-9 years and ≥10 years prior, respectively,
compared with <5 years prior; for the 1078 students, the risk was 4.1 [OR5.1;95%CI:1.3-20.7] times higher when
the last MCV dose was 5-9 years prior compared with <5 years prior.
CONCLUSIONS
This is the first report from China showing measles transmission among persons with prior evidence of immunity.
Secondary vaccine failure may have played an important role in measles transmission. Further laboratory surveillance is needed to assess the persistence of vaccine-induced immunity of domestically-produced MCV in China.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26589518

“This is the first report from China
showing measles transmission among
persons with prior evidence of immunity.
Secondary vaccine failure may have
played an important role in measles transmission.”

Vaccine • November 2015

Risk of spontaneous abortion and other pregnancy outcomes
in 15-25 year old women exposed to human papillomavirus-16/18 AS04adjuvanted vaccine in the United Kingdom
Author information
Baril L1, Rosillon D2, Willame C2, Angelo MG2, Zima J2, van den Bosch JH3,
Van Staa T4, Boggon R4, Bunge EM3, Hernandez-Diaz S5, Chambers CD6
1. GSK Vaccines, 20, Avenue Fleming, B-1300 Wavre, Belgium
laurence.x.baril@gsk.com
2. GSK Vaccines, 20, Avenue Fleming, B-1300 Wavre, Belgium
3. Pallas, Health Research and Consultancy, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
4. CPRD Research Group, London, United Kingdom
5. Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, USA
6. University of California San Diego School of Medicine, USA

Abstract
BACKGROUND
We assessed the risk of spontaneous abortion (SA) after inadvertent exposure to HPV-16/18-vaccine during pregnancy using an observational cohort design.
METHODS
The study population included women aged 15-25 years registered with the Clinical Practice Research Datalink
General Practice OnLine Database in the United Kingdom (UK), who received at least one HPV-16/18-vaccine
dose between 1st September 2008 and 30th June 2011. Exposed women had the first day of gestation between
30 days before and 45 days (90 days for the extended exposure period) after any HPV-16/18-vaccine dose. Nonexposed women had the first day of gestation 120 days-18 months after the last dose. SA defined as foetal loss
between weeks 1 and 23 of gestation (UK definition).
RESULTS
The frequency of SA was 11.6% (among 207 exposed) and 9.0% (632 non-exposed), women: hazard ratio (HR)
adjusted for age at first day of gestation 1.30 (95% confidence interval: 0.79-2.12). Sensitivity analysis per number of doses administered (-30 to +45-day risk period) showed a HR for SA of 1.11 (0.64-1.91) for 18/178 women
with one dose during the risk period versus 2.55 (1.09-5.93) in 6/29 women with two doses within a 4-5 weeks
period. The proportion of pre-term/full-term/postterm deliveries, small/large for gestational age infants, and birth
defects was not significantly different between exposed and non-exposed women. Results were consistent using a
(United States) SA definition of foetal loss between weeks 1-19 and/or the extended risk period.
CONCLUSION
There was no evidence of an increased risk of SA and other adverse pregnancy outcomes in young women inadvertently HPV-16/18-vaccinated around gestation. Nevertheless, women who are pregnant or trying to become
pregnant are advised to postpone vaccination until completion of pregnancy.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26206268
Full Report: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X15009688

“The frequency of SA was 11.6%
(among 207 exposed) and
9.0% (632 non-exposed)
... Results were consistent using a (United States)
SA definition of foetal loss between weeks 1-19
and/or the extended risk period ... women who are
pregnant or trying to become pregnant
are advised to postpone vaccination
until completion of pregnancy.”

Journal Of Maternal, Fetal & Neonatal Medicine • November 2015

The prevalence and pattern of pharmaceutical
and excipient exposure in a neonatal unit in Slovenia
Author information
Fister P1, Urh S2, Karner A1, Krzan M3, Paro-Panjan D1.
1. Department of Neonatology, Division of Pediatrics
University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
2. Department of Pharmacy, University Medical Centre Ljubljana
Ljubljana, Slovenia
3. Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology and Experimental Toxicology
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana , Slovenia.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
Because of the restraints on conducting studies on pharmaceutical use in sick newborns, many drugs are used off-label in this population. Moreover, industrially manufactured pharmaceuticals may contain different excipients, which may be either
untested or not licensed for use in neonates. The aim of our study was to determine
the prevalence and pattern of pharmaceutical and excipient exposure in newborns
hospitalized at the Department of Neonatology, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
METHODS
A longitudinal prospective cross-sectional study was performed during a one-month
period and included all hospitalized neonates. Route of administration, site of action,
type of manufacture, licensing status, type and concentrations of excipients for all
pharmaceuticals given to the neonates were determined.
RESULTS
Twenty seven different pharmaceutical preparations were prescribed to a total of 48
hospitalized newborns. In most cases, newborns were prescribed various pharmaceuticals that were not approved for use in this population. Newborns were exposed
to 60 different excipients in industrially manufactured pharmaceutical preparations.
More than half of the received pharmaceuticals contained potentially harmful and
harmful excipients.
CONCLUSIONS
Two-thirds of pharmaceutical preparations for neonates were used off-label. Newborns receive more auxiliary substances, which may be unsuitable for this age group
and may even be toxic to them, via industrially manufactured pharmaceuticals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=25316561

“Newborns receive
more auxiliary substances, which may be
unsuitable for this age group and may even be
toxic to them, via industrially manufactured
pharmaceuticals.”

Vaccine • December 2015

A sera-epidemiological study
on pertussis immunity levels among community populations
and an analysis of the underlying factors in Tianjin China
Author information
Zhang Y1, Huang H2, Gao Z2, Liu Y2, Liu P2, Ding Y2, Wang L3, Chen D4, Wu S5.
1. Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Tianjin, 300011, China
2. Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Tianjin, 300011, China
3. Hangu Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Tianjin, 300480, China
4. Hongqiao Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Tianjin, 300132, China
5. Beichen Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Tianjin, 300400, China
cdczhangying@sina.com
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The aim of this study is to characterize the sera-epidemiology of pertussis immunity levels among community
populations and to identify the underlying factors. Moreover, our study will help resolve new issues encountered
during the control and prevention of pertussis reemergence.
METHODS
The anti-pertussis antibody levels among community populations were examined using enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) over three years. Comparative studies were carried out to assess the efficacy of different
types of vaccines. Meanwhile, the duration of protection provided by DTaP within the under-7 age group was
subjected to further analysis.
RESULTS
The average positive rate for anti-pertussis antibody was 49.15% across all community populations, among which
the 4-12 age group showed a rate substantially lower than those of other groups (P<0.001). There was no statistically significant difference in anti-pertussis antibody levels (P=0.977) between people receiving three and four
doses of the vaccine. The surveillance results showed that the positive antibody response rate elicited by component pertussis combo (DTcP) vaccines (84.44%) was strikingly higher than that elicited by acellular pertussis
combo (DTaP) vaccines (37.22%, P<0.001). More specifically, when given 4 doses of DTcP vaccines, 66.67% of
the people showed positive anti-pertussis toxin (PT) antibody levels, which was higher than the ratio of 9.87%
(P<0.001) in the case of DTaP vaccines. The positive anti-pertussis antibody levels peaked at 73% within the first
five months following vaccination and then gradually decreased to below 20% in four years. The positive rate was
inversely correlated with the length of time after vaccination (r=-0.929, P=0.003).
CONCLUSIONS
The anti-pertussis antibody levels were not only relatively low among community populations, but also dropped
excessively rapidly among vaccinated populations. Natural infection is an important contributor to the high pertussis immunity levels seen in adolescents and adults. The efficacy of DTaP remains to be improved.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26562317

“The anti-pertussis antibody levels
were not only relatively low among
community populations, but also dropped
excessively rapidly among vaccinated populations.
Natural infection is an important contributor
to the high pertussis immunity levels seen in
adolescents and adults. The efficacy
of DTaP remains to be improved.”

Journal Of Infectious Disease • December 2015

The Decline of
Pertussis-Specific Antibodies
After Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Acellular Pertussis
Immunization in Late Pregnancy
Author information
Abu Raya B1, Srugo I2, Kessel A3,
Peterman M4, Vaknin A5, Bamberger E6.
1. Department of Pediatrics The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa
2. Department of Pediatrics Clinical Microbiology Laboratory
The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa
3. Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Bnai Zion Medical Center The Ruth and Bruce
Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa
4. Clinical Microbiology Laboratory
5. The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa
6. Clinical Microbiology Laboratory The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa

Abstract
We prospectively measured pertussis-specific antibodies 9-15 months after
delivery in women immunized with tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) after the 20th week of their recent pregnancy. The Tdap-immunized women (n = 38) exhibited a decline in geometric mean concentrations between their peripartum and follow-up levels for immunoglobulin G
to pertussis toxin (21.48 [95% confidence interval, 12.51-36.89] vs 11.72
[7.09-19.37] IU/mL];); filamentous hemagglutinin (185.95 [157.93-218.94]
vs 140.33 IU/mL [113.46-173.57] IU/mL); and pertactin (171.52 [120.73243.67] vs 83.74 [60.58-115.75] IU/mL) (all P < .001). For women immunized with Tdap during late pregnancy, pertussis-specific immunoglobulin
G levels decreased significantly 9-15 months after delivery.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26160743

“For women immunized with Tdap
during late pregnancy, pertussis-specific
immunoglobulin G levels decreased
significantly 9-15 months after delivery.”

Current Pharmaceutical Design • 2015

Why are Excipients Important to Neonates?
Author information
Turner MA1, Shah U.
Department of Women’s and Children’s Health
Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool
Liverpool Women’s Hospital, Crown Street, Liverpool, L8 7SS, UK
mark.turner@liverpool.ac.uk
Abstract
Neonates are given many medicines. A significant proportion of these
medicines contain excipients. Excipients are used to facilitate the manufacture and use of medicines. Without excipients, it would not be feasible
to formulate some drugs into appropriate medicinal products. For others
the removal of excipients would reduce the shelf life and make them uneconomic to produce or too expensive for users to purchase. Excipients
are also important because some of them can cause harm. Accordingly,
it is important to minimize excipient exposure when possible and to only
use them when there is a clear pharmaceutical requirement. On balance it
is generally safe to use medicines containing excipients. This review introduces physicians and nurses to the functions of excipients in medicines
and describes some potential adverse effects of excipients in neonates. The
review also provides pharmaceutical scientists with an insight to issues
that arise when excipients are administered to neonates. The review answers some key questions about excipients, addresses some case studies
of excipient use, proposes approaches for clinicians who prescribe and administer medicines containing excipients and identifies areas for research
that seeks to establish the safety profiles of excipients in neonates.”
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26323411

“Accordingly, it is important
to minimize excipient exposure
when possible and to only use
them when there is a clear
pharmaceutical requirement.”

Current Pharmaceutical Design • 2015

Neonatal Formulations:
The Need for a Tailored,
Knowledge Driven Approach
Author information
Allegaert K1, Cosaert K, van den Anker JN.
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, University Hospital
Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
karel.allegaert@uzleuven.be
Abstract
To attain effective and safe pharmacotherapy in neonates, caregivers
have to consider both the clinical characteristics of the newborn and
the pharmacokinetic estimates of a given compound during prescription and administration. Overall, clearance in neonates is low when
compared to other pediatric subpopulations. Despite this overall low
clearance, there is already extensive between individual variability
in clearance in early life. As a consequence, neonates are in urgent
need of tailored drug product development that considers the need
for both low and flexible dosing to maintain dose accuracy. During
the development of such formulations tailored for neonates, there
is also a need for guidance on excipient exposure. The available
knowledge on the safety or toxicity of excipients is limited and difficult to retrieve, but there are initiatives (e.g. Safety and Toxicity
of Excipients for Pediatrics [STEP] database initiative) to improve
the present situation. In addition, population focussed studies on aspects of clinical pharmacology of excipients in neonates should be
conducted. The propylene glycol research project and the European
Study for Neonatal Excipient Exposure (ESNEE) initiative illustrate
its feasibility. Finally, until tailored formulations make it to the market, compounding practices for drug formulations in neonates should
be evaluated to guarantee correct dosing, product stability, safety and
to support pharmacists in their daily practice.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26323412

“Overall,
clearance in neonates
is low when compared to
other pediatric subpopulations.”

Current Pharmaceutical Design • 2015

Development of a Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic
Model for Preterm Neonates: Evaluation with In Vivo Data
Author information
Claassen K, Thelen K, Coboeken K,
Gaub T, Lippert J, Allegaert K, Willmann S1.
Bayer Pharma AG, Clinical Pharmacometrics
42113 Wuppertal, Germany
stefan.willmann@bayer.com
Abstract
Among pediatric patients, preterm neonates and newborns are the most vulnerable subpopulation. Rapid developmental changes of physiological factors affecting the pharmacokinetics of
drug substances in newborns require extreme care in dose and dose regimen decisions. These
decisions could be supported by in silico methods such as physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling. In a comprehensive literature search, the physiological information
of preterm neonates that is required to establish a PBPK model has been summarized and
implemented into the database of a generic PBPK software. Physiological parameters include
the organ weights and blood flow rates, tissue composition, as well as ontogeny information
about metabolic and elimination processes in the liver and kidney. The aim of this work is
to evaluate the model’s accuracy in predicting the pharmacokinetics following intravenous
administration of two model drugs with distinct physicochemical properties and elimination
pathways based on earlier reported in vivo data. To this end, PBPK models of amikacin and
paracetamol have been set up to predict their plasma levels in preterm neonates. Predicted
plasma concentration-time profiles were compared to experimentally obtained in vivo data.
For both drugs, plasma concentrationtime profiles following single and multiple dosing were
appropriately predicted for a large range gestational and postnatal ages. In summary, PBPK
simulations in preterm neonates appear feasible and might become a useful tool in the future
to support dosing decisions in this special patient population.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26323410

“Among pediatric patients,
preterm neonates and newborns
are the most vulnerable subpopulation. Rapid
developmental changes of physiological factors
affecting the pharmacokinetics of drug
substances in newborns require extreme
care in dose and dose regimen decisions.”

Vaccine • December 2015

Needle-free and adjuvant-free
epicutaneous boosting of pertussis immunity:
Preclinical proof of concept
Author information
Gavillet BM1, Mondoulet L2, Dhelft V2, Eberhardt CS3,
Auderset F3, Pham HT4, Petre J4, Lambert PH3, Benhamou PH2, Siegrist CA3.
1. World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Vaccine Immunology
Departments of Pathology-Immunology, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva,
Switzerland
2. DBV Technologies, Green Square, 80/84 rue des Meuniers, 92220 Bagneux,
France
3. World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Vaccine Immunology
Departments of Pathology-Immunology, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva,
Switzerland
4. BioNet-Asia Co., Ltd., 19 Udomsuk 37, Sukhumvit 103
Bangjak, Prakanong, Bangkok 10260, Thailand
Abstract
The limited durability of pertussis vaccine-induced protection requires novel approaches to reactivate immunity and limit pertussis resurgence in older children
and adults. We propose that periodic boosters could be delivered using a novel epicutaneous delivery system (Viaskin) to deliver optimized pertussis antigens such as
genetically-detoxified pertussis toxin (rPT). To best mimic the human situation in
which vaccine-induced memory cells persist, whereas antibodies wane, we developed a novel adoptive transfer murine model of pertussis immunity. This allowed
demonstrating that a single application of Viaskin delivering rPT and/or pertactin
and filamentous hemagglutinin effectively reactivates vaccine-induced pertussis
immunity and protects against Bordetella pertussis challenge. Recalling pertussis
immunity without needles nor adjuvant may considerably facilitate the acceptance
and application of periodic boosters.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26067183

“Recalling pertussis immunity
without needles nor adjuvant may
considerably facilitate the acceptance
and application of periodic boosters.”

Example Of A Current Research Study In Progress • January 2016
NIHJ Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools
RePORT
Project Number:
1R15ES012209-01
Contact PI / Project Leader:
Kiningham, Kinsley K.
Title:

Mechanism Of Thimerosal Induced Neurotoxicity
Awardee Organization:
Marshall University
Abstract Text:
DESCRIPTION (provided by applicant):
Mercurials are potent neurotoxins, which localize to both neurons and glia within the central
nervous system and elicit a range of deleterious actions. Sodium ethylmercurithiosalicylate (thimerosal) is a widely used ethyl mercury containing preservative used in over-the-counter medications, cleaners and cosmetics. Recent concern has been raised on the use of thimerosal in over 30
vaccines licensed in the United States. With the addition of several important vaccines over the
last few years, exposure to mercury has increased among infants, leading some investigators to
suggest an association between thimerosal exposure and autism. There is limited toxicological information regarding ethyl mercury; therefore, estimates of health risks from thimerosal exposure
have been based on mechanistic studies of methyl mercury, a close chemical relative about which
much is known. These estimates may actually underestimate the toxicity of ethyl mercury containing agents. The wide use of thimerosal makes understanding the mechanism(s) of its toxicity a
significant human health issue. The overall goal of this project is to investigate the mechanism by
which thimerosal causes neuronal cell death. The hypothesis to be tested is that thimerosal results
in dose-dependent activation of specific signaling molecules and redox-sensitive transcription
factors known to activate pro-death genes in neurons. If this hypothesis is correct then pharmacological intervention should attenuate toxicity as a result of thimerosal exposure. Using a human
neuroblastoma cell line, SK-N-SH, this project will test the hypothesis in four specific aims. Aim
1 will identify in a dose-dependent manner the predominant cell death pathway (apoptotic versus
necrotic) associated with thimerosal exposure and to determine if it is associated with an increase
in reactive oxygen species and caspase-3 dependent. Aim 2 will determine if cell death is mediated through an AP-1-dependent pathway. In addition, this specific aim will establish the role of
c-Jun-N-terminal kinase; an enzyme, which phosphorylates and activates AP-1, in thimerosalmediated neuronal death. Aim 3 will determine if the cell death pathway is mediated through an
NFkappaB-dependent mechanism. Aim 4 will determine if thimerosal toxicity can be attenuated
by the administration of S-adenosylmethionine, an enzyme which increases endogenous levels of
glutathione. This project will generate mechanistic data on thimerosal neurotoxicity and potentially identify specific targets for pharmacological intervention.
https://projectreporter.nih.gov/project_info_description.cfm?projectnumber=1R15ES012209-01

“This project
will generate mechanistic data
on thimerosal neurotoxicity and
potentially identify specific targets
for pharmacological intervention.”

Chapter Six
Autism
1987 - 2015
In 1976, children received 10 vaccines before attending school. Today they will receive over 36 injections.
The American Academy of Pediatrics and the Center for Disease Control assured parents that it was safe to
not only give these vaccines, but that they could be given at one time with complete safety. Is this true? Or
are we being lied to on a grand scale?
The medical establishment has created a set of terms, which they use constantly to boost their egos and
firm up their authority as the unique holders of medical wisdom–the mantra is “evidence-based medicine”,
as if everything outside their anointing touch is bogus and suspect. A careful examination of many of the
accepted treatments reveals that most have little or no scientific “evidence-based” data to support it. One
often repeated study found that almost 80% of medical practice had no scientific backing.
Most men of medicine recognize that some things are obvious without a placebo controlled, double-blind,
randomized study. For example, there has never been such a study to see if smashing your finger with a
hammer will be painful, but we accept it without such pristine evidence. The same is true with removing
brain tumors or sewing up severe lacerations.
I find it interesting that there exist an incredible double standard when it comes to our evidence versus
theirs. The proponents of vaccination safety can just say they are safe, without any supporting evidence
what-so-ever, and it is to be accepted without question. They can announce that mercury is not only safe,
but that it seems to actually increase the IQ, and we are to accept it. They can proclaim thimerosal safe to
use in vaccines without their having ever been a single study on its safety in over 60 years of use, and we
are to accept it.
Yet, let me, or anyone else, suggest that excessive vaccination can increase the risk of not only autism,
but also schizophrenia and neurodegenerative diseases, and they will scream like banshees –Where is the
evidence? Where is the evidence? When we produce study after study, they always proclaim them to be insufficient evidence or unacceptable studies. More often than not, they just completely ignore the evidence.
This is despite the fact that we produce dozens or even hundreds of studies that not only demonstrate the
link clinically and scientifically, but also clearly show the mechanism by which the damage is being done
—even on a molecular level. These include cell culture studies, mixed cell cultures, organotypic tissue
studies, in vivo animal studies using multiple species and even human studies. To the defenders of vaccine
safety—our evidence is never sufficient and, if we face reality—never will be.
~ Dr. Russell Blaylock

The Vaccine Court
The United States federal court has presided over landmark cases for the autism community, filing official court decisions that have linked vaccinations as an
environmental trigger of autism. The court in which all of these decisions are rendered is the Office of Special Masters of the United States Courts of Federal
Claims, otherwise known as “Vaccine Court.”
The U.S. government created this specific court in 1986 to protect pharmaceutical companies from the direct lawsuits that were arising due to the preponderance
of illnesses and injuries that were stemming from the company’s vaccination products. By establishing the Vaccine Court, the government now protects the
pharmaceutical industry by trying the cases and awarding damages from a federal excise tax added to the cost of each dosage of a vaccine.
In the “Vaccine Court,” the burden of proof lays squarely on the claimant. In other words, a family must show a clear causal connection between a vaccination
and its adverse effects. For the autism community, this standard is made more challenging because the “Vaccine Court” does not accept “autism” as a legal determination. This is because autism is a clinical diagnosis, labeled on the basis of a collection of clinical features and created by causes that are still unknown.
But the autism community has still persevered, and compelled the court to acknowledge the link between their children’s autism diagnoses and vaccinations’
environmental triggers.

Vaccine Injury Court

Vaccine Injury Court

The Bailey Banks Case

The Richelle Oxley Case

The judge rules that the Banks family successfully demonstrates that “the
MMR vaccine at issue actually caused the conditions from which Bailey
suffered and continues to suffer.” This includes Bailey’s diagnosis of Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified, which has long
been recognized as an autism spectrum disorder by the CDC and other federal health agencies.

The Oxley family presents their case that Richelle’s disabilities, including
encephalopathy and autistic behaviors, are a result of the pertussis vaccine.
The judge rules in their favor, stating that their “claim is strongly supported” by the presented evidence, and that there is “not a preponderance of the
evidence that Richelle’s condition is due to factors unrelated to the administration of the vaccine.”

BOX LINK

BOX LINK

Vaccine Injury Court

Vaccine Injury Court

The Eric Lassiter Case

The Hannah Poling Case

The Lassiter family presents Eric’s diptheria-pertusis-tetanus vaccination
as the cause of his injuries, a diagnosis described as “static encepalopathy
with autistic tendencies in addition to delayed development.” The judge
rules that the Department of Health & Human Services’ “respondent’s evidence and proffered explanations are weak, unconvincing and insufficient”
and that the Lassiter family “has presented a better case in support of. . .
injury. The Court concludes that a preponderance of the evidence requires
a finding for the petitioner.”

The Division of Vaccine Injury Compensation, Department of Health and
Human Services concedes that Hannah’s vaccinations aggravated her mitochondrial disorder, resulting in “features of autism spectrum disorder.”

BOX LINK

BOX LINK

Journal Of The American Academy Of Child And Adolescent Psychiatry • May 1987

Reduced natural killer cell activity in autism
Warren RP, Foster A, Margaretten NC.
Dr. Warren is Associate Professor of Biology
and the Developmental Center for Handicapped Persons
Utah State University, Logan, Utah.
Ms. Foster is Nursing Supervisor, Inpalient Psychiatric Unit,
Primary Children’s Medical Center
Salt Lake City, Utah.
Dr. Margaretten is currently a Postdoctoral Fellow
Oakridge National Laboratory, Oakridge, Tennessee.
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells arc believed to afford protection against malignancy and viral
infections. In addition, these cells may be involved in regulating the immune response because altered NK activity is often associated with autoimmune disorders. An investigation
of the natural cytotoxic potential of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 31 patients
with autism has been carried out using K562 tumor cells as target cells. Cells of 12 of the
patients induced significantly reduced levels of cytotoxicity; this was not correlated with a
quantitative alteration in patient NK cells as determined by use of the Leu-11 monoclonal
antibody. This observation of altered NK cell activity, and previously reported findings of
other immune abnormalities in autism, suggest that immune changes may be directly related to underlying biological processes of autism or that these changes may be an indirect
reflection of the actual pathological mechanism.
http://www.jaacap.com/article/S0890-8567(09)65685-9/abstract

“This observation of altered NK cell activity,
and previously reported findings of other immune
abnormalities in autism, suggest that immune
changes may be directly related to underlying
biological processes of autism or that these
changes may be an indirect reflection of the
actual pathological mechanism.”

Alternative Medicine Review • October 2001

Trace element analysis in hair:
factors determining accuracy, precision, and reliability
Author information
Bass DA1, Hickock D, Quig D, Urek K.
Doctors Data Inc., St. Charles, IL 60174, USA
dbass@doctorsdata.com
Abstract
Trace element analysis in biological samples has improved significantly over the last
40 years. Improvements in instrumentation such as inductively coupled plasma-mass
spectrometry and microwave digestion have resulted in improved precision, accuracy, reliability, and detection limits. The analysis of human scalp hair has benefited
significantly from these improvements. A recent article in the Journal of the American Medical Association found significant inter-laboratory variation amongst several
laboratories performing trace metal hair testing. It concluded that standardization
was necessary to improve inter-laboratory comparability, and an accompanying commentary described the characteristics of a laboratory that should be used in performing hair analysis. The objective of this study is to demonstrate that good laboratory
practices will generate precise, accurate, and reliable results. A method for establishing reference ranges and specific data on an analytical method will also be presented.
The use of prescribed clinical quality control, including method validation, proficiency testing, split sampling, and good laboratory practices clearly demonstrates
that measuring trace elements in hair can be analytically valid.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=11703167

“The use of prescribed clinical quality control,
including method validation, proficiency testing,
split sampling, and good laboratory practices clearly
demonstrates that measuring trace elements in hair
can be analytically valid.”

Laboratory Medicine • September 2002

Vaccines and Autism
Author Information
Bernard Rimland, PhD, Woody McGinnis, MD
Autism Research Institute, San Diego, CA
Abstract
Autism research is characterized by diverse findings.
There is no consensus about the biological determinants of autism.
This paper examines the autistic immune profile
and the possible role of vaccines in autism.
Vaccinations may be one of the triggers for autism. Substantial data demonstrate immune
abnormality in many autistic children consistent with impaired resistance to infection, activation of inflammatory response, and autoimmunity. Impaired resistance may predispose to
vaccine injury in autism.

“Vaccinations may be one of the triggers for autism.

A mercurial preservative in childhood vaccines, thimerosal, may cause direct neurotoxic, immunodepressive, and au- toimmune injury and contribute to early-onset and regressed autism.
Live viruses in measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) may result in chronic infection of the gut
and trigger regressed autism. Thimerosal injection may potentiate MMR injury.

of vaccines in at-risk children is a worthy goal.”

Consideration of vaccine etiology must include recognition of compromised gut and nutrition
in most autistic children. An integrated view of the underlying biological problems in autistic
children serves our understanding of the possible role of vaccines. Development of screening
methods for deferral of vaccines in at-risk children is a worthy goal.
http://labmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/labmed/33/9/708.full.pdf

Development of screening methods for deferral

“In this study, we postulated that infectious agent antigens such as streptokinase,
dietary peptides (gliadin and casein) and ethyl mercury (xenobiotic) bind to different
lymphocyte receptors and tissue enzyme ...”
International Journal Of Immunopathology And Pharmacology • September 2003

Infections, toxic chemicals and dietary peptides
binding to lymphocyte receptors and tissue enzymes
are major instigators of autoimmunity in autism
Author information
Vojdani A1, Pangborn JB, Vojdani E, Cooper EL.
Laboratory Of Comparative Immunology, Department Of Neurobiology
UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
DrAri@msn.com
Abstract
Similar to many complex autoimmune diseases, genetic and environmental factors including diet, infection and
xenobiotics play a critical role in the development of autism. In this study, we postulated that infectious agent
antigens such as streptokinase, dietary peptides (gliadin and casein) and ethyl mercury (xenobiotic) bind to different lymphocyte receptors and tissue enzyme (DPP IV or CD26). We assessed this hypothesis first by measuring
IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies against CD26, CD69, streptokinase (SK), gliadin and casein peptides and against
ethyl mercury bound to human serum albumin in patients with autism. A significant percentage of children with
autism developed anti-SK, anti-gliadin and casein peptides and anti-ethyl mercury antibodies, concomitant with
the appearance of anti-CD26 and anti-CD69 autoantibodies. These antibodies are synthesized as a result of SK,
gliadin, casein and ethyl mercury binding to CD26 and CD69, indicating that they are specific. Immune absorption demonstrated that only specific antigens, like CD26, were capable of significantly reducing serum anti-CD26
levels. However, for direct demonstration of SK, gliadin, casein and ethyl mercury to CD26 or CD69, microtiter
wells were coated with CD26 or CD69 alone or in combination with SK, gliadin, casein or ethyl mercury and then
reacted with enzyme labeled rabbit anti-CD26 or anti-CD69. Adding these molecules to CD26 or CD69 resulted
in 28-86% inhibition of CD26 or CD69 binding to anti-CD26 or anti-CD69 antibodies. The highest % binding of
these antigens or peptides to CD26 or CD69 was attributed to SK and the lowest to casein peptides. We, therefore,
propose that bacterial antigens (SK), dietary peptides (gliadin, casein) and Thimerosal (ethyl mercury) in individuals with pre-disposing HLA molecules, bind to CD26 or CD69 and induce antibodies against these molecules. In
conclusion, this study is apparently the first to demonstrate that dietary peptides, bacterial toxins and xenobiotics
bind to lymphocyte receptors and/or tissue enzymes, resulting in autoimmune reaction in children with autism.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14611720

Annals Of Neurology • January 2005

Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation
in the brain of patients with autism
Author information
Vargas DL1, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, Zimmerman AW, Pardo CA.
Department of Neurology
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
600 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired communication and social interaction and may be accompanied by mental retardation
and epilepsy. Its cause remains unknown, despite evidence that genetic, environmental, and immunological factors may play a role in its pathogenesis. To
investigate whether immune-mediated mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis of autism, we used immunocytochemistry, cytokine protein arrays, and
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to study brain tissues and cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) from autistic patients and determined the magnitude of neuroglial
and inflammatory reactions and their cytokine expression profiles. Brain tissues
from cerebellum, midfrontal, and cingulate gyrus obtained at autopsy from 11
patients with autism were used for morphological studies. Fresh-frozen tissues
available from seven patients and CSF from six living autistic patients were
used for cytokine protein profiling. We demonstrate an active neuroinflammatory process in the cerebral cortex, white matter, and notably in cerebellum
of autistic patients. Immunocytochemical studies showed marked activation
of microglia and astroglia, and cytokine profiling indicated that macrophage
chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 and tumor growth factor-beta1, derived from
neuroglia, were the most prevalent cytokines in brain tissues. CSF showed a
unique proinflammatory profile of cytokines, including a marked increase in
MCP-1. Our findings indicate that innate neuroimmune reactions play a pathogenic role in an undefined proportion of autistic patients, suggesting that future
therapies might involve modifying neuroglial responses in the brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15546155

International Review Of Neurobiology • March 2005

Immunological findings in autism
Author information
Cohly HH1, Panja A.
Department of Biology, Jackson State University, Mississippi 39217, USA
Abstract
The immunopathogenesis of autism is presented schematically in Fig. 1. Two main immune dysfunctions in autism are immune regulation involving pro-inflammatory cytokines and autoimmunity. Mercury and an infectious agent like the measles virus are currently two main candidate environmental
triggers for immune dysfunction in autism. Genetically immune dysfunction in autism involves the
MHC region, as this is an immunologic gene cluster whose gene products are Class I, II, and III molecules. Class I and II molecules are associated with antigen presentation. The antigen in virus infection
initiated by the virus particle itself while the cytokine production and inflammatory mediators are due
to the response to the putative antigen in question. The cell-mediated immunity is impaired as evidenced by low numbers of CD4 cells and a concomitant T-cell polarity with an imbalance of Th1/Th2
subsets toward Th2. Impaired humoral immunity on the other hand is evidenced by decreased IgA
causing poor gut protection. Studies showing elevated brain specific antibodies in autism support an
autoimmune mechanism. Viruses may initiate the process but the subsequent activation of cytokines
is the damaging factor associated with autism. Virus specific antibodies associated with measles virus
have been demonstrated in autistic subjects. Environmental exposure to mercury is believed to harm
human health possibly through modulation of immune homeostasis. A mercury link with the immune
system has been postulated due to the involvement of postnatal exposure to thimerosal, a preservative
added in the MMR vaccines. The occupational hazard exposure to mercury causes edema in astrocytes
and, at the molecular level, the CD95/Fas apoptotic signaling pathway is disrupted by Hg2+. Inflammatory mediators in autism usually involve activation of astrocytes and microglial cells. Proinflammatory chemokines (MCP-1 and TARC), and an anti-inflammatory and modulatory cytokine, TGFbeta1, are consistently elevated in autistic brains. In measles virus infection, it has been postulated
that there is immune suppression by inhibiting T-cell proliferation and maturation and downregulation
MHC class II expression. Cytokine alteration of TNF-alpha is increased in autistic populations. Tolllike-receptors are also involved in autistic development. High NO levels are associated with autism.
Maternal antibodies may trigger autism as a mechanism of autoimmunity. MMR vaccination may
increase risk for autism via an autoimmune mechanism in autism. MMR antibodies are significantly
higher in autistic children as compared to normal children, supporting a role of MMR in autism. Autoantibodies (IgG isotype) to neuron-axon filament protein (NAFP) and glial fibrillary acidic protein
(GFAP) are significantly increased in autistic patients (Singh et al., 1997). Increase in Th2 may explain
the increased autoimmunity, such as the findings of antibodies to MBP and neuronal axonal filaments
in the brain. There is further evidence that there are other participants in the autoimmune phenomenon. (Kozlovskaia et al., 2000). The possibility of its involvement in autism cannot be ruled out.
Further investigations at immunological, cellular, molecular, and genetic levels will allow researchers
to continue to unravel the immunopathogenic mechanisms’ associated with autistic processes in the
developing brain. This may open up new avenues for prevention and/or cure of this devastating neurodevelopmental disorder.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16512356

“Mercury and an infectious agent
like the measles virus are currently two main
candidate environmental triggers for immune
dysfunction in autism. Studies showing elevated
brain specific antibodies in autism support an
autoimmune mechanism. Viruses may initiate
the process but the subsequent activation of cytokines
is the damaging factor associated with autism.
Virus specific antibodies associated with measles
virus have been demonstrated in autistic subjects.”

The Neuroscientist • October 2005

Large brains in autism:
the challenge of pervasive abnormality
Author information
Herbert MR1.
Pediatric Neurology
Center for Morphometric Analysis
Massachusetts General Hospital
Charleston, MA 02129, USA
mherbert1@partners.org
Abstract
The most replicated finding in autism neuroanatomy-a tendency to unusually large
brains-has seemed paradoxical in relation to the specificity of the abnormalities in
three behavioral domains that define autism. We now know a range of things about
this phenomenon, including that brains in autism have a growth spurt shortly after
birth and then slow in growth a few short years afterward, that only younger but not
older brains are larger in autism than in controls, that white matter contributes disproportionately to this volume increase and in a nonuniform pattern suggesting postnatal
pathology, that functional connectivity among regions of autistic brains is diminished, and that neuroinflammation (including microgliosis and astrogliosis) appears
to be present in autistic brain tissue from childhood through adulthood. Alongside
these pervasive brain tissue and functional abnormalities, there have arisen theories of pervasive or widespread neural information processing or signal coordination
abnormalities (such as weak central coherence, impaired complex processing, and
underconnectivity), which are argued to underlie the specific observable behavioral
features of autism. This convergence of findings and models suggests that a systemsand chronic disease-based reformulation of function and pathophysiology in autism
needs to be considered, and it opens the possibility for new treatment targets.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16151044

“This convergence of findings and models
suggests that a systems- and chronic disease-based
reformulation of function and pathophysiology
in autism needs to be considered ...”

“Although the etiology of autism is unknown,
data suggest that autism results from multiple etiologies with both genetic and environmental contributions,
which may explain the spectrum of behaviors seen in this disorder.”
Journal of NeuroVirology • November 2005

Autistic disorder and viral infections
Jane E Libbey,1 Thayne L Sweeten,1 William M McMahon,2 and Robert S Fujinami1
Departments of 1Neurology and 2Psychiatry
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
Autistic disorder (autism) is a behaviorally defined developmental disorder with a wide range of behaviors. Although the etiology of autism is unknown, data suggest that autism results from multiple etiologies with both
genetic and environmental contributions, which may explain the spectrum of behaviors seen in this disorder.
One proposed etiology for autism is viral infection very early in development. The mechanism, by which viral
infection may lead to autism, be it through direct infection of the central nervous system (CNS), through infection elsewhere in the body acting as a trigger for disease in the CNS, through alteration of the immune response
of the mother or offspring, or through a combination of these, is not yet known. Animal models in which early
viral infection results in behavioral changes later in life include the influenza virus model in pregnant mice and
the Borna disease virus model in newborn Lewis rats. Many studies over the years have presented evidence both
for and against the association of autism with various viral infections. The best association to date has been made
between congenital rubella and autism; however, members of the herpes virus family may also have a role in autism. Recently, controversy has arisen as to the involvement of measles virus and/or the measles, mumps, rubella
(MMR) vaccine in the development of autism. Biological assays lend support to the association between measles
virus or MMR and autism whereas epidemiologic studies show no association between MMR and autism. Further
research is needed to clarify both the mechanisms whereby viral infection early in development may lead to autism and the possible involvement of the MMR vaccine in the development of autism.
http://www.jneurovirol.com/o_pdf/11(1)/001-010.pdf

Journal Of Child Neurology • February 2006

Developmental Regression and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in a Child With Autism
Author Information
Jon S. Poling, MD, PhD, Richard E. Frye, MD, PhD, John Shoffner, MD, and Andrew W. Zimmerman, MD
Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
Case Report
A 19-month-old girl was born after a normal full-term pregnancy. There was no family history of autism or affective, neuromuscular, or hearing disorders. Her development was progressing well, with
normal receptive and expressive language and use of prelinguistic gestures, such as pointing for joint
attention. Imaginary play and social reciprocity were typical for age. She used at least 20 words and
could point to five body parts on command. Several immunizations were delayed owing to frequent
bouts of otitis media with fever.
Within 48 hours after immunizations to diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis; Haemophilus influenzae B;
measles, mumps, and rubella; polio; and varicella (Varivax), the patient developed a fever to 38.9°C,
inconsolable crying, irritability, and lethargy and refused to walk. Four days later, the patient was waking up multiple times in the night, having episodes of opistho-tonus, and could no longer normally
climb stairs. Instead, she crawled up and down the stairs. Low-grade intermittent fever was noted for
the next 12 days. Ten days following immunization, the patient developed a generalized erythematous
macular rash beginning in the abdomen. The patient’s pediatrician diagnosed this as due to varicella
vaccination. For 3 months, the patient was irritable and increasingly less responsive verbally, after
which the patient’s family noted clear autistic behaviors, such as spinning, gaze avoidance, disrupted
sleep/wake cycle, and perseveration on specific television programs. All expressive language was
lost by 22 months. The patient continued to have chronic yellow watery diarrhea intermittently for
6 months, which was evaluated with negative testing for Clostridium difficile, ova/parasites, and
culture. Four months later, an evaluation with the Infant and Toddlers Early Intervention program
for possible autism was initiated. Along with the regression, her appetite remained poor for 6 months
and her body weight did not increase. This resulted in a decline on a standard growth chart for weight
from the 97th to the 75th percentile.
Evaluation at 23 months showed atopic dermatitis, slow hair growth, generalized mild hypotonia,
toe walking, and normal tendon reflexes. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) score was 33
(mild autism range), and she also met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders-IV criteria for autism. Laboratory findings included repeated measurements of aspartate aminotransferase
40 IU/L (normal < 31 IU/L), serum bicarbonate 20 mmol/L (normal 21–31 mmol/L), serum creatine
kinase level 203 IU/L (normal < 170 IU/L), and fasting lactic acid 3.3 mmol/L (normal 0.5–2.2 mmol/
L). Quantitative urinary organic acid analyses showed trace amounts of dicarboxylic acids (adipic,
suberic, octenedioic acids) and small amounts of ethylmalonic and methylsuccinic acids, consistent

with a fatty acid oxidation dysfunction. Quantitative plasma amino acids were all within the normal
range; however, the alanine to lysine ratio (a surrogate marker for pyruvate; Dr Richard Kelley, personal communication, 2001) was elevated at 3.2 (normal 1.5–2.5). Cranial magnetic resonance imaging, otoacoustic emission testing, overnight electroencephalography with slow-wave sleep, serum
lead, chromosomes, and fragile X by DNA testing were all normal.
The patient was referred for muscle biopsy (J.S.) because of persistent mild lactic acidosis, elevated
serum creatine kinase level, and increased aspartate aminotransferase. A fresh vastus lateralis biopsy
was performed and examined as described previously.7,8 The biopsy showed abnormal histology
with type I myofiber atrophy, increased myofiber lipid content, and reduced cytochrome c oxidase
activity. Oxidative phosphorylation enzymology showed markedly reduced complex I, I + III, and III
activity. Complex IV activity was near the 5% confidence limit of the control group (Table 1). Mitochondrial DNA sequencing of the skeletal muscle was normal.
Now 6 years old, our patient has been treated with vitamin supplements since 2½ years of age. Even
before starting supplementation, the patient began speaking again at 23 months old and had a fourword vocabulary of “bubbles,” “ball,” “drink,” and “cracker.” Levocarnitine 250 mg and thiamine
50 mg three times per day were initiated when the patient was 29 months old. Coenzyme Q10 was
added at age 33 months. Although she still exhibits mild autistic behaviors, our patient has continued
to improve in language functions and sociability such that she now attends a regular kindergarten
with an aide. There have been slow yet steady improvements in muscle tone, motor coordination, and
gastrointestinal symptoms with occupational therapy, applied behavioral analysis interventions, and
mitochondrial enzyme cofactor supplements. After the age of 2 years, growth trajectory has continued
along the 75th percentile for both height and weight. Laboratory tests were repeated at ages 2 years
and 10 months (aspartate aminotransferase 47 IU/L, normal < 38 IU/L; alanine transferase 20 IU/L,
normal < 40 IU/L; serum creatine kinase level 105 IU/L, normal < 194 IU/L), 4 years old (aspartate
aminotransferase 36 IU/L; alanine transferase 19 IU/L; serum creatine kinase level 169 IU/L), and
6 years old (aspartate aminotransferase 36 IU/L; alanine transferase 21 IU/L; alanine to lysine ratio
1.58, normal < 1.5 to 2.5). During an acute illness owing to C difficile, the aspartate aminotransferase
was on one occasion elevated to 50 IU/L; however, the serum creatine kinase level remained normal
at 169 IU/L. Urine organic acids and serum amino acids have been normal at ages 3 and 6 years.
Childhood Autism Rating Scale scores since beginning kindergarten have been under 30.

Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2536523/

Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology • July 2006

Porphyrinuria in childhood autistic disorder:
implications for environmental toxicity
Author information
Nataf R1, Skorupka C, Amet L, Lam A, Springbett A, Lathe R.
Laboratoire Philippe Auguste, Paris, France
Abstract
To address a possible environmental contribution to autism, we carried out
a retrospective study on urinary porphyrin levels, a biomarker of environmental toxicity, in 269 children with neurodevelopmental and related disorders referred to a Paris clinic (2002-2004), including 106 with autistic
disorder. Urinary porphyrin levels determined by high-performance liquid chromatography were compared between diagnostic groups including
internal and external control groups. Coproporphyrin levels were elevated
in children with autistic disorder relative to control groups. Elevation was
maintained on normalization for age or to a control heme pathway metabolite (uroporphyrin) in the same samples. The elevation was significant (P < 0.001). Porphyrin levels were unchanged in Asperger’s disorder,
distinguishing it from autistic disorder. The atypical molecule precoproporphyrin, a specific indicator of heavy metal toxicity, was also elevated
in autistic disorder (P < 0.001) but not significantly in Asperger’s. A subgroup with autistic disorder was treated with oral dimercaptosuccinic acid
(DMSA) with a view to heavy metal removal. Following DMSA there
was a significant (P = 0.002) drop in urinary porphyrin excretion. These
data implicate environmental toxicity in childhood autistic disorder.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16782144

“These data implicate environmental
toxicity in childhood autistic disorder.”

[note: in the medical literature
vaccination is considered an
environmental toxicant]

Lancet • July 2006

Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum
in a population cohort of children in South Thames:
the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP)
Author information
Baird G1, Simonoff E, Pickles A, Chandler S,
Loucas T, Meldrum D, Charman T.
Newcomen Centre
Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust
London, UK
gillian.baird@gstt.nhs.uk
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Recent reports have suggested that the prevalence of autism and related spectrum disorders
(ASDs) is substantially higher than previously recognised. We sought to quantify prevalence of
ASDs in children in South Thames, UK.
METHODS
Within a total population cohort of 56 946 children aged 9-10 years, we screened all those with
a current clinical diagnosis of ASD (n=255) or those judged to be at risk for being an undetected
case (n=1515). A stratified subsample (n=255) received a comprehensive diagnostic assessment,
including standardised clinical observation, and parent interview assessments of autistic symptoms, language, and intelligence quotient (IQ). Clinical consensus diagnoses of childhood autism
and other ASDs were derived. We used a sample weighting procedure to estimate prevalence.
FINDINGS
The prevalence of childhood autism was 38.9 per 10,000 (95% CI 29.9-47.8) and that of other
ASDs was 77.2 per 10,000 (52.1-102.3), making the total prevalence of all ASDs 116.1 per
10,000 (90.4-141.8). A narrower definition of childhood autism, which combined clinical consensus with instrument criteria for past and current presentation, provided a prevalence of 24.8
per 10,000 (17.6-32.0). The rate of previous local identification was lowest for children of less
educated parents.
INTERPRETATION
Prevalence of autism and related ASDs is substantially greater than previously recognised.
Whether the increase is due to better ascertainment, broadening diagnostic criteria, or increased
incidence is unclear. Services in health, education, and social care will need to recognise the
needs of children with some form of ASD, who constitute 1% of the child population.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16844490

“Prevalence of autism
and related ASDs is substantially greater
than previously recognised.”

Journal Of Leukocyte Biology • July 2006

The immune response in autism:
a new frontier for autism research
Author information
Ashwood P1, Wills S, Van de Water J.
Medical Microbiology and Immunology and the M.I.N.D
Institute, University of California Davis
Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
pashwood@ucdavis.edu
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are part of a broad spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders known as pervasive developmental disorders, which
occur in childhood. They are characterized by impairments in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and the presence of restricted
and repetitive stereotyped behaviors. At the present time, the etiology of
ASD is largely unknown, but genetic, environmental, immunological, and
neurological factors are thought to play a role in the development of ASD.
Recently, increasing research has focused on the connections between the
immune system and the nervous system, including its possible role in the
development of ASD. These neuroimmune interactions begin early during embryogenesis and persist throughout an individual’s lifetime, with
successful neurodevelopment contingent upon a normal balanced immune
response. Immune aberrations consistent with a dysregulated immune response, which so far, have been reported in autistic children, include abnormal or skewed T helper cell type 1 (T(H)1)/T(H)2 cytokine profiles,
decreased lymphocyte numbers, decreased T cell mitogen response, and
the imbalance of serum immunoglobulin levels. In addition, autism has
been linked with autoimmunity and an association with immune-based
genes including human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DRB1 and complement
C4 alleles described. There is potential that such aberrant immune activity
during vulnerable and critical periods of neurodevelopment could participate in the generation of neurological dysfunction characteristic of ASD.
This review will examine the status of the research linking the immune
response with ASD.
Abstract: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=16698940
Full Report: http://www.jleukbio.org/content/80/1/1.long

“There is potential that such
aberrant immune activity during
vulnerable and critical periods of
neurodevelopment could participate
in the generation of neurological
dysfunction characteristic of ASD.
This review will examine the status
of the research linking the immune
response with ASD.”

Pathophysiology • August 2006

Oxidative stress in autism
Author information
Chauhan A1, Chauhan V.
NYS Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities
1050 Forest Hill Road, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA
Abstract
Autism is a severe developmental disorder with poorly understood etiology. Oxidative stress in autism has been
studied at the membrane level and also by measuring products of lipid peroxidation, detoxifying agents (such
as glutathione), and antioxidants involved in the defense system against reactive oxygen species (ROS). Lipid
peroxidation markers are elevated in autism, indicating that oxidative stress is increased in this disease. Levels of
major antioxidant serum proteins, namely transferrin (iron-binding protein) and ceruloplasmin (copper-binding
protein), are decreased in children with autism. There is a positive correlation between reduced levels of these
proteins and loss of previously acquired language skills in children with autism. The alterations in ceruloplasmin and transferrin levels may lead to abnormal iron and copper metabolism in autism. The membrane phospholipids, the prime target of ROS, are also altered in autism. The levels of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) are
decreased, and phosphatidylserine (PS) levels are increased in the erythrocyte membrane of children with autism
as compared to their unaffected siblings. Several studies have suggested alterations in the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase in autism. Additionally, altered
glutathione levels and homocysteine/methionine metabolism, increased inflammation, excitotoxicity, as well as
mitochondrial and immune dysfunction have been suggested in autism. Furthermore, environmental and genetic
factors may increase vulnerability to oxidative stress in autism. Taken together, these studies suggest increased
oxidative stress in autism that may contribute to the development of this disease. A mechanism linking oxidative
stress with membrane lipid abnormalities, inflammation, aberrant immune response, impaired energy metabolism
and excitotoxicity, leading to clinical symptoms and pathogenesis of autism is proposed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16766163

“According to the Autism Society of America, autism is now considered to be an epidemic.”
Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part B, Critical Review • November 2006

Evidence of toxicity, oxidative stress, and neuronal insult in autism
Author information
Kern JK1, Jones AM.
Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas
Dallas, Texas 75390-9119, USA
janet.kern@UTSouthwestern.edu
Abstract
According to the Autism Society of America, autism is now considered to be an epidemic. The increase in the rate
of autism revealed by epidemiological studies and government reports implicates the importance of external or
environmental factors that may be changing. This article discusses the evidence for the case that some children
with autism may become autistic from neuronal cell death or brain damage sometime after birth as result of insult;
and addresses the hypotheses that toxicity and oxidative stress may be a cause of neuronal insult in autism. The
article first describes the Purkinje cell loss found in autism, Purkinje cell physiology and vulnerability, and the
evidence for postnatal cell loss. Second, the article describes the increased brain volume in autism and how it may
be related to the Purkinje cell loss. Third, the evidence for toxicity and oxidative stress is covered and the possible
involvement of glutathione is discussed. Finally, the article discusses what may be happening over the course of
development and the multiple factors that may interplay and make these children more vulnerable to toxicity,
oxidative stress, and neuronal insult.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17090484

Neurotoxicology • May 2008

Immunologic and neurodevelopmental susceptibilities of autism
Author information
Pessah IN1, Seegal RF, Lein PJ, LaSalle J, Yee BK, Van De Water J, Berman RF.
School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
inpessah@ucdavis.edu
Abstract
Symposium 5 focused on research approaches that are aimed at understanding common patterns of immunological and neurological dysfunction contributing to neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and ADHD. The
session focused on genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors that might act in concert to influence autism
risk, severity and co-morbidities, and immunological and neurobiological targets as etiologic contributors. The
immune system of children at risk of autism may be therefore especially susceptible to psychological stressors,
exposure to chemical triggers, and infectious agents. Identifying early biomarkers of risk provides tangible approaches toward designing studies in animals and humans that yield a better understanding of environmental risk
factors, and can help identify rational intervention strategies to mitigate these risks.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2475601/

Alternative Therapies In Health And Medicine • November 2008

The history of vaccinations in the light of the autism epidemic
Author information
Cave SF.
Cypress Integrative Medicine
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
Abstract
Autism has been characterized as a behavioral disorder since it was first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. The number of autistic children has increased over the last decade. The incidence
of autism was 1 in 10000 before the 1970s and has steadily increased to 1 in 150 in 2008 with
a male:female predominance of 4:1. The cause of this epidemic has remained unknown, but
several hypotheses have been studied. Many of these suggest an environmental trigger, such
as the ethyl mercury contained in the preservative thimerosal, which has been used in vaccines since 1931. Other possible triggers associated with vaccinations are chemical toxins and
live viruses. James has published studies suggesting a genetic predisposition in the families
of autistic children, exposing them to a deficiency in glutathione and an inability to detoxify
heavy metals. Vargas has shown autism to encompass ongoing inflammation in the brains of
autistic children. The Hannah Poling vaccine decision was a landmark case. Poling’s family
was awarded funds for ongoing medical care of an autistic child who was found to have mitochondrial dysfunction exacerbated by vaccines that left her with autistic behavior and seizures.
Several studies have emerged supporting the fact that a significant number of autistic children
do have mitochondrial dysfunction. The impact that the Poling case will have on the ability
of parents of autistic children to gain access to funds to enable them to properly care for their
children remains to be seen.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19043939

“The Hannah Poling vaccine decision was a landmark case.
Poling’s family was awarded funds for ongoing medical care of an
autistic child who was found to have mitochondrial dysfunction
exacerbated by vaccines that left her with autistic behavior and
seizures. Several studies have emerged supporting the fact that
a significant number of autistic children do have mitochondrial
dysfunction. The impact that the Poling case will have on the
ability of parents of autistic children to gain access to funds to
enable them to properly care for their children remains to be seen.”

Alternative Therapies In Health And Medicine • November 2008

A possible central mechanism
in autism spectrum disorders
Part 1
Author information
Blaylock RL.
Belhaven College
Jackson, Mississippi, USA
Abstract
The autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of related neurodevelopmental disorders that have been increasing in incidence since the 1980s. Despite a considerable
amount of data being collected from cases, a central mechanism has not been offered.
A careful review of ASD cases discloses a number of events that adhere to an immunoexcitotoxic mechanism. This mechanism explains the link between excessive vaccination, use of aluminum and ethylmercury as vaccine adjuvants, food allergies, gut
dysbiosis, and abnormal formation of the developing brain. It has now been shown
that chronic microglial activation is present in autistic brains from age 5 years to age
44 years. A considerable amount of evidence, both experimental and clinical, indicates
that repeated microglial activation can initiate priming of the microglia and that subsequent stimulation can produce an exaggerated microglial response that can be prolonged. It is also known that one phenotypic form of microglia activation can result in
an outpouring of neurotoxic levels of the excitotoxins, glutamate and quinolinic acid.
Studies have shown that careful control of brain glutamate levels is essential to brain
pathway development and that excesses can result in arrest of neural migration, as
well as dendritic and synaptic loss. It has also been shown that certain cytokines, such
as TNF-alpha, can, via its receptor, interact with glutamate receptors to enhance the
neurotoxic reaction. To describe this interaction I have coined the term immunoexcitotoxicity, which is described in this article.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19043938

“This mechanism explains
the link between excessive vaccination,
use of aluminum and ethylmercury as vaccine adjuvants,
food allergies, gut dysbiosis, and abnormal
formation of the developing brain.”

Alternative Therapies In Health And Medicine • January 2009

A possible central mechanism
in autism spectrum disorders,
Part 2
immunoexcitotoxicity
Author information
Blaylock RL.
Belhaven College
Jackson, Mississippi, USA
Abstract
In this section, I explore the effects of mercury and inflammation on transsulfuration
reactions, which can lead to elevations in androgens, and how this might relate to the
male preponderance of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). It is known that mercury
interferes with these biochemical reactions and that chronically elevated androgen levels also enhance the neurodevelopmental effects of excitotoxins. Both androgens and
glutamate alter neuronal and glial calcium oscillations, which are known to regulate
cell migration, maturation, and final brain cytoarchitectural structure. Studies have also
shown high levels of DHEA and low levels of DHEA-S in ASD, which can result from
both mercury toxicity and chronic inflammation. Chronic microglial activation appears
to be a hallmark of ASD. Peripheral immune stimulation, mercury, and elevated levels
of androgens can all stimulate microglial activation. Linked to both transsulfuration
problems and chronic mercury toxicity are elevations in homocysteine levels in ASD
patients. Homocysteine and especially its metabolic products are powerful excitotoxins. Intimately linked to elevations in DHEA, excitotoxicity and mercury toxicity are
abnormalities in mitochondrial function. A number of studies have shown that reduced
energy production by mitochondria greatly enhances excitotoxicity. Finally, I discuss
the effects of chronic inflammation and elevated mercury levels on glutathione and
metallothionein.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19161050

“In this section, I explore
the effects of mercury and inflammation
on transsulfuration reactions, which can
lead to elevations in androgens, and how this
might relate to the male preponderance of
autism spectrum disorders (ASD).”

Alternative Therapies In Health And Medicine • March 2009

A possible central mechanism
in autism spectrum disorders
Part 3
the role of excitotoxin food additives and the
synergistic effects of other environmental toxins
Author information
Blaylock RL.
Belhaven College, Jackson, Mississippi, USA.
Abstract
There is compelling evidence from a multitude of studies of various design
indicating that foodborne excitotoxin additives can elevate blood and brain glutamate to levels known to cause neurodegeneration and in the developing brain,
abnormal connectivity. Excitotoxins are also secreted by microglial activation
when they are in an activated state. Recent studies, discussed in part 1 of this article, indicate that chronic microglial activation is common in the autistic brain.
The interaction between excitotoxins, free radicals, lipid peroxidation products,
inflammatory cytokines, and disruption of neuronal calcium homeostasis can
result in brain changes suggestive of the pathological findings in cases of autism spectrum disorders. In addition, a number of environmental neurotoxins,
such as fluoride, lead, cadmium, and aluminum, can result in these pathological
and biochemical changes.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19284184

“There is compelling evidence
from a multitude of studies of
various design indicating that
foodborne excitotoxin additives
can elevate blood and brain glutamate
to levels known to cause neurodegeneration
and in the developing brain, abnormal connectivity.”

New England Journal Of Medicine • 2008

Dr. Paul Offit and Dr. Jon Poling:
New England Journal of Medicine

We have the most heated controversy in medicine today over vaccines and Healy addressed it by saying, “It is the
job of the public health community and of physicians to be out there and to say yes, we can make it safer because
we are able to say, this is a subset. We’re going to deliver it in a way we think is safer.”
Sharyl Attkisson then brought up the fact that health officials will deny there is a link between vaccines and autism. They say there’s no evidence.

By Anne Dachel
Healy, shaking her head, firmly stated twice, “You can’t say that.”
On August 7, the New England Journal of Medicine published the opposing opinions of Dr. Jon Poling, father
of Hannah Poling, and Dr. Paul Offit, Infectious Disease Specialist from Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, on
the Vaccine Court case in which the federal government conceded that vaccines were a factor in the development
of autism in Hannah. Titled, Vaccines and Autism Revisited, the letters run in the “Correspondance” section of
NEJM.
In the May 15 NEJM Perspective section, Offit split every hair he could to try and lessen the impact of the Poling
case. He tried to convince the public that there was no scientific basis for the concession. Offit’s remarks led to
the August 7 response by Dr. Poling.
In his August 7 piece, Poling went after Offit’s opinion about his daughter’s case using phrases like “Offit misrepresents my position,” “Offit confuses issues,” and “His opinion is unsupported by clinical trials.”
Poling also said that he agreed with the remarks made by former head of the National Institutes of Health, Dr. Bernadine Healy, on CBS News, who said, “I don’t think you should ever turn your back on any scientific hypothesis
because you’re afraid of what it might show. . . . If you know that susceptible group, you can save those children.
If you turn your back on the notion there is a susceptible group . . . what can I say?”

Why? Because they haven’t studied “the population that got sick.”
Healy said that she hasn’t seen “major studies that focus on 300 kids who got autistic symptoms within a period
of a few weeks of getting a vaccine.”
Healy noted the primate and mouse studies that have been too quickly dismissed. She challenged the conclusions
of the IOM Report of 2004 where we were told not to “pursue susceptibility groups.” Healy said, “I really take
issue with that conclusion. The reason they didn’t want to look for those susceptibility groups was because if they
found them, . . . that would scare the public away.”
Offit might think that the endless epidemiological studies have settled the question, but Healy made it clear,
“Populations do not test causality, they test associations. You have to go into the laboratory.”
Healy chided the medical community by saying, “The fact that there is concern that you don’t want to know that
susceptible group is a real disappointment to me.”
She ended a chilling comment about vaccines and the link to autism: “The question has not been answered.”

The fair and balanced NEJM then allowed Offit to respond to Poling at the bottom of the article. Offit defended
his remarks by claiming that the science is on his side and the facts support his view. He made one stunning
comment. He brought up Healy’s remarks about the need for further study of a subgroup of children who might
be damaged by vaccines. Offit wrote, “Now, Poling and Healy are standard-bearers for the poorly conceived
hypothesis that children receive too many vaccines too early. As a consequence, some parents are choosing to
delay, withhold, or separate vaccines.”
That was really a low blow. To claim that one of the top doctors in the U.S. was promoting a “poorly conceived
hypothesis” and that “the public airing of that hypothesis caused thousands of parents to avoid the MMR; many
children were hospitalized and several died from measles as a result,” was really pitting doctor against doctor in
the vaccine war. (Amanda Peet just told us on Good Morning America, “Please don’t listen to me. . . . Go to the
experts.” Well, here they are and they don’t agree!)
I had to go back to the remarks made by Healy on CBS Evening News (Click HERE) on May 12 to figure out
what exactly she said that could be described as a “poorly conceived hypothesis.” Soft-spoken and reasonable in
her conversation with CBS reporter Sharyl Attkisson, Healy called for more studies on vaccines and autism. She
said that we need to do the studies to find out if there is a subgroup of children who are susceptible to a particular
vaccine, to vaccines plural, or to components in vaccines. She urged scientists “to take another look at that hypothesis, not deny it.”
Healy said nothing to undermine that vaccine program. She told the public, “A susceptible group does not mean
that vaccines aren’t good.” She firmly stated that she didn’t believe “the public would lose faith in vaccines.”

From his remarks, it’s pretty obvious that Offit is opposed to any open scientific inquiry. Healy didn’t say that
all children were receiving too many too soon, as Offit claimed. She said we need to find that subgroup of children.
The CDC studies that are always being promoted in the press haven’t settled a thing. The public is growing increasingly skeptical of health officials and their claims. They don’t want to risk the health of their children by
giving them vaccines with possibly damaging side effects. Healy’s was the refreshing voice of reason in this
debate. Too bad Offit refused to listen.
Perhaps the ending of the Poling/Offit pieces said it all. After Poling’s remarks, he listed his conflicts from the
lecturing and consulting fees he had received from different pharmaceutical companies. At the end of Offit’s, all
we see is “Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia.” Here’s the body copy from NEJM:
Vaccines and Autism Revisited
Related Article
by Offit, P. A.
To the Editor: In his Perspective article on a possible connection between vaccines and autism, Offit (May 15
issue)1 speculates about my daughter, Hannah, and repeats inaccuracies from a March New York Times opinion
piece that was officially corrected by the Times and our April 5 letter.
By omitting critical information from my March 6, 2008, statement, Offit misrepresents my position. I said,
“Many in the autism community and their champions believe that the result in this case may well signify a land-

show. . . . If you know that susceptible group, you can save those children. If
you turn your back on the notion there is a susceptible group . . . what can
I say?”4 Also commendable is the new 5-year research plan of the National
Vaccine Advisory Committee, which will entail the study of minority subpopulations, including patients with mitochondrial disorders.5

mark decision as it pertains to children developing autism following vaccinations. This still remains to be seen, but currently there are almost 5,000
other cases pending.”
Offit’s remarks about Hannah’s case are not evidence-based. He has no access to my daughter’s personal medical records, legal documents, or affidavits. In contrast, physicians from the Department of Health and Human
Services (DHHS) who studied this information recommended that the government concede Hannah’s case. The clinical history Offit presents contains
significant inaccuracies, and the resulting conclusions are consequently
flawed.
Offit confuses issues by comparing Hannah’s case with unrelated decisions
in “vaccine court.” The Office of the Secretary of DHHS, through the Department of Justice, conceded Hannah’s case. There was no courtroom hearing and no decision from the “unusual vaccine court.”
Offit is frequently cited regarding the “biologically plausible” theory that
simultaneous administration of multiple vaccines is safe. His opinion is unsupported by clinical trials, much less investigations in potentially susceptible subpopulations.
Despite the high frequency of mitochondrial dysfunction in autistic children,2 studies have not established primary or secondary roles. To explore
this question, we need an immunization database for children with metabolic disorders to establish safety guidelines3 and improve vaccine safety
for minority subgroups of children.
I agree with the statement of Bernadine Healy, former director of the National Institutes of Health, who said, “I don’t think you should ever turn your
back on any scientific hypothesis because you’re afraid of what it might

A strong, safe vaccination program is a cornerstone of public health. Misrepresenting Hannah Poling v. HHS to the medical profession does not improve confidence in the immunization program or advance science toward
an understanding of how and why regressive encephalopathy with autistic
features follows vaccination in susceptible children.
Jon S. Poling, M.D., Ph.D.
Athens Neurological Associates
Athens, GA 30606
Dr. Poling is the father of Hannah Poling and reports receiving consulting
or lecture fees from Pfizer, Eisai, Ortho-McNeil, Biogen, Teva, Immunex,
and Allergan. No other potential conflict of interest relevant to this letter
was reported.
References
1. Offit PA. Vaccines and autism revisited -- the Hannah Poling case. N Engl
J Med 2008;358:2089-2091. [Free Full Text]
2. Oliveira G, Ataíde A, Marques C, et al. Epidemiology of autism spectrum
disorder in Portugal: prevalence, clinical characterization, and medical conditions. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007;49:726-733. [ISI][Medline]
3. Brady MT. Immunization recommendations for children with metabolic
disorders: more data would help. Pediatrics 2006;118:810-813. [Free Full
Text]
4. CBS News. The “open question” on vaccines and autism. May 2008.
(Accessed July 18, 2008, at http://www.cbsnews.com/blogs/2008/05/12/
couricandco/entry4090144.shtml.)
5. Draft ISO Scientific Agenda for NVAC Vaccine Safety Working Group.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Immunization Safety Office scientific agenda: draft recommendations. April 4, 2008. In: Scientific
review. Washington, DC: National Vaccine Advisory Committee Vaccine
Safety Working Group, April 11, 2008:30. (Accessed July 18, 2008, at
http://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/00_pdf/draft_agenda_recommendations_080404.pdf.)
__________________________________________________
The author replies: Poling implies that by omitting his phrase “many in the
autism community and their champions,” I unfairly attributed the notion
that vaccines might cause autism to him alone. However, Dr. Poling’s public announcement of the DHHS concession to the press and his subsequent
appearances on national television and at autism conferences suggest that
he is, at the very least, a vocal centerpiece of that community.
www.ageofautism.com/2008/08/dr-paul-offit-a.html

Poling claims that I didn’t have access to his daughter’s medical records.
My information was based on a verbatim transcript of the DHHS concession, which stated that his daughter had had frequent ear infections and
a series of viral infections early in life. These infections, which are a far
greater immunologic challenge than attenuated or inactivated vaccines, are
not in dispute.
Poling states that my assertion that the administration of multiple vaccines
is safe is an “opinion . . . unsupported by clinical trials.” But studies of
concomitant use, which are required by the Food and Drug Administration
before licensure to show that new vaccines do not affect the safety or immunogenicity of existing vaccines or vice versa, have clearly shown that
multiple vaccines can be administered safely.
Poling agrees with Healy that “you should [n]ever turn your back on any
scientific hypothesis because you’re afraid of what it might show.” However, scientists have not been afraid to test the hypothesis that vaccines might
cause autism. Far from it: the ill-founded notion that the measles–mumps–
rubella (MMR) vaccine caused autism was tested in 10 epidemiologic studies. Unfortunately, the public airing of that hypothesis caused thousands of
parents to avoid the MMR; many children were hospitalized and several
died from measles as a result.1,2,3,4 Now, Poling and Healy are standardbearers for the poorly conceived hypothesis that children receive too many
vaccines too early. As a consequence, some parents are choosing to delay,
withhold, or separate vaccines. The problem here is not a failure of scientists to consider hypotheses; rather, it is a failure of the media and the public
to distinguish hypotheses from scientific evidence.
Paul A. Offit, M.D.
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
Philadelphia, PA 19104

“Younger ages at diagnosis, differential migration, changes in diagnostic criteria,
and inclusion of milder cases do not fully explain the observed increases.”
Epidemiology • January 2009

The Rise in Autism and the Role of Age at Diagnosis
Hertz-Picciotto, Irvaa,b; Delwiche, Loraa
Abstract
Background
Autism prevalence in California, based on individuals eligible for state-funded services, rose throughout the
1990s. The extent to which this trend is explained by changes in age at diagnosis or inclusion of milder cases has
not been previously evaluated.
Methods
Autism cases were identified from 1990 through 2006 in databases of the California Department of Developmental
Services, which coordinates services for individuals with specific developmental disorders. The main outcomes
were population incident cases younger than age 10 years for each quarter, cumulative incidence by age and birth
year, age-specific incidence rates stratified by birth year, and proportions of diagnoses by age across birth years.
Results
Autism incidence in children rose throughout the period. Cumulative incidence to 5 years of age per 10,000 births
rose consistently from 6.2 for 1990 births to 42.5 for 2001 births. Age-specific incidence rates increased most
steeply for 2- and 3-year olds. The proportion diagnosed by age 5 years increased only slightly, from 54% for
1990 births to 61% for 1996 births. Changing age at diagnosis can explain a 12% increase, and inclusion of milder
cases, a 56% increase.
Conclusions
Autism incidence in California shows no sign yet of plateauing. Younger ages at diagnosis, differential migration,
changes in diagnostic criteria, and inclusion of milder cases do not fully explain the observed increases. Other
artifacts have yet to be quantified, and as a result, the extent to which the continued rise represents a true increase
in the occurrence of autism remains unclear.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4113600/

Journal Of Neuroimmunology • February 2009

Elevated immune response
in the brain of autistic patients
Author information
Li X1, Chauhan A, Sheikh AM, Patil S,
Chauhan V, Li XM, Ji L, Brown T, Malik M.
Department of Neurochemistry
NY State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities
NY 10314, New York, USA
xiaohong.li@mssm.edu
Abstract
This study determined immune activities in the brain of ASD patients and
matched normal subjects by examining cytokines in the brain tissue. Our results
showed that proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-6 and GM-CSF), Th1
cytokine (IFN-gamma) and chemokine (IL-8) were significantly increased in the
brains of ASD patients compared with the controls. However the Th2 cytokines
(IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10) showed no significant difference. The Th1/Th2 ratio was
also significantly increased in ASD patients.
CONCLUSION
ASD patients displayed an increased innate and adaptive immune response
through the Th1 pathway, suggesting that localized brain inflammation and autoimmune disorder may be involved in the pathogenesis of ASD.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2770268/

“ASD patients displayed an increased innate
and adaptive immune response through the Th1 pathway,
suggesting that localized brain inflammation and
autoimmune disorder may be involved
in the pathogenesis of ASD.”

Current Medicinal Chemistry • July 2009

Immune-glutamatergic dysfunction
as a central mechanism of the
autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Blaylock RL1, Strunecka A.
Belhaven College
Jackson, Mississippi, USA
Abstract
Despite the great number of observations being made concerning cellular and the molecular dysfunctions associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), the basic central
mechanism of these disorders has not been proposed in the major scientific literature.
Our review brings evidence that most heterogeneous symptoms of ASD have a common
set of events closely connected with dysregulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission
in the brain with enhancement of excitatory receptor function by pro-inflammatory
immune cytokines as the underlying mechanism. We suggest that environmental and
dietary excitotoxins, mercury, fluoride, and aluminum can exacerbate the pathological
and clinical problems by worsening excitotoxicity and by microglial priming. In addition, each has effects on cell signaling that can affect neurodevelopment and neuronal
function. Our hypothesis opens the door to a number of new treatment modes, including the nutritional factors that naturally reduce excitotoxicity and brain inflammation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19149568

“... environmental and dietary excitotoxins,
mercury, fluoride, and aluminum can exacerbate
the pathological and clinical problems by worsening
excitotoxicity and by microglial priming. In addition,
each has effects on cell signaling that can affect
neurodevelopment and neuronal function.”

Journal Of Toxicology • August 2009

The severity of autism is associated with
toxic metal body burden and red blood cell glutathione levels
Author information
Adams JB1, Baral M, Geis E, Mitchell J, Ingram J, Hensley A, Zappia I,
Newmark S, Gehn E, Rubin RA, Mitchell K, Bradstreet J, El-Dahr JM.
Division of Basic Medical Sciences
Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine
Tempe, AZ 85282, USA
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship of children’s autism symptoms with their toxic metal
body burden and red blood cell (RBC) glutathione levels. In children ages 3-8 years, the severity of autism was assessed using four tools: ADOS, PDD-BI, ATEC, and SAS. Toxic metal
body burden was assessed by measuring urinary excretion of toxic metals, both before and after
oral dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). Multiple positive correlations were found between the
severity of autism and the urinary excretion of toxic metals. Variations in the severity of autism
measurements could be explained, in part, by regression analyses of urinary excretion of toxic
metals before and after DMSA and the level of RBC glutathione (adjusted R(2) of 0.22-0.45, P <
.005 in all cases). This study demonstrates a significant positive association between the severity
of autism and the relative body burden of toxic metals.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20107587

“Multiple positive correlations were found
between the severity of autism and the
urinary excretion of toxic metals.”

Journal Of Cellular And Molecular Medicine • October 2009

One carbon metabolism disturbances
and the C677T MTHFR gene polymorphism
in children with autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Paca SP1, Dronca E, Kaucsár T, Craciun EC,
Endreffy E, Ferencz BK, Iftene F, Benga I, Cornean R, Banerjee R, Dronca M.
Department of Medical Biochemistry
Faculty of Medicine, Iuliu HaTieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), which include the prototypic autistic disorder (AD), Asperger’s syndrome (AS) and pervasive developmental disorders not
otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), are complex neurodevelopmental conditions of
unknown aetiology. The current study investigated the metabolites in the methionine cycle, the transsulphuration pathway, folate, vitamin B(12) and the C677T
polymorphism of the MTHFR gene in three groups of children diagnosed with AD
(n= 15), AS (n= 5) and PDD-NOS (n= 19) and their age- and sex-matched controls
(n= 25). No metabolic disturbances were seen in the AS patients, while in the AD
and PDD-NOS groups, lower plasma levels of methionine (P= 0.01 and P= 0.03, respectively) and alpha-aminobutyrate were observed (P= 0.01 and P= 0.001, respectively). Only in the AD group, plasma cysteine (P= 0.02) and total blood glutathione (P= 0.02) were found to be reduced. Although there was a trend towards lower
levels of serine, glycine, N, N-dimethylglycine in AD patients, the plasma levels
of these metabolites as well as the levels of homocysteine and cystathionine were
not statistically different in any of the ASDs groups. The serum levels of vitamin
B(12) and folate were in the normal range. The results of the MTHFR gene analysis
showed a normal distribution of the C677T polymorphism in children with ASDs,
but the frequency of the 677T allele was slightly more prevalent in AD patients. Our
study indicates a possible role for the alterations in one carbon metabolism in the
pathophysiology of ASDs and provides, for the first time, preliminary evidence for
metabolic and genetic differences between clinical subtypes of ASDs.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4496129/

“Our study indicates
a possible role for the alterations
in one carbon metabolism in the
pathophysiology of ASDs and provides,
for the first time, preliminary evidence
for metabolic and genetic differences
between clinical subtypes of ASDs.”

Current Medicinal Chemistry • 2009

Immune-glutamatergic dysfunction
as a central mechanism of the
autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Blaylock RL1, Strunecka A.
Belhaven College
Jackson, Mississippi, USA
Abstract
Despite the great number of observations being made concerning cellular and the molecular dysfunctions associated with
autism spectrum disorders (ASD), the basic central mechanism of these disorders has not been proposed in the major
scientific literature. Our review brings evidence that most heterogeneous symptoms of ASD have a common set of events
closely connected with dysregulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the brain with enhancement of excitatory receptor function by pro-inflammatory immune cytokines as the
underlying mechanism. We suggest that environmental and
dietary excitotoxins, mercury, fluoride, and aluminum can exacerbate the pathological and clinical problems by worsening
excitotoxicity and by microglial priming. In addition, each has
effects on cell signaling that can affect neurodevelopment and
neuronal function. Our hypothesis opens the door to a number
of new treatment modes, including the nutritional factors that
naturally reduce excitotoxicity and brain inflammation.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=19149568

“We suggest that
environmental and dietary
excitotoxins, mercury, fluoride,
and aluminum can exacerbate the
pathological and clinical problems
by worsening excitotoxicity and
by microglial priming. In addition,
each has effects on cell signaling
that can affect neurodevelopment
and neuronal function.”

Acta Neurobiologiea Experimentalis • 2010

The review of most frequently
occurring medical disorders related to
aetiology of autism and the methods of treatment
Author information
Cubala-Kucharska M.
Foundation for the Development of Integrative Medicine
Piaseczno, Poland
info@drcubala.com
Abstract
The medical understanding of autism has changed since it was first defined
by Kanner. Nowadays medicine identifies many medical abnormalities and
diseases, which may underline or aggravate the cognitive aspect, behavioural
issues and general health in autists. This includes chronic inflammation of gastrointestinal tract, dysbiosis, maldigestion, malabsorption, malnutrition, food
intolerance, allergies, chronic viral, fungal and bacterial infections, impaired
kidney function, impaired detoxification of endo- and exotoxins, disorders of
metal ion transportation. Treatment of the above mentioned conditions combined with improving detoxification mechanisms, followed by a special diet
and individually customized supplementation of nutritional deficiencies may
lead to the improvement of the functioning of these patients, changing their
level of functioning and self-dependence. The aim of this paper is to present
medical problems of children with autism which may be identified and treated
by general practitioners as a review of current medical papers related to Autism
Spectrum Disorder, in the context of author’s professional experience, based on
the medical cases from author’s practice.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20628438

“This includes
chronic inflammation
of gastrointestinal tract,
dysbiosis, maldigestion,
malabsorption, malnutrition,
food intolerance, allergies,
chronic viral, fungal and bacterial infections,
impaired kidney function,
impaired detoxification of endo- and exotoxins,
disorders of metal ion transportation.”

Neurobiologiae Experimentalis • 2010

Age-dependent lower or higher levels
of hair mercury in autistic children than in healthy controls
Maria Dorota Majewska1*, Ewa Urbanowicz3,
Paulina Rok-Bujko3, Irena Namyslowska3, Pawel Mierzejewski2
1. Marie Curie Chair, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of the Nervous System
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Warsaw, Poland
majewska@ipin.edu.pl
2. Department of Pharmacology and Physiology of the Nervous System
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Warsaw, Poland
3. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
An association between autism and early life exposure to mercury is a hotly debated issue. In this
study, 91 autistic Polish children, male and female, 3-4 and 7-9 years old, were compared to 75
age- and sex-matched healthy children with respect to: demographic, perinatal, clinical and developmental measures, parental age, birth order, morphometric measures, vaccination history, and
hair mercury content. In demographic and perinatal measures there were no consistent differences
between the autistic and control groups. Autistic children had a significantly greater prevalence
of adverse reactions after vaccinations and abnormal development than controls. Between 45 and
80% of autistic children experienced developmental regress. Autistic children significantly differed from healthy peers in the concentrations of mercury in hair: younger autistics had lower levels, while older - higher levels than their respective controls. The results suggest that autistic children differ from healthy children in metabolism of mercury, which seems to change with age.
https://app.box.com/s/938bs6e55098v78c4tnuyca38p2xnnqu

“The results suggest that
autistic children differ from healthy children
in metabolism of mercury ...”

Neurobiologiae Experimentalis • 2010

Sorting out the spinning of autism:
heavy metals and the question of incidence
Mary Catherine DeSoto* and Robert T. Hitlan
Department of Psychology, University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, Iowa USA
cathy.desoto@uni.edu
Abstract
The reasons for the rise in autism prevalence are a subject of heated professional debate. Featuring a critical appraisal of some research used to question whether rising levels of autism are related to environmental exposure
to toxins (Soden et al. 2007, Barbaresi et al. 2009, Thompson et al. 2007)
we aim to evaluate the actual state of scientific knowledge. In addition, we
surveyed the empirical research on the topic of autism and heavy metal
toxins. In our opinion empirical investigations are finding support for a link
with heavy metal toxins. The various causes that have led to the increase in
autism diagnosis are likely multi-faceted, and understanding the causes is
one of the most important health topics today. We argue that scientific research does not support rejecting the link between the neurodevelopmental
disorder of autism and toxic exposures.
https://app.box.com/s/rs4j52jgdbjvj0a7qroo8sgxv7t06ly9

“We argue that scientific research
does not support rejecting the link
between the neurodevelopmental
disorder of autism and toxic exposures.”

Journal Of Neurovirology • March 2010

Association of autism with
polyomavirus infection in
postmortem brains
Author information
Lintas C1, Altieri L, Lombardi F, Sacco R, Persico AM.
Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry and Neurogenetics
University Campus Bio-Medico, Rome, Italy
Abstract
Autism is a highly heritable behavioral disorder. Yet, two decades of genetic investigation have unveiled extremely few cases that can be solely explained on the basis
of de novo mutations or cytogenetic abnormalities. Vertical viral transmission represents a nongenetic mechanism of disease compatible with high parent-to-offspring
transmission and with low rates of disease-specific genetic abnormalities. Vertically
transmitted viruses should be found more frequently in the affected tissues of autistic individuals compared to controls. Our initial step was thus to assess by nested
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequence analysis the presence of cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1),
herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV2), human herpes virus 6 (HHV6), BK virus (BKV),
JC virus (JCV), and simian virus 40 (SV40) in genomic DNA extracted from postmortem temporocortical tissue (Brodmann areas 41/42) belonging to 15 autistic patients and 13 controls. BKV, JCV, and SV40 combined are significantly more frequent
among autistic patients compared to controls (67% versus 23%, respectively; P <
.05). The majority of positives yielded archetypal sequences, whereas six patients and
two controls unveiled single-base pair changes in two or more sequenced clones. No
association is present with the remaining viruses, which are found in relatively few
individuals (N <or= 3). Also polyviral infections tend to occur more frequently in the
brains of autistic patients compared to controls (40% versus 7.7%, respectively; P =
.08). Follow-up studies exploring vertical viral transmission as a possible pathogenetic mechanism in autistic disorder should focus on, but not be limited to, the role
of polyomaviruses.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20345322

“BKV, JCV, and SV40 [viruses] combined
are significantly more frequent among
autistic patients compared to controls
(67% versus 23%, respectively; P < .05).”

Journal Of Pediatrics • April 2010

Autism spectrum disorders
in extremely preterm children
Author information
Johnson S1, Hollis C, Kochhar P,
Hennessy E, Wolke D, Marlow N.
Institute for Women’s Health
University College, London
United Kingdom
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
To investigate the prevalence, correlates, and antecedents of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in extremely preterm children.
STUDY DESIGN
We conducted a prospective study of all births <26 weeks gestation in the United
Kingdom and Ireland in 1995. Of 307 survivors at 11 years, 219 (71%) were assessed
and compared with 153 term-born classmates. Parents completed the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) to assess autism spectrum symptoms, and ASD were
diagnosed by using a psychiatric evaluation. An IQ test and clinical evaluation were
also administered. Longitudinal outcome data were available for extremely preterm
children.
RESULTS
Extremely preterm children had significantly higher SCQ scores than classmates
(mean difference, 4.6 points; 95% CI, 3.4-5.8). Sixteen extremely preterm children
(8%) were assigned an ASD diagnosis, compared with none of the classmates. By
hospital discharge, male sex, lower gestation, vaginal breech delivery, abnormal cerebral ultrasound scanning results, and not having had breast milk were independently
associated with autism spectrum symptoms. By 6 years, independent associates were
cognitive impairment, inattention and peer problems, withdrawn behavior at 2.5 years,
and not having had breast milk.
CONCLUSIONS
Extremely preterm children are at increased risk for autism spectrum symptoms and
ASD in middle childhood. These symptoms and disorders were associated with neurocognitive outcomes, suggesting that ASD may result from abnormal brain development in this population.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20056232

“Extremely preterm children
are at increased risk for autism
spectrum symptoms and ASD
in middle childhood.”

Journal Of Pediatrics • April 2010

Autism spectrum disorders
in extremely preterm children
Author information
Johnson S1, Hollis C, Kochhar P,
Hennessy E, Wolke D, Marlow N.
Institute for Women’s Health
University College, London
United Kingdom
s.j.johnson@ucl.ac.uk
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
To investigate the prevalence, correlates, and antecedents of autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
in extremely preterm children.
STUDY DESIGN
We conducted a prospective study of all births <26 weeks gestation in the United Kingdom and
Ireland in 1995. Of 307 survivors at 11 years, 219 (71%) were assessed and compared with 153
term-born classmates. Parents completed the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) to
assess autism spectrum symptoms, and ASD were diagnosed by using a psychiatric evaluation.
An IQ test and clinical evaluation were also administered. Longitudinal outcome data were
available for extremely preterm children.
RESULTS
Extremely preterm children had significantly higher SCQ scores than classmates (mean difference, 4.6 points; 95% CI, 3.4-5.8). Sixteen extremely preterm children (8%) were assigned an
ASD diagnosis, compared with none of the classmates. By hospital discharge, male sex, lower
gestation, vaginal breech delivery, abnormal cerebral ultrasound scanning results, and not having had breast milk were independently associated with autism spectrum symptoms. By 6 years,
independent associates were cognitive impairment, inattention and peer problems, withdrawn
behavior at 2.5 years, and not having had breast milk.
CONCLUSIONS
Extremely preterm children are at increased risk for autism spectrum symptoms and ASD in
middle childhood. These symptoms and disorders were associated with neurocognitive outcomes, suggesting that ASD may result from abnormal brain development in this population.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20056232

Journal Of Toxicology And Environmental Health Part A • June 2010

Porphyrinuria in Korean children with autism:
correlation with oxidative stress
Author information

“Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Youn SI1, Jin SH, Kim SH, Lim S.

is a neurodevelopmental disorder

Department of Basic Eastern Medical Science
Graduate School, KyungHee University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder believed to
be associated with heavy metal exposure, especially mercury (Hg), and is characterized by disturbances in metal elimination. Various studies correlated elevated
heavy metal body burden with ASD diagnoses as evidenced by increased urinary
porphyrin levels in patients. Urinary porphyrins were also determined in Korean
patients diagnosed with ASD (n = 65) who visited AK Eastern Medicinal Clinic
in Kangnam-gu, Seoul, from June 2007 to September 2008, compared to controls
(n = 9) residing in the same area, by means of Metametrix (CLIA-approved)
laboratory testing. Further, urinary organic acids as indicators of hepatic detoxification/oxidative stress were also analyzed among patients diagnosed with ASD.
Significant increases were found in patients diagnosed with ASD for proporphyrins, pentacarboxyporphyrin, precoproporphyrin, coproporphyrins, and total porphyrins. Significant correlations were observed between hepatic detoxification/
oxidative stress markers and urinary porphyrins. In agreement with published
data, the present results demonstrated that measurement of porphyrins serves as a
reliable tool for diagnosis of heavy metal involvement in ASD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=20391113

believed to be associated with heavy metal exposure,
especially mercury (Hg), and is characterized by
disturbances in metal elimination. Significant correlations
were observed between hepatic detoxification/oxidative
stress markers and urinary porphyrins. In agreement with
published data, the present results demonstrated that
measurement of porphyrins serves as a reliable tool for
diagnosis of heavy metal involvement in
Autistic Spectrum Disorder.”

Acta Neurobiologiea Experimentalis • 2010

The biological basis of autism spectrum disorders:
Understanding causation and treatment by clinical geneticists
Geier DA1, Kern JK, Geier MR.
Author information
The Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc.
Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) also known as pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) are a behaviorally
defined group of neurodevelopmental disorders that are usually diagnosed in early childhood. ASDs disproportionately affect male children. Mercury (Hg) a heavy metal, is widespread and persistent in the environment. Mercury is a ubiquitous source of danger in fish, drugs, fungicides/herbicides, dental fillings, thermometers, and many
other products. Elevated Hg concentrations may remain in the brain from several years to decades following exposure. This is important because investigators have long recognized that Hg is a neurodevelopmental poison; it
can cause problems in neuronal cell migration and division, and can ultimately cause cell degeneration and death.
Case-reports of patients have described developmental regressions with ASD symptoms following fetal and/or
early childhood Hg exposure, and epidemiological studies have linked exposure to Hg with an elevated risk of a
patient being diagnosed with an ASD. Immune, sensory, neurological, motor, and behavioral dysfunctions similar
to traits defining or associated with ASDs were reported following Hg intoxication with similarities extending to
neuroanatomy, neurotransmitters, and biochemistry. The sexual dimorphism of ASDs may result from synergistic
neurotoxicity caused by the interaction of testosterone and Hg; in contrast, estrogen is protective, mitigating the
toxicity of Hg. Mercury exposure may significantly increase androgen levels, and as a result, patients diagnosed
with an ASD may significantly benefit from anti-androgen therapy. Finally, the clinical geneticist has a wealth of
biomarkers to evaluate and treat patients diagnosed with an ASD.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20628444

Journal Of Immunotoxicology • January 2011

Theoretical aspects of autism:
causes—a review
Author information
Ratajczak HV1.
hratajcz@comcast.net
Abstract
Autism, a member of the pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs), has been increasing dramatically since its description by Leo Kanner in 1943. First estimated
to occur in 4 to 5 per 10,000 children, the incidence of autism is now 1 per 110
in the United States, and 1 per 64 in the United Kingdom, with similar incidences
throughout the world. Searching information from 1943 to the present in PubMed
and Ovid Medline databases, this review summarizes results that correlate the timing of changes in incidence with environmental changes. Autism could result from
more than one cause, with different manifestations in different individuals that share
common symptoms. Documented causes of autism include genetic mutations and/or
deletions, viral infections, and encephalitis following vaccination. Therefore, autism
is the result of genetic defects and/or inflammation of the brain. The inflammation
could be caused by a defective placenta, immature blood-brain barrier, the immune
response of the mother to infection while pregnant, a premature birth, encephalitis in
the child after birth, or a toxic environment.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21299355

Pediatrics • June 2011

Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities
in US children, 1997-2008
Author information
Boyle CA1, Boulet S, Schieve LA, Cohen RA,
Blumberg SJ, Yeargin-Allsopp M, Visser S, Kogan MD.
National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
cboyle@cdc.gov
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To fill gaps in crucial data needed for health and educational planning, we determined the
prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children and in selected populations for a
recent 12-year period.
PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS
We used data on children aged 3 to 17 years from the 1997-2008 National Health Interview Surveys, which are ongoing nationally representative samples of US households.
Parent-reported diagnoses of the following were included: attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder; intellectual disability; cerebral palsy; autism; seizures; stuttering or stammering;
moderate to profound hearing loss; blindness; learning disorders; and/or other developmental delays.
RESULTS
Boys had a higher prevalence overall and for a number of select disabilities compared
with girls. Hispanic children had the lowest prevalence for a number of disabilities compared with non-Hispanic white and black children. Low income and public health insurance were associated with a higher prevalence of many disabilities. Prevalence of any developmental disability increased from 12.84% to 15.04% over 12 years. Autism, attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other developmental delays increased, whereas hearing
loss showed a significant decline. These trends were found in all of the sociodemographic
subgroups, except for autism in non-Hispanic black children.
CONCLUSIONS
Developmental disabilities are common and were reported in ~1 in 6 children in the United States in 2006-2008. The number of children with select developmental disabilities
(autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other developmental delays) has increased, requiring more health and education services. Additional study of the influence of
risk-factor shifts, changes in acceptance, and benefits of early services is needed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21606152

“Developmental disabilities are common
and were reported in 1 in 6 children in
the United States in 2006-2008. The number
of children with select developmental disabilities
(autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,
and other developmental delays) has increased,
requiring more health and education services.”

Surveillance Summaries • March 30, 2012

Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network • 14 Sites USA
Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2008
Corresponding author: Jon Baio, EdS, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
CDC, 1600 Clifton Road, MS E-86, Atlanta, GA 30333
Telephone: 404-498-3873; Fax: 404-498-3550
jbaio@cdc.gov.
Abstract
Problem/Condition
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a group of developmental disabilities characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication and by restricted, repetitive,
and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Symptoms typically are apparent before age 3 years.
The complex nature of these disorders, coupled with a lack of biologic markers for diagnosis and changes in clinical definitions over time, creates challenges in monitoring the
prevalence of ASDs. Accurate reporting of data is essential to understand the prevalence of
ASDs in the population and can help direct research.
Period Covered
2008
Description of System
The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network is an active
surveillance system that estimates the prevalence of ASDs and describes other characteristics among children aged 8 years whose parents or guardians reside within 14 ADDM sites
in the United States. ADDM does not rely on professional or family reporting of an existing
ASD diagnosis or classification to ascertain case status. Instead, information is obtained
from children’s evaluation records to determine the presence of ASD symptoms at any time
from birth through the end of the year when the child reaches age 8 years. ADDM focuses
on children aged 8 years because a baseline study conducted by CDC demonstrated that
this is the age of identified peak prevalence. A child is included as meeting the surveillance
case definition for an ASD if he or she displays behaviors (as described on a comprehensive
evaluation completed by a qualified professional) consistent with the American Psychiatric
Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) diagnostic criteria for any of the following conditions: Autistic Disorder; Pervasive Developmental
Disorder–Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS, including Atypical Autism); or Asperger
Disorder. The first phase of the ADDM methodology involves screening and abstraction of

comprehensive evaluations completed by professional providers at multiple data sources in
the community. Multiple data sources are included, ranging from general pediatric health
clinics to specialized programs for children with developmental disabilities. In addition,
many ADDM sites also review and abstract records of children receiving special education
services in public schools. In the second phase of the study, all abstracted evaluations are
reviewed by trained clinicians to determine ASD case status. Because the case definition
and surveillance methods have remained consistent across all ADDM surveillance years
to date, comparisons to results for earlier surveillance years can be made. This report provides updated ASD prevalence estimates from the 2008 surveillance year, representing 14
ADDM areas in the United States. In addition to prevalence estimates, characteristics of
the population of children with ASDs are described, as well as detailed comparisons of the
2008 surveillance year findings with those for the 2002 and 2006 surveillance years.
Results
For 2008, the overall estimated prevalence of ASDs among the 14 ADDM sites was 11.3
per 1,000 (one in 88) children aged 8 years who were living in these communities during
2008. Overall ASD prevalence estimates varied widely across all sites (range: 4.8–21.2 per
1,000 children aged 8 years). ASD prevalence estimates also varied widely by sex and by
racial/ethnic group. Approximately one in 54 boys and one in 252 girls living in the ADDM
Network communities were identified as having ASDs. Comparison of 2008 findings with
those for earlier surveillance years indicated an increase in estimated ASD prevalence of
23% when the 2008 data were compared with the data for 2006 (from 9.0 per 1,000 children aged 8 years in 2006 to 11.0 in 2008 for the 11 sites that provided data for both surveillance years) and an estimated increase of 78% when the 2008 data were compared with
the data for 2002 (from 6.4 per 1,000 children aged 8 years in 2002 to 11.4 in 2008 for the
13 sites that provided data for both surveillance years). Because the ADDM Network sites
do not make up a nationally representative sample, these combined prevalence estimates
should not be generalized to the United States as a whole.

http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm

“For 2008,
the overall
estimated
prevalence
of Autistic
Spectrum Disorder
among the
14 ADDM sites
was 11.3 per 1,000
(one in 88) ...”

Molecular Psychiatry • April 2012

A review of research trends in physiological abnormalities
in autism spectrum disorders: immune dysregulation, inflammation,
oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and
environmental toxicant exposures
Author information
Rossignol DA1, Frye RE.
International Child Development Resource Center
Melbourne, FL 32934, USA
rossignolmd@gmail.com
Abstract
Recent studies have implicated physiological and metabolic abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
and other psychiatric disorders, particularly immune dysregulation or inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and environmental toxicant exposures (‘four major areas’). The aim of this study was to determine trends in the literature on these topics with respect to ASD. A comprehensive literature search from 1971 to
2010 was performed in these four major areas in ASD with three objectives. First, publications were divided by
several criteria, including whether or not they implicated an association between the physiological abnormality
and ASD. A large percentage of publications implicated an association between ASD and immune dysregulation/
inflammation (416 out of 437 publications, 95%), oxidative stress (all 115), mitochondrial dysfunction (145 of
153, 95%) and toxicant exposures (170 of 190, 89%). Second, the strength of evidence for publications in each
area was computed using a validated scale. The strongest evidence was for immune dysregulation/inflammation
and oxidative stress, followed by toxicant exposures and mitochondrial dysfunction. In all areas, at least 45% of
the publications were rated as providing strong evidence for an association between the physiological abnormalities and ASD. Third, the time trends in the four major areas were compared with trends in neuroimaging, neuropathology, theory of mind and genetics (‘four comparison areas’). The number of publications per 5-year block in
all eight areas was calculated in order to identify significant changes in trends. Prior to 1986, only 12 publications
were identified in the four major areas and 51 in the four comparison areas (42 for genetics). For each 5-year
period, the total number of publications in the eight combined areas increased progressively. Most publications
(552 of 895, 62%) in the four major areas were published in the last 5 years (2006-2010). Evaluation of trends
between the four major areas and the four comparison areas demonstrated that the largest relative growth was in
immune dysregulation/inflammation, oxidative stress, toxicant exposures, genetics and neuroimaging. Research
on mitochondrial dysfunction started growing in the last 5 years. Theory of mind and neuropathology research has
declined in recent years. Although most publications implicated an association between the four major areas and
ASD, publication bias may have led to an overestimation of this association. Further research into these physiological areas may provide insight into general or subset-specific processes that could contribute to the development of ASD and other psychiatric disorders.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3317062/

[the state of autism research]

PLoS One • April 2012

The co-morbidity burden of children and young adults
with autism spectrum disorders
Author information
Kohane IS1, McMurry A, Weber G, MacFadden D,
Rappaport L, Kunkel L, Bickel J, Wattanasin N, Spence S, Murphy S, Churchill S.
1Center for Biomedical Informatics
Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Isaac_kohane@harvard.edu
Abstract
OBJECTIVES
Use electronic health records Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) to assess the comorbidity burden of
ASD in children and young adults.
STUDY DESIGN
A retrospective prevalence study was performed using a distributed query system across three general
hospitals and one pediatric hospital. Over 14,000 individuals under age 35 with ASD were characterized by their co-morbidities and conversely, the prevalence of ASD within these comorbidities was
measured. The comorbidity prevalence of the younger (Age<18 years) and older (Age 18-34 years)
individuals with ASD was compared.
RESULTS
19.44% of ASD patients had epilepsy as compared to 2.19% in the overall hospital population (95%
confidence interval for difference in percentages 13.58-14.69%), 2.43% of ASD with schizophrenia
vs. 0.24% in the hospital population (95% CI 1.89-2.39%), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) 0.83%
vs. 0.54% (95% CI 0.13-0.43%), bowel disorders (without IBD) 11.74% vs. 4.5% (95% CI 5.726.68%), CNS/cranial anomalies 12.45% vs. 1.19% (95% CI 9.41-10.38%), diabetes mellitus type
I (DM1) 0.79% vs. 0.34% (95% CI 0.3-0.6%), muscular dystrophy 0.47% vs 0.05% (95% CI 0.260.49%), sleep disorders 1.12% vs. 0.14% (95% CI 0.79-1.14%). Autoimmune disorders (excluding
DM1 and IBD) were not significantly different at 0.67% vs. 0.68% (95% CI -0.14-0.13%). Three of
the studied comorbidities increased significantly when comparing ages 0-17 vs 18-34 with p<0.001:
Schizophrenia (1.43% vs. 8.76%), diabetes mellitus type I (0.67% vs. 2.08%), IBD (0.68% vs. 1.99%)
whereas sleeping disorders, bowel disorders (without IBD) and epilepsy did not change significantly.
CONCLUSIONS
The comorbidities of ASD encompass disease states that are significantly overrepresented in ASD
with respect to even the patient populations of tertiary health centers. This burden of comorbidities
goes well beyond those routinely managed in developmental medicine centers and requires broad
multidisciplinary management that payors and providers will have to plan for.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3325235/

[autism encompasses far more than
just neurological disorders. Autism includes
epilepsy, schizophrenia, inflammatory bowel disease,
bowel disorders, cranial anomalies, diabetes mellitus type 1,
muscular dystrophy, sleep disorders,
autoimmune disorders and more... ]

European Journal Of Paediatric Neurology • November 2012

Observed prevalence of autism spectrum disorders
in two Norwegian counties
Author information
Isaksen J1, Diseth TH, Schjølberg S, Skjeldal OH.
Department of Habilitation
Innlandet Hospital Trust, Maihaugveien 4
2609 Lillehammer, Norway
jorn.isaksen@sykehuset-innlandet.no
Abstract
BACKGROUND
The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) has previously been reported
to be increasing dramatically in European and non-European countries. No similar
increase in prevalence rates has been documented in Norway to date. The current
study reports on ASD prevalence rates in two Norwegian counties.

“there has been
almost a fourfold increase

METHODS
The population comprised 31,015 children, ages six to 12. Information about special needs services was provided by the school authorities and the public health
service. Multiple search strategies were applied to identify children at risk of ASD
or diagnosed with ASD. Hospital registers were searched and a mapping tool was
used in all local schools.

in the occurrence of

RESULTS
The total number of patients with ASD found in the population was 158. This
gives a prevalence of 51 per 10,000 (95% CI, 0.43-0.59).

occurrence of all ASD groups.”

CONCLUSION
Compared with the previously reported prevalence of ASD in Norway, there has
been almost a fourfold increase in the occurrence of childhood autism and a tenfold increase in the occurrence of all ASD groups. These findings have significant
implications for designing and dimensioning appropriate intervention programmes
for children with ASD and their families.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=22342070

childhood autism and a
tenfold increase in the

International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health • December 2012

Hair toxic metal concentrations
and autism spectrum disorder severity in young children
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, King PG, Sykes LK, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Silver Spring, MD 20905, USA
davidallengeier@comcast.net.net
Abstract
Previous studies have found a higher body-burden of toxic metals, particularly mercury
(Hg), among subjects diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in comparison to neurotypical controls. Moreover, Hg body-burden was associated with ASD severity. This cross-sectional study examined the potential correlation between hair toxic
metal concentrations and ASD severity in a prospective cohort of participants diagnosed
with moderate to severe ASD. The Institutional Review Board at the University of Texas
Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas (Dallas, TX) approved the present study. Qualifying study participants (n = 18) were evaluated for ASD severity using the Childhood
Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and quantitatively for arsenic, Hg, cadmium, lead, chromium, cobalt, nickel, aluminum, tin, uranium, and manganese using hair toxic element
testing by Doctor’s Data (a CLIA-approved laboratory). CARS scoring and hair toxic
element testing were blinded to one another. Increasing hair Hg concentrations significantly correlated with increased ASD severity. In contrast, no significant correlations
were observed between any other of the hair toxic metals examined and ASD severity.
This study helps to provide additional mechanistic support for Hg in the etiology of ASD
severity, and is supported by an increasing number of recent critical reviews that provide
biological plausibility for the role of Hg exposure in the pathogenesis of ASDs.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3546773/

“This study helps to provide additional
mechanistic support for Hg [ethyl mercury or thimerosal]
in the etiology of Autistic Spectrum Disorder [ASD]
severity, and is supported by an increasing number of
recent critical reviews that provide biological plausibility
for the role of ethyl mercuty [Hg] exposure in the
pathogenesis of Autistic Spectrum Disorder”

Acta Neurobiologia Experimentalis • 2012

Evidence of parallels between mercury intoxication
and the brain pathology in autism
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA, Audhya T, King PG, Sykes LK, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
jkern@dfwair.net
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to examine the parallels between the effects mercury
intoxication on the brain and the brain pathology found in autism spectrum disorder
(ASD). This review finds evidence of many parallels between the two, including: (1)
microtubule degeneration, specifically large, long-range axon degeneration with subsequent abortive axonal sprouting (short, thin axons); (2) dentritic overgrowth; (3)
neuroinflammation; (4) microglial/astrocytic activation; (5) brain immune response
activation; (6) elevated glial fibrillary acidic protein; (7) oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation; (8) decreased reduced glutathione levels and elevated oxidized glutathione;
(9) mitochondrial dysfunction; (10) disruption in calcium homeostasis and signaling;
(11) inhibition of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) activity; (12) disruption of
GABAergic and glutamatergic homeostasis; (13) inhibition of IGF-1 and methionine
synthase activity; (14) impairment in methylation; (15) vascular endothelial cell dysfunction and pathological changes of the blood vessels; (16) decreased cerebral/cerebellar blood flow; (17) increased amyloid precursor protein; (18) loss of granule and
Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum; (19) increased pro-inflammatory cytokine levels
in the brain (TNF-∼, IFN-∼, IL-1∼, IL-8); and (20) aberrant nuclear factor kappalight-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kappaB). This review also discusses
the ability of mercury to potentiate and work synergistically with other toxins and
pathogens in a way that may contribute to the brain pathology in ASD. The evidence
suggests that mercury may be either causal or contributory in the brain pathology in
ASD, possibly working synergistically with other toxic compounds or pathogens to
produce the brain pathology observed in those diagnosed with an ASD.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22810216

“The evidence suggests that mercury
may be either causal or contributory in the brain
pathology in Autistic Spectrum Disorder,
possibly working synergistically with other toxic
compounds or pathogens to produce the brain
pathology observed in those diagnosed with
an Autistic Spectrum Disorder”

Translational Neurodegeneration • August 2013

Evidence of neurodegeneration
in autism spectrum disorder
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA, Sykes LK, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Incorporation, Silver Spring, MD, USA
jkern@dfwair.net

“Evidence of neurodegeneration in the brain
in ASD [autistic spectrum disorder] includes:

Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder in which a
significant number of children experience a developmental regression
characterized by a loss of previously-acquired skills and abilities. Loss
of neurological function in ASD, as observed in affected children who
have regressed, can be explained as neurodegeneration. Although there
is research evidence of neurodegeneration or progressive encephalopathy in ASD, the issue of neurodegeneration in ASD is still under debate.
Evidence of neurodegeneration in the brain in ASD includes: (1) neuronal cell loss, (2) activated microglia and astrocytes, (3) proinflammatory
cytokines, (4) oxidative stress, and (5) elevated 8-oxo-guanosine levels.
The evidence from this review suggests that neurodegeneration underlies
the loss of neurological function in children with ASD who have experienced regression and loss of previously acquired skills and abilities, and
that research into treatments to address the issue of neurodegeneration in
ASD are warranted.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23925007

(1) neuronal cell loss,
(2) activated microglia and astrocytes,
(3) proinflammatory cytokines,
(4) oxidative stress, and
(5) elevated 8-oxo-guanosine levels.”

Journal on Developmental Disabilities • 2012

Autism
Author Information
Tomljenovic, Lucija; Dórea, José G.; Shaw, Christopher A.
Abstract
Autism is a multisystem developmental disorder characterized by dysfunctional
immunity and impaired brain function. Although autism is partly determined by
genetic susceptibility factors, reported dramatic increases in the prevalence of
autism in developed countries have intensified scientific focus on environmental
exposures. Pre- and perinatal immunotoxic insults are now strongly suspected as
contributors to this increase. Mercury (Hg) is both a neuro- and an immunotoxin
and continues to be used in some pediatric vaccines in the form of the preservative
thimerosal. Although currently there are no direct human studies on the risks of Hg
exposure from thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs), animal studies show that
doses relevant to human TCV exposure can result in adverse neurodevelopmental
outcomes. To date, TCVs continue to be administered on a regular basis to potentially the most vulnerable populations: pregnant women and children. In light of
existing experimental evidence, the rationale for using this known immunotoxic
and neurotoxic substance in human vaccines should be reconsidered.

http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/79268607/commentary-link-between-mercury-exposure-autism-spectrum-disorder-other-neurodevelopmental-disorders-implications-thimerosal-containing-vaccines

Brain • September 2013

Early brain enlargement
and elevated extra-axial fluid
in infants who develop autism spectrum disorder
Shen MD1, Nordahl CW, Young GS, Wootton-Gorges SL,
Lee A, Liston SE, Harrington KR, Ozonoff S, Amaral DG.
Abstract
Prospective studies of infants at risk for autism spectrum disorder have provided important
clues about the early behavioural symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. Diagnosis of autism
spectrum disorder, however, is not currently made until at least 18 months of age. There is
substantially less research on potential brain-based differences in the period between 6 and
12 months of age. Our objective in the current study was to use magnetic resonance imaging
to identify any consistently observable brain anomalies in 6-9 month old infants who would
later develop autism spectrum disorder. We conducted a prospective infant sibling study with
longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging scans at three time points (6-9, 12-15, and 18-24
months of age), in conjunction with intensive behavioural assessments. Fifty-five infants (33
‘high-risk’ infants having an older sibling with autism spectrum disorder and 22 ‘low-risk’
infants having no relatives with autism spectrum disorder) were imaged at 6-9 months; 43 of
these (27 high-risk and 16 low-risk) were imaged at 12-15 months; and 42 (26 high-risk and
16 low-risk) were imaged again at 18-24 months. Infants were classified as meeting criteria for
autism spectrum disorder, other developmental delays, or typical development at 24 months or
later (mean age at outcome: 32.5 months). Compared with the other two groups, infants who
developed autism spectrum disorder (n = 10) had significantly greater extra-axial fluid at 6-9
months, which persisted and remained elevated at 12-15 and 18-24 months. Extra-axial fluid
is characterized by excessive cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space, particularly over
the frontal lobes. The amount of extra-axial fluid detected as early as 6 months was predictive of more severe autism spectrum disorder symptoms at the time of outcome. Infants who
developed autism spectrum disorder also had significantly larger total cerebral volumes at
both 12-15 and 18-24 months of age. This is the first magnetic resonance imaging study to
prospectively evaluate brain growth trajectories from infancy in children who develop autism
spectrum disorder. The presence of excessive extra-axial fluid detected as early as 6 months
and the lack of resolution by 24 months is a hitherto unreported brain anomaly in infants who
later develop autism spectrum disorder. This is also the first magnetic resonance imaging evidence of brain enlargement in autism before age 2. These findings raise the potential for the
use of structural magnetic resonance imaging to aid in the early detection of children at risk
for autism spectrum disorder or other neurodevelopmental disorders.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3754460/

Journal Of Mental Health Research And Intellectual Disability • October 2013

A Comparison of the Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist
(ATEC) and the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS)
for the Quantitative Evaluation of Autism
Author information
Geier DA1, Kern JK, Geier MR.
Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc.
Silver Spring, Maryland
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate scores generated from the Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC), a parent-rated measure, and those derived from professionally completed Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) evaluations. A cohort of 56 participants diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder was used for the study, and each child was evaluated
independently by the parent using the ATEC and a health care professional using the CARS.
The Spearman’s rank correlation statistic ∼ was used to evaluate the correlation between ATEC
and CARS scores. It was observed that there was a significant correlation between total ATEC
and CARS scores (∼ = .71). Specific domains in the ATEC evaluation significantly correlated
with CARS scores. Sensitivity, specificity, and receiver operating characteristic confirmed the
association between CARS and ATEC domains. The results help to validate the utility of the
parentally completed ATEC in comparison with an established, professional-related measure
of autism.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23914277

“The results help to validate
the utility of the parentally completed ATEC
in comparison with an established,
professional-related measure of autism.”

Current Neuropharmacology • March 2014

Redox Regulation and the Autistic Spectrum:
Role of Tryptophan Catabolites, Immuno-inflammation,
Autoimmunity and the Amygdala
George Anderson1,* and Michael Maes2,3
1. CRC, Rm:30, 57 Laurel Street, Glasgow, Scotland
2. Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
3. Department of Psychiatry, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
Abstract
The autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) form a set of multi-faceted disorders with significant genetic, epigenetic and environmental determinants. Oxidative and nitrosative stress
(O&NS), immuno-inflammatory pathways, mitochondrial dysfunction and dysregulation of
the tryptophan catabolite (TRYCATs) pathway play significant interactive roles in driving the
early developmental etiology and course of ASD. O&NS interactions with immuno-inflammatory pathways mediate their effects centrally via the regulation of astrocyte and microglia
responses, including regional variations in TRYCATs produced. Here we review the nature of
these interactions and propose an early developmental model whereby different ASD genetic
susceptibilities interact with environmental and epigenetic processes, resulting in glia biasing
the patterning of central interarea interactions. A role for decreased local melatonin and Nacetylserotonin production by immune and glia cells may be a significant treatment target.
Full Report
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3964746/

Pediatrics • May 2014

Parental obesity and risk of autism spectrum disorder
Author information
Surén P1, Gunnes N2, Roth C2, Bresnahan M3, Hornig M4, Hirtz D5, Lie KK6,
Lipkin WI4, Magnus P6, Reichborn-Kjennerud T7, Schjølberg S6, Susser E3, Oyen AS8, Smith GD9, Stoltenberg C10.
1. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway; Centre for Paediatric Epidemiology and Biostatistics
UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
2. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway; Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
3. Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York; New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York
4. Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
5. National Institute of Neurologic Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland
6. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
7. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Psychiatry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
8. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway; Nic Waals Institute, Lovisenberg Hospital, Oslo, Norway
9. MRC Centre for Causal Analysis in Translational Epidemiology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom and
10. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway; Department of Public Health and Primary Health Care
University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

Abstract
OBJECTIVES
The objective of the study was to investigate the associations among maternal prepregnancy BMI, paternal
BMI, and the risk of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in children.
METHODS
The study sample of 92 909 children was derived from the population-based, prospective Norwegian Mother
and Child Cohort Study. The age range was 4.0 through 13.1 (mean 7.4) years. Relative risks of ASDs were
estimated by odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) from logistic regression models.
RESULTS
At the end of follow-up on December 31, 2012, 419 children in the study sample had been diagnosed with
ASDs: 162 with autistic disorder, 103 with Asperger disorder, and 154 with pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. Maternal obesity (BMI ≥30) was only weakly associated with ASD risk,
whereas paternal obesity was associated with an increased risk of autistic disorder and Asperger disorder.
The risk of autistic disorder was 0.27% (25 of 9267) in children of obese fathers and 0.14% (59 of 41 603) in
children of fathers with normal weight (BMI <25), generating an adjusted OR of 1.73 (95% CI: 1.07-2.82).
For Asperger disorder, analyses were limited to children aged ≥7 years (n = 50 116). The risk was 0.38%
(18 of 4761) in children of obese fathers and 0.18% (42 of 22 736) in children of normal-weight fathers, and
the adjusted OR was 2.01 (95% CI: 1.13-3.57). No associations were found for pervasive developmental
disorder not otherwise specified.
CONCLUSIONS
Paternal obesity is an independent risk factor for ASDs in children. The associations should be investigated
further in genetic and epigenetic studies.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24709932

“Several of these influences, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers, aluminum adjuvants,
the herbicide glyphosate, and obesity among U.S. women, have increasing trends that are positively correlated to the rise in autism.
However, most of the toxins surveyed, including lead, PCBs, organochlorine pesticides, vehicular emissions and air pollution, have flat
or declining trends, making it less likely that they can be driving the increase in diagnosed autism
seen over the 35-year period of the composite data set.”
Environmental Health • September 2014

A comparison of temporal trends
in United States autism prevalence
to trends in suspected environmental factors
Cynthia D Nevison
Abstract
Background
The prevalence of diagnosed autism has increased rapidly over the last several decades among U.S. children.
Environmental factors are thought to be driving this increase and a list of the top ten suspected environmental
toxins was published recently.
Methods
Temporal trends in autism for birth years 1970–2005 were derived from a combination of data from the California
Department of Developmental Services (CDDS) and the United States Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA). Temporal trends in suspected toxins were derived from data compiled during an extensive literature
survey. Toxin and autism trends were compared by visual inspection and computed correlation coefficients. Using
IDEA data, autism prevalence vs. birth year trends were calculated independently from snapshots of data from the
most recent annual report, and by tracking prevalence at a constant age over many years of reports. The ratio of
the snapshot:tracking trend slopes was used to estimate the “real” fraction of the increase in autism.
Results
The CDDS and IDEA data sets are qualitatively consistent in suggesting a strong increase in autism prevalence
over recent decades. The quantitative comparison of IDEA snapshot and constant-age tracking trend slopes suggests that ~75-80% of the tracked increase in autism since 1988 is due to an actual increase in the disorder rather
than to changing diagnostic criteria. Most of the suspected environmental toxins examined have flat or decreasing

temporal trends that correlate poorly to the rise in autism. Some, including lead, organochlorine pesticides and
vehicular emissions, have strongly decreasing trends. Among the suspected toxins surveyed, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, aluminum adjuvants, and the herbicide glyphosate have increasing trends that correlate positively
to the rise in autism.
Conclusions
Diagnosed autism prevalence has risen dramatically in the U.S over the last several decades and continued to
trend upward as of birth year 2005. The increase is mainly real and has occurred mostly since the late 1980s.
In contrast, children’s exposure to most of the top ten toxic compounds has remained flat or decreased over this
same time frame. Environmental factors with increasing temporal trends can help suggest hypotheses for drivers
of autism that merit further investigation.
Summary
Temporal trends in autism were constructed both by tracking prevalence at a constant age in a series of historical IDEA reports and by computing prevalence from age-resolved snapshots in individual, recent IDEA reports.
Both the snapshot and tracking approaches suggest a strong increase in autism that took off in the late 1980s and
was ongoing as of birth year 2005. The ratio of the snapshot:tracking slopes suggests that among states with the
most reliable data, about 75 to 80% of the tracked increase in IDEA autism since 1988 is due to a real increase
in the disorder rather than just to better or expanded diagnosis. The trend in California IDEA autism prevalence
was shown to be broadly representative of the mean United States trend and was extended to span birth years
1970–2005 using a composite CDDS plus IDEA dataset. The composite dataset, which shows that a more gradual
increase in autism had begun already by 1980, was compared to the corresponding trends in a list of suspected
toxins and environmental influences. Several of these influences, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers, aluminum adjuvants, the herbicide glyphosate, and obesity among U.S. women, have increasing trends that are
positively correlated to the rise in autism. However, most of the toxins surveyed, including lead, PCBs, organochlorine pesticides, vehicular emissions and air pollution, have flat or declining trends, making it less likely that
they can be driving the increase in diagnosed autism seen over the 35-year period of the composite data set.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4177682/

Molecular Autism • September 2014

Dysregulation of estrogen receptor beta (ERß),
aromatase (CYP19A1), and ER co-activators
in the middle frontal gyrus of autism spectrum disorder subjects
Author information
Crider A1, Thakkar R2, Ahmed AO1, Pillai A1.
1. Department of Psychiatry and Health Behavior, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, 997
St. Sebastian Way, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
2. Department of Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, 997 St. Sebastian Way, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are much more common in males than in females. Molecular alterations within
the estrogen receptor (ER) signaling pathway may contribute to the sex difference in ASD, but the extent of such
abnormalities in the brain is not known.
METHODS
Postmortem middle frontal gyrus tissues (13 ASD and 13 control subjects) were used. The protein levels were
examined by western blotting. The gene expression was determined by qRT-PCR.
RESULTS
Gene expression analysis identified a 35% decrease in ER∼ mRNA expression in the middle frontal gyrus of
ASD subjects. In addition, a 38% reduction in aromatase (CYP19A1) mRNA expression was observed in ASD
subjects. We also found significant decreases in ER co-activators that included a 34% decrease in SRC-1, a 77%
decrease in CBP, and a 52% decrease in P/CAF mRNA levels in ASD subjects relative to controls. There were
no differences in the mRNA levels of TIF-2, AIB-1 (ER co-activators), ER co-repressors (SMRT and nCoR) and
ERß in the middle frontal gyrus of ASD subjects as compared to controls. We observed significant correlations
between ERß, CYP19A1, and co-activators in the study subjects. Immunoblot analysis further confirmed the
changes in ERß and aromatase at the protein level in the control and ASD subjects.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25221668

Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology • September 2014

Impact of environmental factors
on the prevalence of autistic disorder after 1979
Author Information
Theresa A. Deisher*, Ngoc V. Doan, Angelica Omaiye,
Kumiko Koyama and Sarah Bwabye
Sound Choice Pharmaceutical Institute
1749 Dexter Ave N, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate a previously overlooked, universally
introduced environmental factor, fetal and retroviral contaminants in childhood vaccines, absent prior to change points (CPs) in autistic disorder (AD)
prevalence with subsequent dose-effect evidence and known pathologic
mechanisms of action. Worldwide population based cohort study was used
for the design of this study. The United States, Western Australia, United
Kingdom and Denmark settings were used. All live born infants who later
developed autistic disorder delivered after 1 January 1970, whose redacted
vaccination and autistic disorder diagnosis information is publicly available
in databases maintained by the US Federal Government, Western Australia,
UK, and Denmark. The live births, grouped by father’s age, were from the US
and Australia. The children vaccinated with MMRII, Varicella and Hepatitis
A vaccines varied from 19 to 35 months of age at the time of vaccination.
Autistic disorder birth year change points were identified as 1980.9, 1988.4
and 1996 for the US, 1987 for UK, 1990.4 for Western Australia, and 1987.5
for Denmark. Change points in these countries corresponded to introduction
of or increased doses of human fetal cell line-manufactured vaccines, while
no relationship was found between paternal age or Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) revisions and autistic disorder diagnosis. Further, linear
regression revealed that Varicella and Hepatitis A immunization coverage
was significantly correlated to autistic disorder cases. R software was used
to calculate change points. Autistic disorder change points years are coincident with introduction of vaccines manufactured using human fetal cell
lines, containing fetal and retroviral contaminants, into childhood vaccine
regimens. This pattern was repeated in the US, UK, Western Australia and
Denmark. Thus, rising autistic disorder prevalence is directly related to vaccines manufactured utilizing human fetal cells. Increased paternal age and
DSM revisions were not related to rising autistic disorder prevalence.
http://soundchoice.org/scpiJournalPubHealthEpidem092014.pdf

“R software was used to calculate change points.
Autistic disorder change points years are coincident with
introduction of vaccines manufactured using human fetal cell
lines, containing fetal and retroviral contaminants,
into childhood vaccine regimens ... rising autistic disorder
prevalence is directly related to vaccines manufactured
utilizing human fetal cells.”

Environmental Toxicology And Pharmacology • November 2014

Autism: a form of lead and mercury toxicity
Author information
Yassa HA
Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Department
Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt
heba612@hotmail.com
Abstract
AIM
Autism is a developmental disability characterized by severe deficits
in social interaction and communication. The definite cause of autism
is still unknown. The aim of this study is to find out the relation between exposure to Lead and/or mercury as heavy metals and autistic
symptoms, dealing with the heavy metals with chelating agents can
improve the autististic symptoms.
METHOD
Blood and hair samples were obtained from 45 children from Upper
Egypt with autism between the ages of 2 and 10 years and 45 children served as controls in the same age range, after taken an informed
consent and fill a questionnaire to assess the risk factors. The samples
were analyzed blindly for lead and mercury by using atomic absorption and ICP-MS. Data from the two groups were compared, then follow up of the autistic children after treatment with chelating agents
were done.
RESULTS
The results obtained showed significant difference among the two
groups, there was high level of mercury and lead among those kids
with autism. Significant decline in the blood level of lead and mercury with the use of DMSA as a chelating agent. In addition, there
was decline in the autistic symptoms with the decrease in the lead and
mercury level in blood.
CONCLUSION
Lead and mercury considered as one of the main causes of autism.
Environmental exposure as well as defect in heavy metal metabolism
is responsible for the high level of heavy metals. Detoxification by
chelating agents had great role in improvement of those kids.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25461563

“Lead and mercury considered
as one of the main causes of autism.
Environmental exposure as well as
defect in heavy metal metabolism is
responsible for the high level of heavy metals.”

Current Problems In Pediatric And Adolescent Health Care • November 2014

Environmental chemical exposures and autism spectrum disorders:
a review of the epidemiological evidence
Author information
Kalkbrenner AE1, Schmidt RJ2, Penlesky AC1.
1. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI
2. Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA
Medical Investigation of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (MIND) Institute
University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA
Abstract
In the past decade, the number of epidemiological publications addressing environmental chemical exposures and
autism has grown tremendously. These studies are important because it is now understood that environmental factors play a larger role in causing autism than previously thought and because they address modifiable risk factors
that may open up avenues for the primary prevention of the disability associated with autism. In this review, we
covered studies of autism and estimates of exposure to tobacco, air pollutants, volatile organic compounds and
solvents, metals (from air, occupation, diet, dental amalgams, and thimerosal-containing vaccines), pesticides, and
organic endocrine-disrupting compounds such as flame retardants, non-stick chemicals, phthalates, and bisphenol
A. We included studies that had individual-level data on autism, exposure measures pertaining to pregnancy or the
1st year of life, valid comparison groups, control for confounders, and adequate sample sizes. Despite the inherent
error in the measurement of many of these environmental exposures, which is likely to attenuate observed associations, some environmental exposures showed associations with autism, especially traffic-related air pollutants,
some metals, and several pesticides, with suggestive trends for some volatile organic compounds (e.g., methylene
chloride, trichloroethylene, and styrene) and phthalates. Whether any of these play a causal role requires further
study. Given the limited scope of these publications, other environmental chemicals cannot be ruled out, but have
not yet been adequately studied. Future research that addresses these and additional environmental chemicals,
including their most common routes of exposures, with accurate exposure measurement pertaining to several
developmental windows, is essential to guide efforts for the prevention of the neurodevelopmental damage that
manifests in autism symptoms.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25199954

Journal Of Developmental Physical Disability • February 2015

A Review of the Differences in Developmental,
Psychiatric, and Medical Endophenotypes
Between Males and Females with
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Eric Rubenstein, Lisa D. Wiggins, and Li-Ching Lee
Department of Epidemiology
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
615 N. Wolfe Street, Room E6032
Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is over four times more prevalent in
males compared to females. Increased understanding of sex differences
in ASD endophenotypes could add insight into possible etiologies and the
assessment and management of the disorder. Consequently, the purpose of
this review is to describe current literature regarding sex differences in the
developmental, psychiatric, and medical endophenotypes of ASD in order
to illustrate current knowledge and areas in need of further research. Our
review found that repetitive behaviors and restricted interests are more
common in males than females with ASD. Intellectual disability is more
common in females than males with ASD. Attention to detail may be more
common in males than females with ASD and epilepsy may be more common in females than males with ASD, although limited research in these
areas prevent definitive conclusions from being drawn. There does not appear to be a sex difference in other developmental, psychiatric, and medical symptoms associated with ASD, or the research was contradictory or
too sparse to establish a sex difference. Our review is unique in that it offers detailed discussion of sex differences in three major endophenotypes
of ASD. Further research is needed to better understand why sex differences exist in certain ASD traits and to evaluate whether phenotypic sex
differences are related to different pathways of development, assessment,
and treatment of the disorder.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4490156/

“Further research is needed to better
understand why sex differences exist
in certain ASD traits and to evaluate
whether phenotypic sex differences
are related to different pathways of
development, assessment, and
treatment of the disorder.”

Journal Of Attention Disorders • September 2015

Are ASD and ADHD a Continuum?
A Comparison of Pathophysiological Similarities
Between the Disorders
Author information
Kern JK1, Geier DA2, Sykes LK3, Geier MR4, Deth RC5.
1. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, TX. USA
2. Institute of Chronic Illnesses, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
3. CoMeD, Inc., Silver Spring, MD, USA
4. ASD Centers, LLC, Silver Spring, MD, USA
5. Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
jkern@dfwair.net
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to review and compare the similarities between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and ADHD with regard to symptomatology, neurological deficits, metabolic and endocrine-related conditions,
and brain pathology.
METHOD
A comprehensive review of the relevant research literature was carried out.
RESULTS
A number of important similarities between ASD and ADHD were identified, including recent increases in prevalence, male-biased incidence, shared
involvement of sensory processing, motor and impulse control, abnormal
patterns of neural connectivity, and sleep disturbances. Studies suggest involvement of androgen metabolism, impaired methylation, and heavy metal
toxicity as possible contributing factors for both disorders.
CONCLUSION
ASD and ADHD share a number of features and pathophysiological conditions, which suggests that the two disorders may be a continuum and have a
common origin.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23074304

“ASD and ADHD share a number of features
and pathophysiological conditions, which
suggests that the two disorders may be a
continuum and have a common origin.”

International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience • September 2015

Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Emergency Department: Looking Beyond Behavior
Richard E Frye
Autism Research Program, Arkansas Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA
Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
Corresponding Author :
E-mail: REFrye@uams.edu
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that is behaviorally defined by its well-recognized impairments in
verbal and non-verbal communication and social interactions in addition to
distinctive restrictive and repetitive behaviors (APA, 1994). Over the past
decades the incidence of this disorder has dramatically increased. Although
the reason or reasons for this increase is still up for debate, the fact remains
that ASD is now estimated to affect 1 in 68 children in the United States
(Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year Principal, Centers for Disease, & Prevention, 2014). ASD is defined by behavioral
manifestations, yet children with ASD have a high prevalence of many medical conditions including recurrent infections (Doshi-Velez, Ge, & Kohane,
2014), gastrointestinal (GI) disturbances (Chaidez, Hansen, & Hertz-Picciotto, 2013), seizures and epilepsy (Frye et al., 2013), anxiety (Sukhodolsky, Bloch, Panza, & Reichow, 2013), allergies (Angelidou et al., 2011)
and metabolic disorders (Frye & James, 2014; Frye & Rossignol, 2012) including mitochondrial disease (Frye & Rossignol, 2011; Rossignol & Frye,
2012). With the increase in prevalence and the significant co-morbidity of
medical problems, it is likely that medical professionals in the emergency
and urgent care facilities will have increasing exposure to individuals with
ASD for urgent medical management, particularly acute behavioral dysregulation. When this occurs it will be important to consider their special needs
and understand the unique manner in which common medical problem may
present in individuals with ASD. Indeed, children without typical communication skills, aberrant behaviors may be the manner in which the child is
communicating the need for medical attention (Buie et al., 2010).

ASD is associated with a wide spectrum of behavioral manifestations. Some
of the most disruptive behaviors, referred to as aberrant behaviors, can cause
significant disability and distress to the patient and caregiver (Baghdadli, Pry,
Michelon, & Rattaz, 2014). Aberrant behavior is divided into subcategories
by the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (Slosson Educational Publications Inc,
East Aurora, NY). These categories include Irritability, Social Withdrawal,
Stereotypy, Hyperactivity and Inappropriate Speech. Irritability, which includes severe tantrums, aggression, and self-injury, is one of the major and
most disruptive aberrant behaviors (Stigler, 2014). Irritability is commonly
treated with antipsychotic medication with or without behavior therapy
(Aman et al., 2009). Treating with a medication to suppression symptoms
rather than understanding if there is an underlying medical cause for such
behaviors can be problematic for several reasons. First, treating symptoms
instead of identifying a cause can lead to increased morbidity and mortality
from an undiagnosed disorder. Second, antipsychotic medications can detrimentally affect glucose, cholesterol and lipids and weight, even in the shortterm (Correll et al., 2009; Wink et al., 2014) and long-term anti-psychotic
use increases the risk for type II diabetes (Bobo et al., 2013) and can result
in tardive dyskinesia, a potentially permanent movement disorder (Correll
& Kane, 2007). Thus, it may be best to look beyond the obvious of controlling behavior and understanding what the behavior means in order to solve
potentially important medical conditions to improve the long-term health of
a child with ASD. Several examples are given below of the medical condition that can present as behavioral dysregulation in children with ASD.

GI disturbances have been reported to occur in 9% to 70% of children
with ASD, with high quality studies suggesting that GI symptoms are very
prevalent. GI symptoms commonly manifest as behavioral manifestations
in children with ASD (Buie et al., 2010). For example, abdominal pain,
gastroesophageal reflux disease and/ or constipation can manifest as vocal
symptoms such as frequent repetitive throat clearing or swallowing and/or
screaming, crying, whining or sobbing for no reason; motor behaviors such
as facial grimacing, teeth grinding, chewing on clothes or other objects,
applying pressure to the abdomen or aggressive or self-injurious behavior;
and/or general behaviors such sleep disturbance or irritability (Buie et al.,
2010). Thus, it is important to obtain a GI history, including symptoms of
gastroesophageal reflux, stool frequency and consistency, and perform a
careful GI examination to look for abdominal distention and/or impaction.
Many of the GI symptoms may drive aberrant behavior through causing
pain. When a child cannot communicate verbally, aberrant and unusual behaviors may be the only manner in which the child can communicate that
pain exists. Thus, the clinician needs to have a high index of suspicion for
obvious and non-obvious sources of pain. For example, head banging is
sometimes associated with headache. Other sources of pain not uncommon
in childhood such as pharyngitis, sinusitis, otitis media and dental caries,
just to name a few, must also be considered. A trial of analgesics might be
appropriate if pain is believed to be driving the behavior. Interestingly celecoxib has been shown to be an effective adjunctive treatment to risperidone
for irritability in a double-blind placebo-controlled trial.
(Asadabadi et al., 2013).

Full Report With References
http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/autism-spectrum-disorder-in-the-emergency-department-looking-beyond-behavior-1522-4821-1000253.php?aid=61163

Sleep disruption is estimated to affect from 44% to 83% of individuals with
ASD, with delayed sleep onset and nighttime wakening being the most
predominant symptoms (Krakowiak et al., 2008). Several studies have
demonstrated that disruption in sleep patterns is associated with problem
behaviors during the day, particularly in low-functioning ASD individuals
(Cohen et al., 2014), and lower overall functioning in several measures of
development including greater problems with language and communication
(Taylor, Schreck, & Mulick, 2012). Melatonin is a safe and effective treatment sleep duration and sleep onset latency but is less effective for night
time wakening (Rossignol & Frye, 2011) and has been shown to improve
daytime behavior and parenting stress (Malow et al., 2012). In addition, a
case series reported that the selective melatonin receptor agonist ramelteon
can also be effective for improving sleep and daytime behavior (Kawabe,
Horiuchi, Oka, & Ueno, 2014). Thus, a careful focused sleep history may
provide important information which can lead to appropriate evaluation and
treatment.
Anxiety is very common in ASD (Vasa & Mazurek, 2015), particularly in
high-functioning ASD children (Chandler et al., 2015). Anxiety is related
to aggressive behavior (Pugliese, White, White, & Ollendick, 2013), more
severe repetitive behaviors and lower overall development (Magiati et al.,
2015) and sleep disruption (Mazurek & Petroski, 2015). A wide variety of
treatments for anxiety have been studied in individuals with ASD. The best
studied treatments for anxiety in ASD include intranasal oxytocin (Hofmann, Fang, & Brager, 2015) and cognitive-behavioral therapy (Ung, Selles, Small, & Storch, 2015). Although selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
were previously considered useful in the ASD population, such medications
may increase the risk of behavioral activation (Vasa & Mazurek, 2015) and
may be best suited for treating repetitive behavior (Hollander et al., 2012).
Thus, it is important to screen for symptoms of anxiety as such a significant
psychiatric comorbidity could be driving disruptive behavior.
There appears to be a wide range of behavioral manifestations that are related to immune dysregulation, although the treatments for these disorders
are not well studied. Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated With Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS), a disorder which can
result in sudden onset obsessive compulsive behavior, tics and Tourette like
behavior (Martino, Defazio, & Giovannoni, 2009), is associated with ASD
(Libbey & Fujinami, 2010). Recently PANDAS has been brought in under
the umbrella of Pediatric Acute-Onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS)

and recommendation for diagnostic workup have been outlined in a consensus conference (Chang et al., 2015). The recent recognition of the association of PANDAS/PANS with specific antibodies titers to basal ganglia has
provided a medical test to help with diagnosis of these patients (Cox et al.,
2015). Other immune abnormalities, which are less well-studied, have been
reported. These include the associated between depressed plasma immunoglobulin concentrations with aberrant behavior (Heuer et al., 2008) and the
recognition of a subset of children with ASD with behavioral dysregulation
following episodes of immune activation (Jyonouchi, Geng, Streck, & Toruner, 2012). Although treatments for immune abnormalities are not well
studied, identifying immune abnormalities can result in appropriate referral
and treatment.
A disorder related to depressed folate concentration in the brain appears to
be rather common is ASD and may be related to behavioral dysregulation.
The folate receptor alpha autoantibody is prevalent in ASD with up to 75%
of ASD patients being positive for the blocking or binding autoantibody
(Frye et al., 2013). Autoantibody titers are directly correlated with increased
aggressive behavior (Ramaekers et al., 2007). Titers are increased by the
ingestion of milk and behavior can be improved with the treatment of a milk
free diet (Ramaekers, Sequeira, Blau, & Quadros, 2008). Since this autoantibody blocks the ability of folate from crossing the blood-brain barrier,
an alternative form of folate, high-dose folinic acid, can improve behavior
in ASD patient with folate receptor alpha autoantibodies (Frye et al., 2013;
Moretti et al., 2005).
These medical conditions which are associated with behavioral dysregulation are under recognized across many medical settings, but it is of the upmost importance for medical professional in the emergency and urgent care
departments to recognize these potential medical conditions since many
children with ASD will arrive in the emergency department when behavior
suddenly escalates. Unfortunately, the evaluation of children with ASD and
behavioral dysregulation has not been standardized and many of the medical
abnormalities associated with behavioral dysregulation have not been well
studied, especially in regards to treatment. Recognition of these conditions
can lead to appropriate management and referrals. With the rising number
of children with ASD it is important for front line medical professional to be
comfortable with evaluating children with ASD and to consider the medical
complexities associated with ASD.

Behavioral Neurology • October 2015

Assessment of Hair Aluminum, Lead, and Mercury
in a Sample of Autistic Egyptian Children: Environmental
Risk Factors of Heavy Metals in Autism
Author information
Mohamed Fel B1, Zaky EA1, El-Sayed AB2, Elhossieny RM1,
Zahra SS1, Salah Eldin W3, Youssef WY1, Khaled RA1, Youssef AM1
1. Pediatrics Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
2. National Institute of Standards, Giza, Egypt
3. Community Medicine Department, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Abstract
Background and Aims. The etiological factors involved in the etiology of autism remain elusive and controversial, but both genetic and environmental factors have been implicated. The
aim of this study was to assess the levels and possible environmental risk factors and sources
of exposure to mercury, lead, and aluminum in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
as compared to their matched controls.
Methods. One hundred ASD children were studied in comparison to 100 controls. All participants were subjected to clinical evaluation and measurement of mercury, lead, and aluminum
through hair analysis which reflects past exposure.
Results. The mean Levels of mercury, lead, and aluminum in hair of the autistic patients
were significantly higher than controls. Mercury, lead, and aluminum levels were positively
correlated with maternal fish consumptions, living nearby gasoline stations, and the usage of
aluminum pans, respectively.
Conclusion. Levels of mercury, lead, and aluminum in the hair of autistic children are higher
than controls. Environmental exposure to these toxic heavy metals, at key times in development, may play a causal role in autism.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=26508811

“Levels of mercury, lead, and aluminum
in the hair of autistic children are higher
than controls. Environmental exposure to
these toxic heavy metals, at key times in
development, may play a causal role in autism.”

Chapter Seven
Short Essays On Vaccination

Herd Immunity:
Can Infectious Diseases be Prevented
by High Vaccination Coverage?
By Lucija Tomljenovic, PhD
The frequent statement that high levels of vaccination prevent disease outbreaks is not accurate as
infectious diseases do in fact occur even in fully vaccinated populations [1] as well as individuals.
[2] (See Table 1 for more examples)
The likely reason for this is that vaccines primarily stimulate humoral immunity (antibody-based
or Th2 responses) while they have little or no effect on cellular immunity (cytotoxic T-cells, Th1
responses), which is absolutely crucial for protection against viral as well as some bacterial pathogens. [3]
This may be the reason why vaccine-induced immunities are transient, requiring booster shots;
while naturally acquired immunity conferred by the cellular immune system tends to be permanent in the absence of vaccination.
Taken together, these observations may explain why outbreaks of allegedly vaccine-preventable
diseases do occur in fully vaccinated populations and why, immunity (or its absence) cannot be
reliably determined by measuring antibody levels, [4] which is the most common measure of vaccine efficacy in clinical trials. [5-7]
It should be noted that there is an instance where vaccinations can induce T-cell (Th1) responses.
This is possible in the case of repetitive immunizations with the same antigen (i.e., closely spaced
“booster shoots”).
However, the induction of such immune responses is deleterious as demonstrated by Tsumiyama
et al. [8] who showed that CD4+ T cells from repeatedly-immunized mice acquire the ability to
induce autoantibodies which result in autoimmune tissue injury akin to that seen in human autoimmune diseases.
From these experiments Tsumiyama et al. [8] concluded that systemic autoimmunity appears to
be the inevitable consequence of over-stimulating the host’s immune ‘system’ by repeated immunization with antigen.
Full Report
http://sanevax.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Herd-Immunity-.pdf

Forced Vaccinations: For the Greater Good?
by Lucija Tomljenovic, PhD
Full Report
http://vaccinechoicecanada.com/wp-content/uploads/Forced-Vaccinations-For-the-Greater-Good-Tomljenovic.pdf

Dr. Lucija Tomljenovic was awarded a PhD in 2009 in Biochemistry from the Comparative Genomics Centre at James
Cook University in Townsville, Australia. In 2010, she joined
the Neural Dynamics Research Group at the University of British Columbia (Chris Shaw’s lab) and is currently researching
the neurotoxic effects of aluminium vaccine adjuvants.

Lawsuits claiming Merck lied
about mumps vaccine efficacy headed to trial
September 9, 2014 by Carly Helfand
Two lawsuits claiming Merck ($MRK) lied about the efficacy of its mumps vaccine won’t be going away anytime
soon. A federal judge in Pennsylvania refused to dismiss the suits, filed by a pair of whistleblowers and a group
of doctors and payers, and now, they’re on their way to trial.
On Thursday, U.S. District Judge C. Darnell Jones II ruled that the whistleblowers--two former Merck virologists-had sufficiently showed that the company may have misstated the vaccine’s efficacy to the government, Law360
reports. And the direct purchasers produced enough evidence to establish that those false statements could have
helped give Merck a monopoly, the judge said. Now, the plaintiffs will have to prove their cases at trial.
Merck has been the sole manufacturer with an FDA license to produce mumps vaccine since 1967, the news service points out, and the company has long touted a 95% efficacy rate for the shot. The drugmaker brought in $621
million on mumps vaccine sales last year, between its M-M-R II vaccine and ProQuad, a pediatric combo jab.
But rather than using the “gold standard” approach and testing the vaccine against a wild-type mumps virus,
Merck tested it against the attenuated virus strain that had created the vaccine in the 1960s--likely overstating the
vaccine’s effectiveness, the whistleblowers claim, according to the judge’s memorandum. And if Merck “fraudulently misled the government and omitted, concealed, and adulterated material information regarding the efficacy
of its mumps vaccine” in violation of the False Claims Act, as they allege, it may have discouraged competition.
“As with the market for any product, a potential competitor’s decision to enter a market hinges on whether
its product can compete with those products already being sold in the market,” the complaint reads, as quoted
by Law360. “If an existing vaccine is represented as safe and at least 95% effective, as Merck has falsely represented its vaccine to be, it would be economically irrational for a potential competitor to bring a new mumps
vaccine to the relevant market,” the suit claims.
The way Merck sees it, whether it misstated the vaccine’s efficacy is a matter for the FDA to investigate. The
company argued that the whistleblowers’ claims “rest on a finding that the vaccine label is misbranded, a determination which should fall squarely under the ‘scientific expertise’ and ‘regulatory discretion’” of the agency, the
memorandum says.
But Jones didn’t agree, and now it’ll be up to the courts to decide--a prospect that pleases Constantine Cannon,
which is representing the whistleblowers, and Robins Kaplan Miller & Ciresi, representing the direct purchasers.
“This decision brings us one step closer to shining a light on Merck’s deceptive business practices so that new and
more effective vaccines will ultimately be developed in the future,” Robins Kaplan Miller & Ciresi lawyer Kellie
Lerner said in a statement.
Read the judges Memorandum
http://assets.fiercemarkets.net/public/merckmemo.pdf

CDC Responds to Allegation it Omitted Vaccine-Autism Study Link
by Sharyl Attkisson • August 28, 2014
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is responding to a charge from one of its own senior scientists that it omitted key data in a 2004 study that would have revealed a link between autism and a commonlyrequired childhood vaccine, MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella).
The allegation was made by CDC epidemiologist William Thompson in a statement this week issued through his
attorney. It states: “I regret that my coauthors and I omitted statistically significant information in our 2004 article
published in the journal Pediatrics. The omitted data suggested that African American males who received the
MMR vaccine before age 36 months were at increased risk for autism.”
It is highly unusual, if not unprecedented, for a sitting CDC senior scientist to blow the whistle on alleged scientific misconduct involving a study article that he co-authored. In this instance, the impact of the charge is magnified
by more than a decade of allegations from autism advocates who say the federal government and pharmaceutical
interests have worked to downplay or hide associations between vaccines and autism.

“[Vaccine] exposure around [three years of age] is just not biologically plausible to have a causal association with
autism,” DeStefano says. “I mean autism would’ve already started by then…it probably starts in the womb. So I
think from a biological argument, it’s implausible this was a causal association.”
Highly-Charged Issue
The issue is highly-charged for several reasons: public health officials fear that the public will panic and stop
vaccinating if they believe there are links between vaccines and autism. That could lead to resurgence in serious
infectious diseases.
Also, vaccination is a multi-billion dollar global industry that employs law firms and public relations agents to
engage in a variety of high-powered PR efforts. These efforts include: lobbying members of Congress to prevent
hearings exploring vaccine safety, holding private meetings with news executives to discourage reporting on vaccines and autism, and financing nonprofits which take favorable positions on vaccine safety issues. Because pharmaceutical companies that produce vaccines spend millions of dollars each year buying advertising on television,
print and online, critics argue they may be given undue influence over content of the reporting media.

Dr. Frank DeStefano, CDC Director of Immunization Safety

Pharmaceutical interests and their surrogates routinely falsely portray scientists and journalists who investigate
vaccine safety as “anti-vaccine.” In his statement, Thompson emphasizes his safety concerns do not reflect an
“anti-vaccine” mentality.

A spokesman for the journal Pediatrics today said the publication stands by the study despite the news. “There’s a
standard process that journals follow when an article is questioned,” said the spokesman. “Those discussions took
place between the editors of Pediatrics and the authors of this study, and the editors concluded the research was
appropriately conducted.” Pediatrics is published by the American Academy of Pediatrics, which accepts vaccine
industry funding.

“I want to be absolutely clear that I believe vaccines have saved and continue to save countless lives,” Thompson
states. “I would never suggest that any parent avoid vaccinating children of any race. Vaccines prevent serious
diseases, and the risks associated with their administration are vastly outweighed by their individual and societal
benefits.

The Director of the CDC Immunization Safety Office, Dr. Frank DeStefano, is a co-author of the now-questioned
study which has been widely-cited to dispel an MMR-autism link. DeStefano is frequently quoted as an expert
who debunks vaccine-autism ties.

“My concern has been the decision to omit relevant findings in a particular study for a particular sub group for a
particular vaccine. There have always been recognized risks for vaccination and I believe it is the responsibility
of the CDC to properly convey the risks associated with receipt of those vaccines.”

“I stand by the research and the conclusions in our 2004 paper, and I’ll reiterate that the evidence, thus far, the
weight of the evidence, is against a causal association between vaccines and autism,” DeStefano told me in a
telephone interview this week.

Subgroup Susceptibility?

“Lowest Point in my Career”
Thompson is a PhD who works in the National Immunization Program at the CDC where he has been employed
for 16 years. His revelations were first made public after he reportedly made wide-ranging claims and confessions in a series of telephone conversations with autism advocate and researcher Brian Hooker of Focus Autism.
Hooker, also a PhD, is an assistant professor of biology and the parent of an autistic teenager. Because of the
significance of Thompson’s allegations, Hooker began recording some of the conversations without Thompson’s
knowledge.
“It’s the lowest point in my career that I went along with that paper,” Thompson tells Hooker in a recording played
on the online Autism Media Channel. “I went along with this, we didn’t report significant findings.”
The CDC’s DeStefano acknowledges that he and his study co-authors changed their study analysis plan midstream, which resulted in reducing the statistical vaccine-autism link among black boys. But he says they did so
for good scientific reason.

Former National Institutes of Health Director Dr. Bernadine Healy broke ranks with her Institute of Medicine
colleagues in 2008 in saying that public health officials have intentionally avoided researching whether subsets of
children are “susceptible” to vaccine side effects because they are afraid that the answer will scare the public.
“What we’re seeing in the bulk of the population: vaccines are safe,” said Healy. “But there may be this susceptible group. The fact that there is concern, that you don’t want to know that susceptible group is a real disappointment to me. If you know that susceptible group, you can save those children. If you turn your back on the notion
that there is a susceptible group… what can I say?”
“You’re saying that public health officials have turned their back on a viable area of research largely because
they’re afraid of what might be found?” I asked Healy, at the time.
Healy answered, “There is a completely expressed concern that they don’t want to pursue a hypothesis because
that hypothesis could be damaging to the public health community at large by scaring people. “First of all,” Healy
said, “I think the public’s smarter than that. The public values vaccines. But more importantly, I don’t think you
should ever turn your back on any scientific hypothesis because you’re afraid of what it might show.”
To date, the only vaccine that carries an explicit autism warning under “Adverse Reactions” on its label is Tripe-

dia’s DTaP (Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids and Acellular Pertussis Vaccine Adsorbed) vaccine. The label states
that “autism” is included, along with SIDS, encephalopathy (brain damage) among other adverse events “because
of the seriousness or frequency of reporting.” The label states, “Because these events are reported voluntarily
from a population of uncertain size, it is not always possible to reliably estimate their frequencies or to establish
a causal relationship to components of Tripedia vaccine.”
The CDC’s MMR vaccine information page cites the following “very rare” severe problems: “deafness, longterm seizures, coma, or lowered consciousness and permanent brain damage.”
This week, in response to a query, the CDC stated that it is not currently investigating the relation between vaccines and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). “Further, CDC does not have any planned research addressing vaccines and autism,” said a CDC spokesman.
“CDC believes that this topic has been thoroughly studied and no causal links have been found. Current CDC
ASD related research focuses on determining how many people have ASD and understanding risk factors and
causes for ASD.”–CDC spokesman
In his statement, Thompson says that his colleagues and supervisors at the CDC have been entirely professional
since his allegations became public. “In fact, I received a performance-based award” after the news came out, he
says.
Further responding to Thompson’s allegations, the CDC says, “Additional studies and a more recent rigorous
review by the Institute of Medicine have found that MMR vaccine does not increase the risk

CDC: “Possibility” that vaccines rarely trigger autism

the Kennedy Krieger Institute, stated that he had “personally witnessed [Hannah’s] developmental regression”
following “vaccine-induced fever and immune stimulation.”

September 2014

CDC’s immunization safety director says it’s a “possibility” that vaccines rarely trigger autism but “it’s hard to
predict who those children might be.” (They’re not even trying.)

Zimmerman concluded that Hannah was vulnerable to vaccine injury because she had a metabolic disorder called
mitochondrial dysfunction. While vaccines are safe for most children, in Hannah, they triggered a brain injury, according to Zimmerman. Whether vaccines “caused” or “triggered” Hannah’s autism, the result was the same: but
for her vaccinations, Zimmerman said, “Hannah may have led a normal full productive life.” Instead, she suffers
“significant lifelong disability.”

A CDC senior epidemiologist stepped forward last week to say that he and his CDC colleagues omitted data that
linked MMR vaccine to autism in a 2004 study. The scientist, William Thompson, said “I regret that my coauthors
and I omitted statistically significant information.” A coauthor of the questioned study is Dr. Frank DeStefano,
Director of the CDC Immunization Safety Office. In a telephone interview last week, DeStefano defended the
study and reiterated the commonly accepted position that there’s no “causal” link between vaccines and autism.
But he acknowledged the prospect that vaccines might rarely trigger autism.

A second underlying condition that was aggravated by vaccines, resulting in mental retardation and autism, is
tuberous sclerosis or “TS,” according to a 1986 vaccine court case. According to the National Institutes of Health,
TS affects 1 in every 6,000 newborns. Not all children who developed autism as a result of vaccine injuries, as determined by vaccine court, had identifiable pre-existing conditions. But I asked the CDC’s DeStefano whether it
was worth trying to figure out what underlying conditions put kids at risk so they can be tested in advance and, if
vulnerable, spared.

“I guess, that, that is a possibility,” said DeStefano. “It’s hard to predict who those children might be, but certainly,
individual cases can be studied to look at those possibilities.”

“That’s very difficult to do,” DeStefano told me. He said the CDC’s priorities are gaining a better understanding
of the pathogenesis, genetics and biology of autism. “And then, I think… it’d be more feasible to try to establish
if vaccines in an individual case, say a person with a certain set of genes…if we ever get to that point, then that
kind of research might be fruitful.”

by Sharyl Attkisson

It is a significant admission from a leading health official at an agency that has worked for nearly 15 years to dispel the public of any notion of a tie between vaccines and autism. Vaccines are among the most heralded medical
inventions of our time. Billions of people have been vaccinated worldwide, countless lives have been saved and
debilitating injuries prevented. The possibility that vaccines may also partly be responsible for autism, in individual cases, is not something public health officials are typically eager to address. One such individual case is
that of Hannah Poling.
Hannah Poling
Hannah Poling was considered normal, happy and precocious until 19 months of age when she was vaccinated
against nine diseases in one doctor’s visit: measles, mumps, rubella, polio, varicella, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus,
and Haemophilus influenzae. Afterward, she developed high fevers, had screaming fits, stopped eating, didn’t
respond when spoken to and began showing signs of autism. As vaccination has grown into a multi-billion dollar
industry, children have gone from being inoculated against four diseases in 1953 to today’s recommended schedule of shots for 16 diseases requiring 49 doses by age 6. The government and pharmaceutical industry have said
evidence shows babies’ systems can easily handle the immune boost.
In federal “vaccine court,” the U.S. government defends injury claims on behalf of vaccine makers In 2002,
Hannah’s parents—her father a neurologist, her mother a nurse and attorney—filed a claim in a specially-created
federal vaccine court in which the U.S. Department of Justice defends vaccine interests. Hannah was to serve as
a test case to help decide the outcome of thousands of vaccine-autism claims. The case was strong. In 2007, contemplating Hannah would win her claim, sources say the vaccine court analyzed what the broader financial impact
might be. It found that a flood of similar vaccine-autism claims would quickly deplete the government’s vaccine
injury compensation fund, which is supported by a small fee patients pay on each dose of vaccine.
But instead of allowing Hannah’s case to publicly serve as a precedent for other possible victims, the government took another course: it quietly settled the case and sealed the results. Other families with autistic children
were never to know. Hannah’s family petitioned the court to be allowed to reveal the findings but the government
fought to keep the case sealed—and prevailed. Still, news of Hannah’s case leaked out in 2008—along with the
medical explanation for her vaccine-related “autistic encephalopathy [brain damage].” Vaccines prevent many
diseases that once routinely killed or harmed. But can vaccines trigger autism in a small subset of vulnerable
children? In a court-submitted opinion, neurologist Dr. Andrew Zimmerman, Director of Medical Research at

Not worthy of study?
But it turns out the CDC has ruled out that sort of research. A CDC spokesman told me that the agency is not “currently investigating the relation between vaccines and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Further, CDC does not
have any planned research addressing vaccines and autism.” As of May, 2010 the government had compensated
1,296 vaccine brain damage (encephalopathy/encephalitis and seizure cases) but was not tracking how many of
the brain-injured children specifically ended up with autism.
“CDC believes that this topic has been thoroughly studied and no causal links have been found,” said the spokesman in an email. “Current CDC ASD related research focuses on determining how many people have ASD and
understanding risk factors and causes for ASD,” said the CDC. Seven years after Hannah’s case settled, twentyeight years after the TS case, it’s impossible to know how many similar children, if any, are out there. And the
government isn’t trying to find out.
Attkisson: And is, is the pos—the current position that any potential link between vaccines and autism, secondary,
any kind at all, has been entirely ruled out 100%?
DeStefano: I re, you know, I re—uh, I think every hypothesis that’s been looked at has been, uh, ruled out.
Attkisson: But, I mean, are you, are you, can I say the CDC’s position is that if anybody thinks there’s anything
anymore, it’s a myth? It’s all been disproven?
DeStefano: Wouldn’t say it’s a myth, I’d say, you know, all the evidence, thus far, points to that there’s not a causal
association between vaccines and autism.
Attkisson: What about secondary?
DeStefano: Sec—I don’t understand what do you mean “secondary”?
Attkisson: What about not “causal,” but “as a result of” vaccines, as in the Poling case? The medical expert
found, you know, as a result of the damages she had from the vaccines, she ended up with autism. And the distinc-

tion was made in the medical expert, ‘well, that’s not ‘causal’, it’s sort of a ‘but for’ but it’s not a ‘causal.’
DeStefano: Yeah, I mean, I mean in that case, you know, she had a, I mean, you know, she had an underlying uh
biological illness that uh either vaccination, or it could’ve been an infection that that would trigger some physiological stress in her, uh, seems to have, you know, could’ve, could’ve caused uh, um, manifestations that, characteristics of autism which, you, you know, appears to be what happened in her case.
Attkisson: But I mean doesn’t that, is—isn’t that a “link”? It’s not a “causal” link, but isn’t that a potential link
between vaccination and autism if certain children with a “underyling biological illness” can have a “trigger”
through vaccination?
DeStefano: [Unintell] as you call it, a secondary link if you wanna call it that way, w– in certain children, I mean
ri—I mean, I, maybe that, but, you know, then I guess, that, that is a possibility.
Attkisson: Do you think that’s an important area of study so we could figure out which kids might have that predisposition?
DeStefano: uh, [phone noise] Yeah, I mean, I think um…You know, I think it’s something that, uh, well I mean,
you know, in terms of uh… I mean, It’s hard, it’s hard to say, you know, I mean it’s like, um…I mean how how
important that is. I mean, it’s a theoretical possibility, I guess the, the Poling case maybe suggested it could happen. Uh, but [unintell] cause it’s hard to predict who those children might be, but certainly, um individual cases,
uh, can be studied to try to, uh, to look at those, uh, those possibilities.
Attkisson: Well I would just think—and then, then I’ll let you go in a few minutes unless you have more time—
but as a parent, if my kid had whatever Poling had and we could figure that out, that would be one kid you would
cull out [from vaccination] versus not worry about other kids if they don’t have that predisposition. But maybe
you could identify the ones that would be vulnerable. But I haven’t seen that there’s any—is there an area of study
trying to do such a thing within CDC or funded by CDC? Or NIH?
DeStefano: Well, in terms of like, you know, the area at CDC that’s that’s studying autism and possible causal
relationships of autism, uh, you know, whatever they may be, uh, is in the Center the National Center for Birth
Defects and Developmental Disability, and they, they do monitoring for autism prevalence and they do have, uh,
studies trying to go on, you know, going on to, to look at, uh, a number of factors that could be, uh, related to, uh,
increasing the risk of autism or causing autism.
Attkisson: I mean I think to sum up, you’re you’re saying what I, what I think is also the case just based on my
own research: that while the government has ruled out any known “causal” link between autism and vaccines,
it hasn’t ruled out the possibility, and in fact there seems to be at least one case where it’s acknowledged what
I called a “secondary” link, meaning not “causal” but uh “triggered.” And the result for the parent, you know,
may–to them it may be one and the same. And they may be trying to figure out which kids, you know, might have
that predisposition.
DeStefano: Yeah, but you know, that’s very difficult to do. That’s almost circular reasoning, say, you know, kind
of, you can’t, I mean, you know, the, the useful thing for parents who are clinically would be able to identify the
kids who are gonna have, I mean, this way we’re identifying one certain child after the fact and say, you know,
maybe in that one child, it was this or that that happened to him. But uh, it’s very difficult to make a causal link
in in just one case.
Attkisson: Well, but isn’t that what you guys are supposed to do, figure it out? That’s a, as you know, autism is
such a huge problem, even if a teeny percentage is perhaps triggered by vaccination, I would think that’d be very,
very important to, to learn and try to figure out. You guys are the best at it, I’m sure somebody there can do it over
time.
DeStefano: Yeah…[unintell] I think…[unintell] have a better understanding of uh of the pathogenesis of autism
and the genetics and the biology and then, I think, I mean, and then, and then, with these individual cases, it’d be,
you know, more feasible to try to establish if, uh, if, if vaccines in an individual case, say a person with a certain,
certain set of genes or something, you know, if we ever get to that point, then that kind of research, uh, might be
fruitful, you know.
https://sharylattkisson.com/cdc-possibility-that-vaccines-rarely-trigger-autism/

June 2011

Basics of the Human Immune System Prior to Introduction of Vaccines: Are Vaccines Turning Our Children’s Immune Systems Inside
Out?
Harold E Buttram, MD and Catherine J Frompovich
There is a universal principle referred to as “atrophy of disuse” which, as far as can be determined, applies to all physiologic processes of the human body. Although a normal full-term infant comes into the
world with virtually all of the brain cells (neurons) that it will ever have, the brain continues to grow
from increasing numbers of glial (connective tissue) cells and dendrite branching extensions that continue
throughout life with mental activity. As an example, the story is told of two sisters who were identical
twins and entered a nunnery, one gravitating into administrative work, the other into menial labor. With
the passage of years the former remained mentally alert and bright, while the latter lapsed into Alzheimer’s
disease from brain atrophy.
As a brief review of Part 1, the human newborn comes into the world with temporary protection from
residual maternal antibodies. Otherwise the infant’s immune system is rudimentary, requiring a series of
challenges to become fully functional, which is around three years of age. Although the so-called minor
childhood diseases of earlier times were looked upon as nuisances (chickenpox and mumps) or potentially
dangerous (measles and rubella), they may have evolved as friends-in-disguise by challenging and therefore uniquely activating and strengthening both epithelial and endothelial tissues, their respective organs,
and lymph nodes. Those natural diseases also had the advantage of conferring permanent immunity, which
is not necessarily the case with vaccines as attested to with revaccination every few years and higher percentages of infectious disease among those vaccinated.
Concerning the dangers of measles, aside from hygiene and sanitation, this largely involves personal disciplines in terms of diet, nutrition, and other health habits in which restriction/avoidance of sugar plays
a prominent role along with abundant dietary sources (fresh fruits and vegetables) containing vitamins C
and A. Nutrient deficiency may be an underlying reason that flu epidemics tend to occur over holidays,
when people are inclined to overindulge in sweet treats and alcoholic beverages, which metabolize like
sugar in the body.
There is an experimental basis for demonstrating sugar’s paralyzing effects on the immune system. As
demonstrated by Professor Emanuel Cheraskin at the Alabama University Medical School, blood samples
were drawn from students before and after drinking a single soft drink (soda). White cells were siphoned
from the blood samples and the white cells inoculated with staphylococcus microorganisms. After a period
of incubation, the number of staphylococcus phagocytized (engulfed) by the white cells were counted
under a microscope. The numbers of engulfed staphylococcus were reduced by more than half following
consumption of the soft drink, indicating that the white cells were significantly paralyzed and crippled by
that sugar-containing beverage. [1]
Also pertinent was a study conducted in Afghanistan in which 200 children with measles were divided into
two groups, one of which received aspirin and Tylenol® to lower fever, the other not receiving aspirin or
Tylenol®. The children receiving antipyretics had more prolonged illnesses, more diarrhea, ear infections,
respiratory complications such as pneumonia and bronchitis, and higher death rates. [2]

Concerning the chickenpox (varicella) vaccine, articles by Gary Goldman seriously question the advisability of universal varicella vaccination as related to increasing subsequent occurrences of herpes zoster
(shingles or zona). [3-4] The differing functions of the Th1 cellular and Th2 humoral immune systems
were summarized in a review article by P. Kidd:
“The Th1 cells are hypothesized to lead the attack against intracellular pathogens such as viruses, raise
the classic delayed-type to viral and bacterial antigens, and fight cancer cells. The Th2 cells are believed
to emphasize protection against extracellular pathogens. On the negative side, the Th1 pathway is often
portrayed as being the more aggressive of the two, and when it is overreactive, can generate organ-specific
autoimmune disease (e.g. arthritis, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes). The Th2 pathway is seen as underlying allergy and related IgE disease.” [5]
Regarding vaccines and their propensity toward fostering allergies, Imani and Kehoe found a previously
unrecognized side effect of the MMR vaccine by incubating it with a line of human plasma cells, which resulted in increased expression of allergy-related IgE antibodies accompanied by a corresponding decrease
in protective IgG antibodies. Based on these findings, the authors concluded that viral vaccines might be
playing a role in the increasing incidence of asthma and other allergic diseases. [6]
Much the same also holds true for a causal relationship between vaccines and the rising incidence of juvenile diabetes. In 1998 John Classen, MD, gave a presentation at a conference held by the American College of Medicine in which he reviewed 32 published articles, five authored by himself, indicating a causal
relationship between vaccines and the rising incidence of insulin-dependant diabetes mellitus (IDDM).
Nations represented in the papers included New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, the USA, and Holland. Single vaccines were used including haemophilus influenza, hepatitis B, pertussis, BCG, and smallpox.
A prototype study was conducted in Finland by Classen and reported in the British Medical Journal. [7] In
this study, from all children born in Finland between October 1, 1985 and August 31, 1987, approximately
116,000 were randomized as test subjects to receive four doses of haemophilus vaccine starting at three
months of age, or one dose starting at 24 months. Additionally, 125,000 unvaccinated children served as
controls. Each group was followed until age 10 years for development of IDDM. The incidence at seven
years for those receiving four doses, those receiving one dose, and those receiving none was 261, 237, and
207 respectively with relative risks of 1.2, 1.14, and 1 for those children receiving no vaccine.
In virtually all of the reports from other countries the results were very similar, indicating a slight but consistent increase in IDDM following each of the five single vaccines listed above. Classen interpreted these
results as indicating that it was not the type of vaccination that mattered so much as the immunologic impact of vaccination itself. Typically there was a 3 to 5 year delay between vaccines and onset of IDDM.
Quotations by Classen during the 1998 conference included:
“Vaccinating every child against every disease is fundamentally unsound.”
“There is a 3.78-fold increased risk of insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus in children from today’s vaccines.”
“All autoimmune diseases are increasing in incidence.
General immune (over) stimulation from vaccines is a cause of autoimmunity.“

Genetic Exchanges in the World Around Us
Barbara McClintock, the 1983 Nobel Laureate “Corn Lady,” was the first to discover genetic mobility in the socalled jumping genes in the 1930s. For over 50 years she pursued solitary research with corn, uncovering some of
nature’s innermost secrets about life. McClintock studied maize, a form of Indian corn, where distribution of red
kernels and yellow kernels is genetically determined. What she first perceived was that some of the genes were
moving from one place to another on the cell’s chromosomes (the floating threads on which genes are lined like
beads on a string). She then saw patterns in the movements, with sharply differing results in the colored kernels,
and realized that some genes, once moved into position, switched other genes on or off. It followed that while
most genes were workers, others were controllers or managers of genes.
According to an article in World Medicine [8] scientists at the University of Geneva made the startling discovery
that biological substances entering directly into the bloodstream may truly become a part of us, even a part of our
genetic material. The article stated in part:
“When Japanese bacteriologists discovered that bacteria of one species transferred their own highly specific antibiotic resistance to bacteria of an entirely different species, they seemed to hit on a unique if not startling phenomenon. Dr. Maurice Stroun and Dr. Phillippe Anker, with colleagues in the Plant Physiology Department at the
University of Geneva, have now accumulated a wealth of evidence that the transfer of genetic information is not
confined to bacteria but also can occur between bacteria and higher plants and animals.
“Dr. Stroun and colleagues did most of their research in plants but have now turned to animals. In their latest
experiments they used the isolated auricles of frogs’ hearts, [9] from which they dipped RNA extracted from the
frog auricles into a bacterial suspension, resulting in a high percentage interlinkage of frog RNA with bacterial
DNA.”
The article concluded that the implications of this work on “transcession” are enormous and reflect something
that may be commonly taking place in human bodies. From the standpoint of future generations, the possibility
that vaccines may be bringing about genetic hybridization in our children may represent far and away the greatest
hazard of today’s childhood vaccine programs.
A Case On Point
During June 2011 a great number of German E.coli infections (3,406) and 39 deaths have occurred with suspicions that organically grown bean sprouts are the source of contamination. The findings have vacillated from yes,
it was the sprouts to no, it was not the sprouts to now as of this writing, it IS the sprouts. However, the real issue
may be more than bean sprouts, if they truly are the source of contamination and not a scapegoat. It seems the
medical profession did not recognize that they were dealing with a rare strain of E.coli, O104:H4.
“What most predominantly differentiates O104 from O157 is its adoption of numerous traits not typically found
congregated in one strain: Not only does it produce the noxious Shiga toxin of the virulent enterohemorrhagic
strains, it also possesses defensive enteroaggregative traits –a combined mouthful of properties much more difficult to tolerate physically than verbally.”
“When people come into a hospital with bloody diarrhea, they would normally assume it’s O157 and not give
antibiotics to the patients,” he said. “In this case, because it wasn’t O157, the physicians might have thought it
was okay to give antibiotics, not knowing that O104 would produce the Shiga toxin.”

“This potential misunderstanding over antibiotics might at least partially explain the high rate of HUS [hemolytic-uremic syndrome] among the ill. Girón [Jorge Girón, Ph.D., E. coli researcher and associate professor of
microbiology at the University of Florida’s Emerging Pathogens Institute] said this outbreak may necessitate new
screening procedures at hospitals to account for O104 alongside O157, ensuring patients don’t receive antibiotics
that could exacerbate their illness or kill them.” [Emphasis added] [11]
The above may be the classic example needed to illustrate the unknowns involved in vaccine pharmacology and
morphology, and medicine’s inability or unwillingness to address that aspect of vaccinology.
Are Vaccines Sowing the Seeds of Genetic Change?
As reviewed above, the first six months of an infant’s life is a period of heightened vulnerability because of the
infant’s immature and rapidly growing nervous system and highly immature immune system. It is during this
time-period that 19 or 20 vaccines are routinely administered, according to officially recommended schedules,
irrespective of whether the infant was born prematurely, a condition that apparently predisposes preterm infants
to a series of vaccine adverse reactions. [12]
A very revealing study reported in Virus Research tends to support the hypothesis of genetic exchange associated
with viral vaccines. In the study of 24 passages of a nuclear polyhedrosis virus through cell cultures, there were
both insertions and deletions in the virus, [10] suggesting that the virus freely exchanged genetic material with the
tissues in which it was cultured [similar to transcession discussed above].
Considering that today’s vaccines have been incubated in cell cultures of aborted fetuses, monkey kidneys, and
other animal tissues, this should give any thinking person pause to consider the possible implications involved in
manufacturing, injecting, and receiving vaccines.
Dr. Buttram discusses the immune system and the impact that vaccines have upon it in his book, A Commentary
on Current Childhood Vaccine Programs, ISBN: 1-891485-30-X), published in 2010 by Philosophical Publishing
Co., PO Box 77, Quakertown, PA 18951, phone 215-538-5300.
Catherine J Frompovich is the author of Our Chemical Lives And The Hijacking Of Our DNA available on Amazon.com here.
References:
1. Information presented at a lecture by Dr. Cheraskin in the 1970s.
2. Ahmady, AS et al. The adverse effects of antipyretics in measles. Indian Pediatrics. Jan. 1981; 49-52.
3. Goldman, GS. Universal varicella vaccination: Efficacy trends and effect on herpes zoster. Intern Journ Toxicol. 2005; 24: 205-213.
4. Goldman, GS. The case against universal varicella vaccination. Intern J Toxicol, 2006; 25:313-317.
5. Kidd, P. TH1/TH2 balance: The hypothesis, its limitations and implications in health and disease. Altern Med Rev. 2003; 8:223-246.
6. Imani, E and Kehoe, KE. Infection of human B-lymphocytes with MMR vaccine induces IgE class switching. Journ Clin Immunol. 2001; 100(3):355361.
7. Classen, JB and Classen, DC. Association between type 1 diabetes and Hib vaccine, causal relation likely, British Med Journ. 1999; 319: 1133.
8. World Medicine (Scientific News Report): Mobility of genetic material between life forms, 1971, Sept. 22nd, London: Clareville House, Oxendon
St: 69-72.
9. Anker, P and Stroun, M. Transcription of spontaneously released bacterial deoxyribonucleic acid in frog auricles, Journal of Bacteriology, 1973; 114:
114-120.
10. Kumar, S and Miller, IK. Effects of serial passage of Autographa californica nuclear polyhydrosis virus to cell culture. Virus Research. 1987; 7:
335-349.
11. Food Safety News, 0104:H4 May Change How We Deal With E. coli http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2011/06/e-coli-expert-weighs-in-with-factsabout-o104h4/ Accessed June 16, 2011.
12. Pourcyrous M, Korones SB, Kristopher LA, Bada HS. Primary immunization of premature infants with gestational age <35 weeks: Cardiorespiratory complications and C-reactive protein responses associated with administration of single and multiple separate vaccines simultaneously. J Pediatrics. 2007:151, p. 171.
- See more at: http://www.vaccinationcouncil.org/2011/06/21/risks-damage-basics-of-the-human-immune-system-prior-to-introduction-of-vaccinesare-vaccines-turning-our-childrens-immune-systems-inside-out-part-2/#sthash.SG9xMVCU.dpuf

Government Wipes Recent Vaccine Injury Data From Website

Older Data Doesn’t Reflect Uptick in Awards to Vaccine Victims

December 30, 2015 • Sharyl Attkisson

HRSA says vaccine makers had no influence over the decision to revert to older data. The agency said it did so to
synch up with a statistic the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) provides for the same chart that is only current
through 2013: the number of vaccine doses distributed in US. “An internal decision was made to ensure that all
internal data was consistent…and to update [the chart] only when all relevant data was available,” said HRSA in
a statement.

In March, the federal government removed the latest vaccine injury court statistics—more than a year’s worth of
data—from one of its publicly reported charts. It was an abrupt departure from the normal practice of updating
the figures monthly.
Wiping the latest data means the “adjudication categories by alleged vaccine” chart on a government website
no longer reflects the recent, sharp rise in court victories for plaintiffs who claimed their children were seriously
injured or killed by one or more vaccines. Since January of 2014, the number of flu vaccine cases conceded by
the government is more than double the previous eight years combined. The adjudication chart only reflects half
of the current number.
Concessions Won by Flu Shot Victims since 2006
Chart shows (through 2013): 42
Actual number (through April 2015): 88
Total Flu Shot Victims Compensated Since 2006
Chart shows (through 2013): 1091
Actual number (through April 2015): 1271
Also on the rise is the number of vaccine injury cases the government has ‘conceded:’ up 55% in a little over one
year. As a result of the recent website changes, neither of these trends is reflected on the current ‘adjudication’
chart.” Since its inception in 2013, the “adjudication categories by alleged vaccine” chart included monthly, updated totals.
But shortly after publishing the March 2015 chart, the government removed the 2015 and 2014 data, reverting
back to outdated statistics from 2013. The chart appears on the government vaccine court website, which falls
under Health Resources and Services Administration, an agency of the Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS). In the unusual vaccine court, the government acts on behalf of pharmaceutical companies rather than the
public, defending vaccine makers against alleged victims. Money damages are not paid by vaccine companies,
but through fees collected from patients on every dose of vaccine.

Court Decisions Won By Vaccine Victims Since 2006
Chart Shows (through 2013): 159
Actual Number (through April 2015): 165
Concessions Won By Vaccine Victims Since 2006
Chart Shows (through 2013): 127
Actual Number (through April 2015): 198
Vaccine Victims Paid After Settlements Since 2006
Chart Shows (through 2013): 1388
Actual Number (through April 2015): 1488
Only about one injury case for every million doses of vaccines is compensated in vaccine court. Adverse events
occur more frequently, according to vaccine warning labels, but rarely end up in the little-known vaccine court.
Still, vaccine court statistics can be useful in reflecting trends. Another recent change made vaccine injury data
harder to find. The “adjudication categories by alleged vaccine” chart used to be the first item that showed up on
the statistics page, but that has been replaced by language stating vaccines are safe and effective.
“Being awarded compensation for your claim does not necessarily mean that the vaccine caused the alleged injury,” adds the government to the statement where the adjudication chart used to be. Readers are directed to click
a link to view the actual vaccine injury statistics. But clicking it only leads back to the statement that vaccines are
safe and effective. To find the statistics, instead of clicking the link, readers must scroll down past it. According
to the government, from 2006 to 2013, over 2.2 billion doses of vaccines were distributed in the U.S. For every
1 million doses, 1 alleged victim was compensated in vaccine court. Since 1998, over 15,916 claims have been
filed in vaccine court. 4,121 were compensated, 9,904 were dismissed. The total amount paid to victims is approximately $3.1 billion.
https://sharylattkisson.com/govt-wipes-recent-vaccine-injury-data-from-website/

More Free Jeff Prager Books Using Peer Reviewed Reports And Studies

Injected • Vaccines and Genetic Mutation

Bulletproof • An Expose On Glyphosate

ASIA • Autoimmune And Inflammatory Disorders Caused By Vaccines

Water Water • Peer Review And Fluoridated Drinking Water

Download for free or read them online: http://jprager9.wix.com/jeffpragerbooks

The End