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Barnum effect

2023-02-27 08:20:41

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnum_effect

The Barnum effect, also called the Forer effect or, less commonly, the Barnum

Forer effect, is a common psychological phenomenon whereby individuals give

high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are

tailored specifically to them, yet which are in fact vague and general enough

to apply to a wide range of people.[1] This effect can provide a partial

explanation for the widespread acceptance of some paranormal beliefs and

practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, aura reading, and some types of

personality tests.[1]

These characterizations are often used by practitioners as a con-technique to

convince victims that they are endowed with a paranormal gift. Because the

assessment statements are so vague, people ascribe their own interpretation,

thus the statement becomes "personal" to them. Also, individuals are more

likely to accept negative assessments of themselves if they perceive the person

presenting the assessment as a high-status professional.

Researcher Bertram Forer originally named it the "fallacy of personal

validation".[2] The term "Barnum effect" was coined in 1956 by psychologist

Paul Meehl in his essay "Wanted A Good Cookbook", because he relates the

vague personality descriptions used in certain "pseudo-successful"

psychological tests to those given by showman P. T. Barnum.[3][4]

Overview

The Barnum effect is manifested in response to statements that are called

"Barnum statements", meaning that general characterizations attributed to an

individual are perceived to be true for them, even though the statements are

such generalizations that they could apply to almost anyone. Such techniques

are used by fortune tellers, astrologers, and other practitioners to convince

customers that they, the practitioners, are in fact endowed with a paranormal

gift.[5] The effect is a specific example of the so-called "acceptance

phenomenon", which describes the general tendency of humans "to accept almost

any bogus personality feedback".[6] A related and more general phenomenon is

that of subjective validation.[7] Subjective validation occurs when two

unrelated or even random events are perceived to be related because a belief,

expectation, or hypothesis expects a relationship. For example, while reading a

horoscope, people actively seek a correspondence between its contents and their

perception of their personality.

Early research

In 1947, psychologist Ross Stagner asked a number of personnel managers to take

a personality test. After they had taken the test, Stagner, instead of

responding with feedback based on their actual individual answers, presented

each of them with generalized feedback that had no relation to their test

answers but that was, instead, based on horoscopes, graphological analyses, and

the like. Each of the managers was then asked how accurate the assessment of

him or her was. More than half described the assessment as accurate, and almost

none described it as wrong.[8][9]

In 1948, in what has been described as a "classic experiment",[10] psychologist

Forer gave a psychology test his so-called "Diagnostic Interest Blank" to

39 of his psychology students, who were told that they would each receive a

brief personality vignette based on their test results. One week later Forer

gave each student a purportedly individualized vignette and asked each of them

to rate it on how well it applied. In reality, each student received the same

vignette, consisting of the following items:[11]

You have a great need for other people to like and admire you.

You have a tendency to be critical of yourself.

You have a great deal of unused capacity which you have not turned to your

advantage.

While you have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to

compensate for them.

Your sexual adjustment has presented problems for you.

Disciplined and self-controlled outside, you tend to be worrisome and insecure

inside.

At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decision

or done the right thing.

You prefer a certain amount of change and variety and become dissatisfied when

hemmed in by restrictions and limitations.

You pride yourself as an independent thinker and do not accept others'

statements without satisfactory proof.

You have found it unwise to be too frank in revealing yourself to others.

At times you are extroverted, affable, sociable, while at other times you are

introverted, wary, reserved.

Some of your aspirations tend to be pretty unrealistic.

Security is one of your major goals in life.

On average, the students rated its accuracy as 4.30 on a scale of 0 (very poor)

to 5 (excellent). Only after the ratings were turned in, it was revealed that

all students had received an identical vignette assembled by Forer from a

newsstand astrology book.[11] The vignette contained statements that were vague

and general enough to apply to most people.

Forer attributed the effect to gullibility.[12] The effect has been said to

confirm the Pollyanna principle, where individuals tend "to use or accept

positive words of feedback more frequently than negative words of feedback".[8]

Factors influencing the effect[edit]

Two factors are important in producing the Forer effect, according to the

findings of replication studies. The content of the description offered is

important, with specific emphasis on the ratio of positive to negative trait

assessments. The other important factor is that the subject trusts the honesty

of the person providing feedback.[13][14]

The effect is consistently found when the assessment statements are vague.

People are able to read their own meaning into the statements they receive, and

thus the statement becomes "personal" to them. The most effective statements

include the phrase "at times", such as "At times you feel very sure of

yourself, while at other times you are not as confident." This phrase can apply

to almost anyone, and thus each person can read a "personal" meaning into it.

Keeping statements vague in this manner ensures observing the Forer effect in

replication studies.[15]

Individuals are more likely to accept negative assessments of themselves if

they perceive the persons presenting the assessments as high-status

professionals. Evidence also suggests that people with authoritarian or

neurotic personalities or who have a greater than usual need for approval are

more likely to manifest the Barnum effect.[8]

Later studies have found that subjects give higher accuracy ratings if the

following are true:[16]

The subject believes that the analysis applies only to him or her, and thus

applies his or her own meaning to the statements.[15]

The subject believes in the authority of the evaluator.

The analysis lists mainly positive traits.

Exploiting the effect