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Title: My Religion
Author: Leo Tolstoy
Date: 1884
Language: en
Topics: religion, christianity
Source: https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43794

Leo Tolstoy

My Religion

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

To one not familiar with the Russian language the accessible data

relative to the external life of Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoi, the author of

this book, are, to say the least, not voluminous. His name does not

appear in that heterogeneous record of celebrities known as The Men of

the Time, nor is it to be found in M. Vapereau’s comprehensive

Dictionnaire des Contemporains. And yet Count Leo Tolstoi is

acknowledged by competent critics to be a man of extraordinary genius,

who, certainly in one instance, has produced a masterpiece of literature

which will continue to rank with the great artistic productions of this

age.

Perhaps it is enough for us to know that he was born on his father’s

estate in the Russian province of Tula, in the year 1828; that he

received a good home education and studied the oriental languages at the

University of Kasan; that he was for a time in the army, which he

entered at the age of twenty-three as an officer of artillery, serving

later on the staff of Prince Gortschakof; and that subsequently he

alternated between St. Petersburg and Moscow, leading the existence of

super-refined barbarism and excessive luxury, characteristic of the

Russian aristocracy. He saw life in country and city, in camp and court.

He was numbered among the defenders of Sebastopol in the Crimean War,

and the impressions then gathered he used as material for a series of

War Sketches that attracted attention in the pages of the magazine where

they first appeared; and when, a little later, they were published in

book form, their author, then twenty-eight years of age, acquired at

once a wide popularity. Popularity became fame with the publication,

also in 1856, of Childhood and Youth, remarkable alike for its artless

revelations concerning the genesis and growth of ideas and emotions in

the minds of the young, for its idyllic pictures of domestic life, and

for its graceful descriptions of nature. This was followed by The

Cossacks, a wild romance of the steppes, vigorously realistic in

details, and, like all of Count Tolstoi’s works, poetic in conception

and inspired with a dramatic intensity. In 1860 appeared War and Peace,

an historical romance in many volumes, dealing with the Napoleonic

invasion of 1812 and the events that immediately followed the retreat

from Moscow. According to M. C. Courrière,[1] it was seized upon with

avidity and produced a profound sensation.

“The stage is immense and the actors are innumerable; among them three

emperors with their ministers, their marshals, and their generals, and

then a countless retinue of minor officers, soldiers, nobles, and

peasants. We are transported by turns from the salons of St. Petersburg

to the camps of war, from Moscow to the country. And all these diverse

and varied scenes are joined together with a controlling purpose that

brings everything into harmony. Each one of the prolonged series of

constantly changing tableaux is of remarkable beauty and palpitating

with life.”

Pierre Besushkof, one of the three heroes of War and Peace, has, rightly

or wrongly, long been regarded as in some respects an autobiographical

study, but the personal note is always clearly perceptible in Count

Tolstoi’s writings, if we are to believe the reports of the enthusiastic

purveyors of literary information who have made known some of their many

attractive qualities. It is plain also that a common purpose runs

through them all, a purpose which only in the author’s latest production

finds full expression. There are hints of it in Childhood and Youth; in

War and Peace, and in a subsequent romance, Anna Karenin, it becomes

very distinct. In the two works last named Count Tolstoi is pitiless in

his portrayal of the vices and follies of the wealthy, aristocratic

class, and warm in his praise of simplicity and unpretending virtue.

Pierre Besushkof is represented as the product of a transition period,

one who sees clearly that the future must be different from the past,

but unable to interpret the prophecies of its coming. M. Courrière

speaks of him very happily as “an overgrown child who seems to be lost

in a wholly unfamiliar world.” For a time Pierre finds mental

tranquility in the tenets of freemasonry, and the author gives us a

vivid account, humorous and pathetic by turns, of the young man’s

efforts to carry the newly acquired doctrines into practice. He

determines to better the condition of the peasants on his estates; but

instead of looking after the affair himself, he leaves the consummation

of his plans to his stewards, with the result that “the cleverest among

them listened with attention, but considered one thing only,—how to

carry out their own private ends under the pretense of executing his

commands.” Later on we are shown Pierre wandering aimlessly about the

streets of burning Moscow, until taken into custody by the French. Then

he learns the true meaning of life from a simple soldier, a

fellow-prisoner, and thereby realizes that safety for the future is to

be obtained only by bringing life to the standard of rude simplicity

adopted by the common people, by recognizing, in act as well as in deed,

the brotherhood of man.

We cannot here enter into the question as to whether this mental

attitude, by no means unusual among Russians of cultivation and

liberality, arises from the lack of social gradation between the noble

and the peasant, which forces the social philosopher of rank to accept

an existence of pure worldliness and empty show, or to adopt the

primitive aspirations and humble toil of the tillers of the soil. At any

rate, it is plain that Count Tolstoi sides with the latter. The doctrine

of simplification has many adherents in Russia, and when, some time ago,

it was announced that the author of War and Peace had retired to the

country and was leading a life of frugality and unaffected toil in the

cultivation of his estates, the surprise to his own countrymen could not

have been very great. In this book he tells us how the decision was

formed. He bases his conclusions on a direct and literal interpretation

of the teachings of Jesus as expressed in the Sermon on the Mount.

The interpretation is not new in theory, but never before has it been

carried out with so much zeal, so much determination, so much sincerity,

and, granting the premises, with logic so unanswerable, as in this

beautiful confession of faith. How movingly does he depict the doubts

and fears of the searcher after the better life; how impressive his

earnest inquiry for truth; how inspiring his confidence in the natural

goodness, as opposed to the natural depravity of man; how convincing his

argument that the doctrine of Jesus is simple, practicable, and

conducive to the highest happiness; how terrifying his enumeration of

the sufferings of “the martyrs to the doctrine of the world”; how

pitiless his arraignment of the Church for its complacent indifference

to the welfare of humanity here in this present stage of existence; how

sublime his prophecy of the golden age when men shall dwell together in

the bonds of love, and sin and suffering shall be no more the common lot

of mankind! We read, and are thrilled with a divine emotion; but which

of us is willing to accept the truth here unfolded as the veritable

secret of life?

Shall we take seriously this eloquent enunciation of faith in humility,

in self-denial, in fraternal love, or shall we regard it only as a

beautiful and peaceful phase in the career of a man of genius who, after

the storm and stress of a life of sin and suffering, has turned back to

the ideals of youth and innocence, and sought to make them once more the

objects of desire? Fanaticism, do you say? Ah, yes; but did not Jesus

and his disciples practise just such fanaticism as this? Does any one

deny that all that is best in this modern world (and there is so much of

the best, after all), that all that is best has come from the great

moral impulse generated by a little group of fanatics in an obscure

corner of Asia eighteen centuries ago? That impulse we still feel, in

spite of all the obstructions that have been put in its way to nullify

its action; and if any would seek for strength from the primary source

of power, who shall say him nay? And so although we may smile at the

artlessness of this Russian evangelist in his determination to find in

the gospels the categorical imperative of self-renunciation, although we

may regard with wonder the magnificent audacity of his exegetical

speculations, we cannot refuse to admire a faith so sincere, so intense,

and, in many respects, so elevating and so noble.

HUNTINGTON SMITH.

Dorchester, Mass.,

Nov. 19, 1885.

INTRODUCTION.

I have not always been possessed of the religious ideas set forth in

this book. For thirty-five years of my life I was, in the proper

acceptation of the word, a nihilist,—not a revolutionary socialist, but

a man who believed in nothing. Five years ago faith came to me; I

believed in the doctrine of Jesus, and my whole life underwent a sudden

transformation. What I had once wished for I wished for no longer, and I

began to desire what I had never desired before. What had once appeared

to me right now became wrong, and the wrong of the past I beheld as

right. My condition was like that of a man who goes forth upon some

errand, and having traversed a portion of the road, decides that the

matter is of no importance, and turns back. What was at first on his

right hand is now on his left, and what was at his left hand is now on

his right; instead of going away from his abode, he desires to get back

to it as soon as possible. My life and my desires were completely

changed; good and evil interchanged meanings. Why so? Because I

understood the doctrine of Jesus in a different way from that in which I

had understood it before.

It is not my purpose to expound the doctrine of Jesus; I wish only to

tell how it was that I came to understand what there is in this doctrine

that is simple, clear, evident, indisputable; how I understand that part

of it which appeals to all men, and how this understanding refreshed my

soul and gave me happiness and peace.

I do not intend to comment on the doctrine of Jesus; I desire only that

all comment shall be forever done away with. The Christian sects have

always maintained that all men, however unequal in education and

intelligence, are equal before God; that divine truth is accessible to

every one. Jesus has even declared it to be the will of God that what is

concealed from the wise shall be revealed to the simple. Not every one

is able to understand the mysteries of dogmatics, homiletics, liturgics,

hermeneutics, apologetics; but every one is able and ought to understand

what Jesus Christ said to the millions of simple and ignorant people who

have lived, and who are living to-day. Now, the things that Jesus said

to simple people who could not avail themselves of the comments of Paul,

of Clement, of Chrysostom, and of others, are just what I did not

understand, and which, now that I have come to understand them, I wish

to make plain to all.

The thief on the cross believed in the Christ, and was saved. If the

thief, instead of dying on the cross, had descended from it, and told

all men of his belief in the Christ, would not the result have been of

great good? Like the thief on the cross, I believe in the doctrine of

Jesus, and this belief has made me whole. This is not a vain comparison,

but a truthful expression of my spiritual condition; my soul, once

filled with despair of life and fear of death, is now full of happiness

and peace.

Like the thief, I knew that my past and present life was vile; I saw

that the majority of men about me lived unworthy lives. I knew, like the

thief, that I was wretched and suffering, that all those about me

suffered and were wretched; and I saw before me nothing but death to

save me from this condition. As the thief was nailed to his cross, so I

was nailed to a life of suffering and evil by an incomprehensible power.

And as the thief saw before him, after the sufferings of a foolish life,

the horrible shadows of death, so I beheld the same vista opening before

me.

In all this I felt that I was like the thief. There was, however, a

difference in our conditions; he was about to die, and I—I still lived.

The dying thief thought perhaps to find his salvation beyond the grave,

while I had before me life and its mystery this side the grave. I

understood nothing of this life; it seemed to me a frightful thing, and

then—I understood the words of Jesus, and life and death ceased to be

evil; instead of despair, I tasted joy and happiness that death could

not take away.

Will any one, then, be offended if I tell the story of how all this came

about?

LEO TOLSTOI.

Moscow, Jan. 22, 1884.

CHAPTER I.

I shall explain elsewhere, in two voluminous treatises, why I did not

understand the doctrine of Jesus, and how at length it became clear to

me. These works are a criticism of dogmatic theology and a new

translation of the four Gospels, followed by a concordance. In these

writings I seek methodically to disentangle everything that tends to

conceal the truth from men; I translate the four Gospels anew, verse by

verse, and I bring them together in a new concordance. The work has

lasted for six years. Each year, each month, I discover new meanings

which corroborate the fundamental idea; I correct the errors which have

crept in, and I put the last touches to what I have already written. My

life, whose final term is not far distant, will doubtless end before I

have finished my work; but I am convinced that the work will be of great

service; so I shall do all that I can to bring it to completion.

I do not now concern myself with this outward work upon theology and the

Gospels, but with an inner work of an entirely different nature. I have

to do now with nothing systematic or methodical, only with that sudden

light which showed me the Gospel doctrine in all its simple beauty.

The process was something similar to that experienced by one who,

following an erroneous model, seeks to restore a statue from broken bits

of marble, and who with one of the most refractory fragments in hand

perceives the hopelessness of his ideal; then he begins anew, and

instead of the former incongruities he finds, as he observes the

outlines of each fragment, that all fit well together and form one

consistent whole. That is exactly what happened to me, and is what I

wish to relate. I wish to tell how I found the key to the true meaning

of the doctrine of Jesus, and how by this meaning doubt was absolutely

driven from my soul. The discovery came about in this way.

From my childhood, from the time I first began to read the New

Testament, I was touched most of all by that portion of the doctrine of

Jesus which inculcates love, humility, self-denial, and the duty of

returning good for evil. This, to me, has always been the substance of

Christianity; my heart recognized its truth in spite of scepticism and

despair, and for this reason I submitted to a religion professed by a

multitude of toilers, who find in it the solution of life,—the religion

taught by the Orthodox Church. But in making my submission to the

Church, I soon saw that I should not find in its creed the confirmation

of the essence of Christianity; what was to me essential seemed to be in

the dogma of the Church merely an accessory. What was to me the most

important of the teachings of Jesus was not so regarded by the Church.

No doubt (I thought) the Church sees in Christianity, aside from its

inner meaning of love, humility, and self-denial, an outer, dogmatic

meaning, which, however strange and even repulsive to me, is not in

itself evil or pernicious. But the further I went on in submission to

the doctrine of the Church, the more clearly I saw in this particular

point something of greater importance than I had at first realized. What

I found most repulsive in the doctrine of the Church was the strangeness

of its dogmas and the approval, nay, the support, which it gave to

persecutions, to the death penalty, to wars stirred up by the

intolerance common to all sects; but my faith was chiefly shattered by

the indifference of the Church to what seemed to me essential in the

teachings of Jesus, and its partiality for what seemed to me of

secondary importance. I felt that something was wrong; but I could not

see where the fault lay, because the doctrine of the Church did not deny

what seemed to me essential in the doctrine of Jesus; this essential was

fully recognized, yet in such a way as not to give it the first place. I

could not accuse the Church of denying the essence of the doctrine of

Jesus, but it was recognized in a way which did not satisfy me. The

Church did not give me what I expected from her. I had passed from

nihilism to the Church simply because I felt it to be impossible to live

without religion, that is, without a knowledge of good and evil aside

from animal instincts. I hoped to find this knowledge in Christianity;

but Christianity I then saw only as a vague spiritual tendency, from

which it was impossible to deduce any clear and peremptory rules for the

guidance of life. These I sought and these I demanded of the Church. The

Church offered me rules wherein I not only sought in vain the practice

of the Christian life so dear to me, but which drove me still further

away. I could not become a disciple of the Church. An existence based

upon Christian truth was to me indispensable, and the Church only

offered me rules completely at variance with the truth that I loved. The

rules of the Church touching articles of faith, dogmas, the observance

of the sacrament, fasts, prayers, were not necessary to me, and did not

seem to be based on Christian truth. Moreover, the rules of the Church

weakened and sometimes destroyed the Christian disposition of soul which

alone gave meaning to my life.

I was troubled most that the miseries of humanity, the habit of judging

one another, of passing judgment upon nations and religions, and the

wars and massacres which resulted in consequence, all went on with the

approbation of the Church. The doctrine of Jesus,—judge not, be humble,

forgive offences, deny self, love,—this doctrine was extolled by the

Church in words, but at the same time the Church approved what was

incompatible with the doctrine. Was it possible that the doctrine of

Jesus admitted of such contradiction? I could not believe so.

Another astonishing thing about the Church was that the passages upon

which it based affirmation of its dogmas were those which were most

obscure. On the other hand, the passages from which came the moral laws

were the most clear and precise. And yet the dogmas and the duties

depending upon them were definitely formulated by the Church, while the

recommendation to obey the moral law was put in the most vague and

mystical terms. Was this the intention of Jesus? The Gospels alone could

dissipate my doubts. I read them once and again.

Of all the other portions of the Gospels, the Sermon on the Mount always

had for me an exceptional importance. I now read it more frequently than

ever. Nowhere does Jesus speak with greater solemnity, nowhere does he

propound moral rules more definitely and practically, nor do these rules

in any other form awaken more readily an echo in the human heart;

nowhere else does he address himself to a larger multitude of the common

people. If there are any clear and precise Christian principles, one

ought to find them here. I therefore sought the solution of my doubts in

Matthew v., vi., and vii., comprising the Sermon on the Mount. These

chapters I read very often, each time with the same emotional ardor, as

I came to the verses which exhort the hearer to turn the other cheek, to

give up his cloak, to be at peace with all the world, to love his

enemies,—but each time with the same disappointment. The divine words

were not clear. They exhorted to a renunciation so absolute as to

entirely stifle life as I understood it; to renounce everything,

therefore, could not, it seemed to me, be essential to salvation. And

the moment this ceased to be an absolute condition, clearness and

precision were at an end.

I read not only the Sermon on the Mount; I read all the Gospels and all

the theological commentaries on the Gospels. I was not satisfied with

the declarations of the theologians that the Sermon on the Mount was

only an indication of the degree of perfection to which man should

aspire; that man, weighed down by sin, could not reach such an ideal;

and that the salvation of humanity was in faith and prayer and grace. I

could not admit the truth of these propositions. It seemed to me a

strange thing that Jesus should propound rules so clear and admirable,

addressed to the understanding of every one, and still realize man’s

inability to carry his doctrine into practice.

Then as I read these maxims I was permeated with the joyous assurance

that I might that very hour, that very moment, begin to practise them.

The burning desire I felt led me to the attempt, but the doctrine of the

Church rang in my ears,—Man is weak, and to this he cannot attain;—my

strength soon failed. On every side I heard, “You must believe and

pray”; but my wavering faith impeded prayer. Again I heard, “You must

pray, and God will give you faith; this faith will inspire prayer, which

in turn will invoke faith that will inspire more prayer, and so on,

indefinitely.” Reason and experience alike convinced me that such

methods were useless. It seemed to me that the only true way was for me

to try to follow the doctrine of Jesus.

And so, after all this fruitless search and careful meditation over all

that had been written for and against the divinity of the doctrine of

Jesus, after all this doubt and suffering, I came back face to face with

the mysterious Gospel message. I could not find the meanings that others

found, neither could I discover what I sought. It was only after I had

rejected the interpretations of the wise critics and theologians,

according to the words of Jesus, “Except ye... become as little

children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven” (Matt. xviii.

3),—it was only then that I suddenly understood what had been so

meaningless before. I understood, not through exegetical fantasies or

profound and ingenious textual combinations; I understood everything,

because I put all commentaries out of my mind. This was the passage that

gave me the key to the whole:—

“Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth

for a tooth: But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil.” (Matt. v. 38,

39.)

One day the exact and simple meaning of these words came to me; I

understood that Jesus meant neither more nor less than what he said.

What I saw was nothing new; only the veil that had hidden the truth from

me fell away, and the truth was revealed in all its grandeur.

“Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth

for a tooth: But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil.”

These words suddenly appeared to me as if I had never read them before.

Always before, when I had read this passage, I had, singularly enough,

allowed certain words to escape me, “But I say unto you, that ye resist

not evil.” To me it had always been as if the words just quoted had

never existed, or had never possessed a definite meaning. Later on, as I

talked with many Christians familiar with the Gospel, I noticed

frequently the same blindness with regard to these words. No one

remembered them, and often in speaking of this passage, Christians took

up the Gospel to see for themselves if the words were really there.

Through a similar neglect of these words I had failed to understand the

words that follow:—

“But whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the

other also,” etc. (Matt. v. 39, et seq.)

Always these words had seemed to me to demand long-suffering and

privation contrary to human nature. They touched me; I felt that it

would be noble to follow them, but I also felt that I had not the

strength to put them into practice. I said to myself, “If I turn the

other cheek, I shall get another blow; if I give, all that I have will

be taken away. Life would be an impossibility. Since life is given to

me, why should I deprive myself of it?[2] Jesus cannot demand as much as

that.” Thus I reasoned, persuaded that Jesus, in exalting long-suffering

and privation, made use of exaggerated terms lacking in clearness and

precision; but when I understood the words “Resist not evil,” I saw that

Jesus did not exaggerate, that he did not demand suffering for

suffering, but that he had formulated with great clearness and precision

exactly what he wished to say.

“Resist not evil,” knowing that you will meet with those who, when they

have struck you on one cheek and met with no resistance, will strike you

on the other; who, having taken away your coat, will take away your

cloak also; who, having profited by your labor, will force you to labor

still more without reward. And yet, though all this should happen to

you, “Resist not evil”; do good to them that injure you. When I

understood these words as they are written, all that had been obscure

became clear to me, and what had seemed exaggerated I saw to be

perfectly reasonable. For the first time I grasped the pivotal idea in

the words “Resist not evil”; I saw that what followed was only a

development of this command; I saw that Jesus did not exhort us to turn

the other cheek that we might endure suffering, but that his exhortation

was, “Resist not evil,” and that he afterward declared suffering to be

the possible consequence of the practice of this maxim.

A father, when his son is about to set out on a[3] far journey, commands

him not to tarry by the way; he does not tell him to pass his nights

without shelter, to deprive himself of food, to expose himself to rain

and cold. He says, “Go thy way, and tarry not, though thou should’st be

wet or cold.” So Jesus does not say, “Turn the other cheek and suffer.”

He says, “Resist not evil”; no matter what happens, “Resist not.”

These words, “Resist not evil,” when I understood their significance,

were to me the key that opened all the rest. Then I was astonished that

I had failed to comprehend words so clear and precise.

“Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth

for a tooth: But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil.”

Whatever injury the evil-disposed may inflict upon you, bear it, give

all that you have, but resist not. Could anything be more clear, more

definite, more intelligible than that? I had only to grasp the simple

and exact meaning of these words, just as they were spoken, when the

whole doctrine of Jesus, not only as set forth in the Sermon on the

Mount, but in the entire Gospels, became clear to me; what had seemed

contradictory was now in harmony; above all, what had seemed superfluous

was now indispensable. Each portion fell into harmonious unison and

filled its proper part, like the fragments of a broken statue when

adjusted in harmony with the sculptor’s design. In the Sermon on the

Mount,[4] as well as throughout the whole Gospel, I found everywhere

affirmation of the same doctrine, “Resist not evil.”

In the Sermon on the Mount, as well as in many other places, Jesus

represents his disciples, those who observe the rule of non-resistance

to evil, as turning the other cheek, giving up their cloaks, persecuted,

used despitefully, and in want. Everywhere Jesus says that he who taketh

not up his cross, he who does not renounce worldly advantage, he who is

not ready to bear all the consequences of the commandment, “Resist not

evil,” cannot become his disciple.

To his disciples Jesus says, Choose to be poor; bear all things without

resistance to evil, even though you thereby bring upon yourself

persecution, suffering, and death.

Prepared to suffer death rather than resist evil, he reproved the

resentment of Peter, and died exhorting his followers not to resist and

to remain always faithful to his doctrine. The early disciples observed

this rule, and passed their lives in misery and persecution, without

rendering evil for evil.

It seems, then, that Jesus meant precisely what he said. We may declare

the practice of such a rule to be very difficult; we may deny that he

who follows it will find happiness; we may say with the unbelievers that

Jesus was a dreamer, an idealist who propounded impracticable maxims;

but it is impossible not to admit that he expressed in a man[5]ner at

once clear and precise what he wished to say; that is, that according to

his doctrine a man must not resist evil, and, consequently, that whoever

adopts his doctrine will not resist evil. And yet neither believers nor

unbelievers will admit this simple and clear interpretation of Jesus’

words.

CHAPTER II.

When I apprehended clearly the words “Resist not evil,” my conception of

the doctrine of Jesus was entirely changed; and I was astounded, not

that I had failed to understand it before, but that I had misunderstood

it so strangely. I knew, as we all know, that the true significance of

the doctrine of Jesus was comprised in the injunction to love one’s

neighbor. When we say, “Turn the other cheek,” “Love your enemies,” we

express the very essence of Christianity. I knew all that from my

childhood; but why had I failed to understand aright these simple words?

Why had I always sought for some ulterior meaning? “Resist not evil”

means, never resist, never oppose violence; or, in other words, never do

anything contrary to the law of love. If any one takes advantage of this

disposition and affronts you, bear the affront, and do not, above all,

have recourse to violence. This Jesus said in words so clear and simple

that it would be impossible to express the idea more clearly. How was it

then, that believing or trying to believe these to be the words of God,

I still maintained the impossibility of obeying them? If my master says

to me, “Go; cut some wood,” and I reply, “It is beyond my strength,” I

say one of two things: either I do not believe what my master says, or I

do not wish to obey his commands. Should I then say of God’s commandment

that I could not obey it without the aid of a supernatural power? Should

I say this without having made the slightest effort of my own to obey?

We are told that God descended to earth to save mankind; that salvation

was secured by the second person of the Trinity, who suffered for men,

thereby redeeming them from sin, and gave them the Church as the shrine

for the transmission of grace to all believers; but aside from this, the

Saviour gave to men a doctrine and the example of his own life for their

salvation. How, then, could I say that the rules of life which Jesus has

formulated so clearly and simply for every one—how could I say that

these rules were difficult to obey, that it was impossible to obey them

without the assistance of a supernatural power? Jesus saw no such

impossibility; he distinctly declared that those who did not obey could

not enter into the kingdom of God. Nowhere did he say that obedience

would be difficult; on the contrary, he said in so many words, “My yoke

is easy and my burden is light” (Matt. xi. 30). And John, the

evangelist, says, “His commandments are not grievous” (1 John v. 3).

Since God declared the practice of his law to be easy, and himself

practised it in human form, as did also his disciples, how dared I speak

of the impossibility of obedience without the aid of a supernatural

power?

If one bent all his energies to overthrow any law, what could he say of

greater force than that the law was essentially impracticable, and that

the maker of the law knew it to be impracticable and unattainable

without the aid of a supernatural power? Yet that is exactly what I had

been thinking of the command, “Resist not evil.” I endeavored to find

out how it was that I got the idea that Jesus’ law was divine, but that

it could not be obeyed; and as I reviewed my past history, I perceived

that the idea had not been communicated to me in all its crudeness (it

would then have been revolting to me), but insensibly I had been imbued

with it from childhood, and all my after life had only confirmed me in

error.

From my childhood I had been taught that Jesus was God, and that his

doctrine was divine, but at the same time I was taught to respect as

sacred the institutions which protected me from violence and evil. I was

taught to resist evil, that it was humiliating to submit to evil, and

that resistance to it was praiseworthy. I was taught to judge, and to

inflict punishment. Then I was taught the soldier’s trade, that is, to

resist evil by homicide; the army to which I belonged was called “The

Christophile Army,” and it was sent forth with a Christian benediction.

From infancy to manhood I learned to venerate things that were in direct

contradiction to the law of Jesus,—to meet an aggressor with his own

weapons, to avenge myself by violence for all offences against my

person, my family, or my race. Not only was I not blamed for this; I

learned to regard it as not at all contrary to the law of Jesus. All

that surrounded me, my personal security and that of my family and my

property—depended then upon a law which Jesus reproved,—the law of “a

tooth for a tooth.” My spiritual instructors taught me that the law of

Jesus was divine, but, because of human weakness, impossible of

practice, and that the grace of Jesus Christ alone could aid us to

follow its precepts. And this instruction agreed with what I received in

secular institutions and from the social organization about me. I was so

thoroughly possessed with this idea of the impracticability of the

divine doctrine, and it harmonized so well with my desires, that not

till the time of awakening did I realize its falsity. I did not see how

impossible it was to confess Jesus and his doctrine, “Resist not evil,”

and at the same time deliberately assist in the organization of

property, of tribunals, of governments, of armies; to contribute to the

establishment of a polity entirely contrary to the doctrine of Jesus,

and at the same time pray to Jesus to help us to obey his commands, to

forgive our sins, and to aid us that we resist not evil. I did not see,

what is very clear to me now, how much more simple it would be to

organize a method of living conformable to the law of Jesus, and then to

pray for tribunals, and massacres, and wars, and all other things

indispensable to our happiness.

Thus I came to understand the source of error into which I had fallen. I

had confessed Jesus with my lips, but my heart was still far from him.

The command, “Resist not evil,” is the central point of Jesus’ doctrine;

it is not a mere verbal affirmation; it is a rule whose practice is

obligatory. It is verily the key to the whole mystery; but the key must

be thrust to the bottom of the lock. When we regard it as a command

impossible of performance, the value of the entire doctrine is lost. Why

should not a doctrine seem impracticable, when we have suppressed its

fundamental proposition? It is not strange that unbelievers look upon it

as totally absurd. When we declare that one may be a Christian without

observing the commandment, “Resist not evil,” we simply leave out the

connecting link which transmits the force of the doctrine of Jesus into

action.

Some time ago I was reading in Hebrew, the fifth chapter of Matthew with

a Jewish rabbi. At nearly every verse the rabbi said, “This is in the

Bible,” or “This is in the Talmud,” and he showed me in the Bible and in

the Talmud sentences very like the declarations of the Sermon on the

Mount. When we reached the words, “Resist not evil,” the rabbi did not

say, “This is in the Talmud,” but he asked me, with a smile, “Do the

Christians obey this command? Do they turn the other cheek?” I had

nothing to say in reply, especially as at that particular time,

Christians, far from turning the other cheek, were smiting the Jews upon

both cheeks. I asked him if there were anything similar in the Bible or

in the Talmud. “No,” he replied, “there is nothing like it; but tell me,

do the Christians obey this law?” It was only another way of saying that

the presence in the Christian doctrine of a commandment which no one

observed, and which Christians themselves regarded as impracticable, is

simply an avowal of the foolishness and nullity of that law. I could say

nothing in reply to the rabbi.

Now that I understand the exact meaning of the doctrine, I see clearly

the strangely contradictory position in which I was placed. Having

recognized the divinity of Jesus and of his doctrine, and having at the

same time organized a life wholly contrary to that doctrine, what

remained for me but to look upon the doctrine as impracticable? In words

I had recognized the doctrine of Jesus as sacred; in actions, I had

professed a doctrine not at all Christian, and I had recognized and

reverenced the anti-Christian customs which hampered my life upon every

side. The persistent message of the Old Testament is that misfortunes

came upon the Hebrew people because they believed in false gods and

denied Jehovah. Samuel (I. viii.-xii.) accuses the people of adding to

their other apostasies the choice of a man, upon whom they depended for

deliverance instead of upon Jehovah, who was their true King. “Turn not

aside after tohu, after vain things,” Samuel says to the people (I. xii.

21); “turn not aside after vain things, which cannot profit nor deliver;

for they are tohu, are vain.” “Fear Jehovah and serve him.... But if ye

shall still do wickedly, ye shall be consumed, both ye and your king”

(I. xii. 24, 25). And so with me, faith in tohu, in vain things, in

empty idols, had concealed the truth from me. Across the path which led

to the truth, tohu, the idol of vain things, rose before me, cutting off

the light, and I had not the strength to beat it down.

On a certain day, at this time, I was walking in Moscow towards the

Borovitzky Gate, where was stationed an old lame beggar, with a dirty

cloth wrapped about his head. I took out my purse to bestow an alms; but

at the same moment I saw a young soldier emerging from the Kremlin at a

rapid pace, head well up, red of face, wearing the State insignia of

military dignity. The beggar, on perceiving the soldier, arose in fear,

and ran with all his might towards the Alexander Garden. The soldier,

after a vain attempt to come up with the fugitive, stopped, shouting

forth an imprecation upon the poor wretch who had established himself

under the gateway contrary to regulations. I waited for the soldier.

When he approached me, I asked him if he knew how to read.

“Yes; why do you ask?”

“Have you read the New Testament?”

“Yes.”

“And do you remember the words, ‘If thine enemy hunger, feed him...’?”

I repeated the passage. He remembered it, and heard me to the end. I saw

that he was uneasy. Two passers-by stopped and listened. The soldier

seemed to be troubled that he should be condemned for doing his duty in

driving persons away from a place where they had been forbidden to

linger. He thought himself at fault, and sought for an excuse. Suddenly

his eye brightened; he looked at me over his shoulder, as if he were

about to move away.

“And the military regulation, do you know anything about that?” he

demanded.

“No,” I said.

“In that case, you have nothing to say to me,” he retorted, with a

triumphant wag of the head, and elevating his plume once more, he

marched away to his post. He was the only man that I ever met who had

solved, with an inflexible logic, the question which eternally

confronted me in social relations, and which rises continually before

every man who calls himself a Christian.

CHAPTER III.

We are wrong when we say that the Christian doctrine is concerned only

with the salvation of the individual, and has nothing to do with

questions of State. Such an assertion is simply a bold affirmation of an

untruth, which, when we examine it seriously, falls of itself to the

ground. It is well (so I said); I will resist not evil; I will turn the

other cheek in private life; but hither comes the enemy, or here is an

oppressed nation, and I am called upon to do my part in the struggle

against evil, to go forth and kill. I must decide the question, to serve

God or tohu, to go to war or not to go. Perhaps I am a peasant; I am

appointed mayor of a village, a judge, a juryman; I am obliged to take

the oath of office, to judge, to condemn. What ought I to do? Again I

must choose between the divine law and the human law. Perhaps I am a

monk living in a monastery; the neighboring peasants trespass upon our

pasturage, and I am appointed to resist evil, to plead for justice

against the wrong-doers. Again I must choose. It is a dilemma from which

no man can escape.

I do not speak of those whose entire lives are passed in resisting evil,

as military authorities, judges, or governors. No one is so obscure that

he is not obliged to choose between the service of God and the service

of tohu, in his relation to the State. My very existence, entangled with

that of the State and the social existence organized by the State,

exacts from me an anti-Christian activity directly contrary to the

commandments of Jesus. In fact, with conscription and compulsory jury

service, this pitiless dilemma arises before every one. Every one is

forced to take up murderous weapons; and even if he does not get as far

as murder, his weapons must be ready, his carbine loaded, and his sword

keen of edge, that he may declare himself ready for murder. Every one is

forced into the service of the courts to take part in meting out

judgment and sentence; that is, to deny the commandment of Jesus,

“Resist not evil,” in acts as well as in words.

The soldier’s problem, the Gospel or military regulations, divine law or

human law, is before mankind to-day as it was in the time of Samuel. It

was forced upon Jesus and upon his disciples; it is forced in these

times upon all who would be Christians; and it was forced upon me.

The law of Jesus, with its doctrine of love, humility, and self-denial,

touched my heart more deeply than ever before. But everywhere, in the

annals of history, in the events that were going on about me, in my

individual life, I saw the law opposed in a manner revolting to

sentiment, conscience, and reason, and encouraging to brute instincts. I

felt that if I adopted the law of Jesus, I should be alone; I should

pass many unhappy hours; I should be persecuted and afflicted as Jesus

had said. But if I adopted the human law, everybody would approve; I

should be in peace and safety, with all the resources of civilization at

my command to put my conscience at ease. As Jesus said, I should laugh

and be glad. I felt all this, and so I did not analyze the meaning of

the doctrine of Jesus, but sought to understand it in such a way that it

might not interfere with my life as an animal. That is, I did not wish

to understand it at all. This determination not to understand led me

into delusions which now astound me. As an instance in point, let me

explain my former understanding of these words:—

“Judge not, that ye be not judged.” (Matt. vii. 1.)

“Judge not, and ye shall not be judged; condemn not, and ye shall not be

condemned.” (Luke vi. 37.)

The courts in which I served, and which insured the safety of my

property and my person, seemed to be institutions so indubitably sacred

and so entirely in accord with the divine law, it had never entered into

my head that the words I have quoted could have any other meaning than

an injunction not to speak ill of one’s neighbor. It never occurred to

me that Jesus spoke in these words of the courts of human law and

justice. It was only when I understood the true meaning of the words,

“Resist not evil,” that the question arose as to Jesus’ advice with

regard to tribunals. When I understood that Jesus would denounce them, I

asked myself, Is not this the real meaning: Not only do not judge your

neighbor, do not speak ill of him, but do not judge him in the courts,

do not judge him in any of the tribunals that you have instituted? Now

in Luke (vi. 37–49) these words follow immediately the doctrine that

exhorts us to resist not evil and to do good to our enemies. And after

the injunction, “Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father also is

merciful,” Jesus says, “Judge not, and ye shall not be judged; condemn

not, and ye shall not be condemned.” “Judge not;” does not this mean,

Institute no tribunals for the judgment of your neighbor? I had only to

bring this boldly before myself when heart and reason united in an

affirmative reply.

To show how far I was before from the true interpretation, I shall

confess a foolish pleasantry for which I still blush. When I was reading

the New Testament as a divine book at the time that I had become a

believer, I was in the habit of saying to my friends who were judges or

attorneys, “And you still judge, although it is said, ‘Judge not, and ye

shall not be judged’?” I was so sure that these words could have no

other meaning than a condemnation of evil-speaking that I did not

comprehend the horrible blasphemy which I thus committed. I was so

thoroughly convinced that these words did not mean what they did mean,

that I quoted them in their true sense in the form of a pleasantry.

I shall relate in detail how it was that all doubt with regard to the

true meaning of these words was effaced from my mind, and how I saw

their purport to be that Jesus denounced the institution of all human

tribunals, of whatever sort; that he meant to say so, and could not have

expressed himself otherwise. When I understood the command, “Resist not

evil,” in its proper sense, the first thing that occurred to me was that

tribunals, instead of conforming to this law, were directly opposed to

it, and indeed to the entire doctrine; and therefore that if Jesus had

thought of tribunals at all, he would have condemned them.

Jesus said, “Resist not evil”; the sole aim of tribunals is to resist

evil. Jesus exhorted us to return good for evil; tribunals return evil

for evil. Jesus said that we were to make no distinction between those

who do good and those who do evil; tribunals do nothing else. Jesus

said, Forgive, forgive not once or seven times, but without limit; love

your enemies, do good to them that hate you—but tribunals do not

forgive, they punish; they return not good but evil to those whom they

regard as the enemies of society. It would seem, then, that Jesus

denounced judicial institutions. Perhaps (I said) Jesus never had

anything to do with courts of justice, and so did not think of them. But

I saw that such a theory was not tenable. Jesus, from his childhood to

his death, was concerned with the tribunals of Herod, of the Sanhedrim,

and of the High Priests. I saw that Jesus must have regarded courts of

justice as wrong. He told his disciples that they would be dragged

before the judges, and gave them advice as to how they should comport

themselves. He said of himself that he should be condemned by a

tribunal, and he showed what the attitude toward judges ought to be.

Jesus, then, must have thought of the judicial institutions which

condemned him and his disciples; which have condemned and continue to

condemn millions of men.

Jesus saw the wrong and faced it. When the sentence against the woman

taken in adultery was about to be carried into execution, he absolutely

denied the possibility of human justice, and demonstrated that man could

not be the judge since man himself was guilty. And this idea he has

propounded many times, as where it is declared that one with a beam in

his eye cannot see the mote in another’s eye, or that the blind cannot

lead the blind. He even pointed out the consequences of such

misconceptions,—the disciple would be above his Master.

Perhaps, however, after having denounced the incompetency of human

justice as displayed in the case of the woman taken in adultery, or

illustrated in the parable of the mote and the beam; perhaps, after all,

Jesus would admit of an appeal to the justice of men where it was

necessary for protection against evil; but I soon saw that this was

inadmissible. In the Sermon on the Mount, he says, addressing the

multitude,

“And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let

him have thy cloak also.” (Matt. v. 40.)

Once more, perhaps Jesus spoke only of the personal bearing which a man

should have when brought before judicial institutions, and did not

condemn justice, but admitted the necessity in a Christian society of

individuals who judge others in properly constituted forms. But I saw

that this view was also inadmissible. When he prayed, Jesus besought all

men, without exception, to forgive others, that their own trespasses

might be forgiven. This thought he often expresses. He who brings his

gift to the altar with prayer must first grant forgiveness. How, then,

could a man judge and condemn when his religion commanded him to forgive

all trespasses, without limit? So I saw that according to the doctrine

of Jesus no Christian judge could pass sentence of condemnation.

But might not the relation between the words “Judge not, and ye shall

not be judged” and the preceding or subsequent passages permit us to

conclude that Jesus, in saying “Judge not,” had no reference whatever to

judicial institutions? No; this could not be so; on the contrary, it is

clear from the relation of the phrases that in saying “Judge not,” Jesus

did actually speak of judicial institutions. According to Matthew and

Luke, before saying “Judge not, condemn not,” his command was to resist

not evil. And prior to this, as Matthew tells us, he repeated the

ancient criminal law of the Jews, “An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a

tooth.” Then, after this reference to the old criminal law, he added,

“But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil”; and, after that, “Judge

not.” Jesus did, then, refer directly to human criminal law, and

reproved it in the words, “Judge not.” Moreover, according to Luke, he

not only said, “Judge not,” but also, “Condemn not.” It was not without

a purpose that he added this almost synonymous word; it shows clearly

what meaning should be attributed to the other. If he had wished to say

“Judge not your neighbor,” he would have said “neighbor”; but he added

the words which are translated “Condemn not,” and then completed the

sentence, “And ye shall not be condemned: forgive, and ye shall be

forgiven.” But some may still insist that Jesus, in expressing himself

in this way, did not refer at all to the tribunals, and that I have read

my own thoughts into his teachings. Let the apostles tell us what they

thought of courts of justice, and if they recognized and approved of

them. The apostle James says (iv. 11, 12):—

“Speak not evil one of another, brethren. He that speaketh evil of his

brother, and judgeth his brother, speaketh evil of the law, and judgeth

the law: but if thou judge the law, thou art not a doer of the law, but

a judge. There is one lawgiver, who is able to save and to destroy: who

art thou that judgest another?”

The word translated “speak evil” is the verb καταλαλέω , which means “to

speak against, to accuse”; this is its true meaning, as any one may find

out for himself by opening a dictionary. In the translation we read, “He

that speaketh evil of his brother, ... speaketh evil of the law.” Why

so? is the question that involuntarily arises. I may speak evil of my

brother, but I do not thereby speak evil of the law. If, however, I

accuse my brother, if I bring him to justice, it is plain that I thereby

accuse the law of Jesus of insufficiency: I accuse and judge the law. It

is clear, then, that I do not practise the law, but that I make myself a

judge of the law. “Not to judge, but to save” is Jesus’ declaration. How

then shall I, who cannot save, become a judge and punish? The entire

passage refers to human justice, and denies its authority. The whole

epistle is permeated with the same idea. In the second chapter we read:—

“For he shall have judgment without mercy, that hath shewed no mercy;

and mercy is exalted above judgment.”[6] (Jas. ii. 13.)

(The last phrase has been translated in such a way as to declare that

judgment is compatible with Christianity, but that it ought to be

merciful.)

James exhorts his brethren to have no respect of persons. If you have

respect of the condition of persons, you are guilty of sin; you are like

the untrustworthy judges of the tribunals. You look upon the beggar as

the refuse of society, while it is the rich man who ought to be so

regarded. He it is who oppresses you and draws you before the

judgment-seats. If you live according to the law of love for your

neighbor, according to the law of mercy (which James calls “the law of

liberty,” to distinguish it from all others)—if you live according to

this law, it is well. But if you have respect of persons, you transgress

the law of mercy. Then (doubtless thinking of the case of the woman

taken in adultery, who, when she was brought before Jesus, was about to

be put to death according to the law), thinking, no doubt, of that case,

James says that he who inflicts death upon the adulterous woman would

himself be guilty of murder, and thereby transgress the eternal law; for

the same law forbids both adultery and murder.

“So speak ye, and so do, as they that shall be judged by the law of

liberty. For he shall have judgment without mercy, that hath shewed no

mercy; and mercy is exalted above judgment.” (Jas. ii. 12, 13.)

Could the idea be expressed in terms more clear and precise? Respect of

persons is forbidden, as well as any judgment that shall classify

persons as good or bad; human judgment is declared to be inevitably

defective, and such judgment is denounced as criminal when it condemns

for crime; judgment is blotted out by the eternal law, the law of mercy.

I open the epistles of Paul, who had been a victim of tribunals, and in

the letter to the Romans I read the admonitions of the apostle for the

vices and errors of those to whom his words are addressed; among other

matters he speaks of courts of justice:—

“Who, knowing the judgment of God, that they which commit such things

are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them

that do them.” (Rom. i. 32.)

“Therefore thou art inexcusable, O man, whosoever thou art that judgest:

for wherein thou judgest another, thou condemnest thyself; for thou that

judgest doest the same things.” (Rom. ii. 1.)

“Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness and forbearance and

long-suffering; not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth thee to

repentance?” (Rom. ii. 4.)

Such was the opinion of the apostles with regard to tribunals, and we

know that human justice was among the trials and sufferings that they

endured with steadfastness and resignation to the will of God. When we

think of the situation of the early Christians, surrounded by

unbelievers, we can understand that a denial of the right to judge

persecuted Christians before the tribunals was not considered. The

apostles spoke of it only incidentally as an evil, and denied its

authority on every occasion.

I examined the teachings of the early Fathers of the Church, and found

them to agree in obliging no one to judge or to condemn, and in urging

all to bear the inflictions of justice. The martyrs, by their acts,

declared themselves to be of the same mind. I saw that Christianity

before Constantine regarded tribunals only as an evil which was to be

endured with patience; but it never could have occurred to any early

Christian that he could take part in the administration of the courts of

justice. It is plain, therefore, that Jesus’ words, “Judge not, condemn

not,” were understood by his first disciples, as they ought to be

understood now, in their direct and literal meaning: judge not in courts

of justice; take no part in them.

All this seemed absolutely to corroborate my conviction that the words,

“Judge not, condemn not,” referred to the justice of tribunals. Yet the

meaning, “Speak not evil of your neighbor,” is so firmly established,

and courts of justice flaunt their decrees with so much assurance and

audacity in all Christian societies, with the support even of the

Church, that for a long time still I doubted the wisdom of my

interpretation. If men have understood the words in this way (I

thought), and have instituted Christian tribunals, they must certainly

have some reason for so doing; there must be a good reason for regarding

these words as a denunciation of evil-speaking, and there is certainly a

basis of some sort for the institution of Christian tribunals; perhaps,

after all, I am in the wrong.

I turned to the Church commentaries. In all, from the fifth century

onward, I found the invariable interpretation to be, “Accuse not your

neighbor”; that is, avoid evil-speaking. As the words came to be

understood exclusively in this sense, a difficulty arose,—How to refrain

from judgment? It being impossible not to condemn evil, all the

commentators discussed the question, What is blamable and what is not

blamable? Some, such as Chrysostom and Theophylact, said that, as far as

servants of the Church were concerned, the phrase could not be construed

as a prohibition of censure, since the apostles themselves were

censorious. Others said that Jesus doubtless referred to the Jews, who

accused their neighbors of shortcomings, and were themselves guilty of

great sins.

Nowhere a word about human institutions, about tribunals, to show how

they were affected by the warning, “Judge not.” Did Jesus sanction

courts of justice, or did he not? To this very natural question I found

no reply—as if it was evident that from the moment a Christian took his

seat on the judge’s bench he might not only judge his neighbor, but

condemn him to death.

I turned to other writers, Greek, Catholic, Protestant, to the Tübingen

school, to the historical school. Everywhere, even by the most liberal

commentators, the words in question were interpreted as an injunction

against evil-speaking.

But why, contrary to the spirit of the whole doctrine of Jesus, are

these words interpreted in so narrow a way as to exclude courts of

justice from the injunction, “Judge not”? Why the supposition that Jesus

in forbidding the comparatively light offence of speaking evil of one’s

neighbor did not forbid, did not even consider, the more deliberate

judgment which results in punishment inflicted upon the condemned? To

all this I got no response; not even an allusion to the least

possibility that the words “to judge” could be used as referring to a

court of justice, to the tribunals from whose punishments so many

millions have suffered.

Moreover, when the words, “Judge not, condemn not,” are under

discussion, the cruelty of judging in courts of justice is passed over

in silence, or else commended. The commentators all declare that in

Christian societies tribunals are necessary, and in no way contrary to

the law of Jesus.

Realizing this, I began to doubt the sincerity of the commentators; and

I did what I should have done in the first place; I turned to the

textual translations of the words which we render “to judge” and “to

condemn.” In the original these words are κρίνω and καταδικάζω. The

defective translation in James of καταλαλέω, which is rendered “to speak

evil,” strengthened my doubts as to the correct translation of the

others. When I looked through different versions of the Gospels, I found

καταδικάζω rendered in the Vulgate by condemnare, “to condemn”; in the

Sclavonic text the rendering is equivalent to that of the Vulgate;

Luther has verdammen, “to speak evil of.” These divergent renderings

increased my doubts, and I was obliged to ask again the meaning of

κρίνω, as used by the two evangelists, and of καταδικάζω, as used by

Luke who, scholars tell us, wrote very correct Greek.

How would these words be translated by a man who knew nothing of the

evangelical creed, and who had before him only the phrases in which they

are used?

Consulting the dictionary, I found that the word κρίνω had several

different meanings, among the most used being “to condemn in a court of

justice,” and even “to condemn to death,” but in no instance did it

signify “to speak evil.” I consulted a dictionary of New Testament

Greek, and found that was often used in the sense “to condemn in a court

of justice,” sometimes in the sense “to choose,” never as meaning “to

speak evil.” From which I inferred that the word κρίνω might be

translated in different ways, but that the rendering “to speak evil” was

the most forced and far-fetched.

I searched for the word καταδικάζω, which follows κρίνω, evidently to

define more closely the sense in which the latter is to be understood. I

looked for καταδικάζω in the dictionary, and found that it had no other

signification than “to condemn in judgment,” or “to judge worthy of

death.” I found that the word was used four times in the New Testament,

each time in the sense “to condemn under sentence, to judge worthy of

death.” In James (v. 6) we read, “Ye have condemned and killed the

just.” The word rendered “condemned” is this same καταδικάζω, and is

used with reference to Jesus, who was condemned to death by a court of

justice. The word is never used in any other sense, in the New Testament

or in any other writing in the Greek language.

What, then, are we to say to all this? Is my conclusion a foolish one?

Is not every one who considers the fate of humanity filled with horror

at the sufferings inflicted upon mankind by the enforcement of criminal

codes,—a scourge to those who condemn as well as to the condemned,—from

the slaughters of Genghis Khan to those of the French Revolution and the

executions of our own times? He would indeed be without compassion who

could refrain from feeling horror and repulsion, not only at the sight

of human beings thus treated by their kind, but at the simple recital of

death inflicted by the knout, the guillotine, or the gibbet.

The Gospel, of which every word is sacred to you, declares distinctly

and without equivocation: “You have from of old a criminal law, An eye

for an eye, a tooth for a tooth; but a new law is given you, That you

resist not evil. Obey this law; render not evil for evil, but do good to

every one, forgive every one, under all circumstances.” Further on comes

the injunction, “Judge not,” and that these words might not be

misunderstood, Jesus added, “Condemn not; condemn not in justice the

crimes of others.”

“No more death-warrants,” said an inner voice—“no more death-warrants,”

said the voice of science; “evil cannot suppress evil.” The Word of God,

in which I believed, told me the same thing. And when in reading the

doctrine, I came to the words, “Condemn not, and ye shall not be

condemned: forgive, and ye shall be forgiven,” could I look upon them as

meaning simply that I was not to indulge in gossip and evil-speaking,

and should continue to regard tribunals as a Christian institution, and

myself as a Christian judge?

I was overwhelmed with horror at the grossness of the error into which I

had fallen.

CHAPTER IV.

I now understood the words of Jesus: “Ye have heard that it hath been

said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: but I say unto you,

That ye resist not evil.” Jesus’ meaning is: “You have thought that you

were acting in a reasonable manner in defending yourself by violence

against evil, in tearing out an eye for an eye, by fighting against evil

with criminal tribunals, guardians of the peace, armies; but I say unto

you, Renounce violence; have nothing to do with violence; do harm to no

one, not even to your enemy.” I understood now that in saying “Resist

not evil,” Jesus not only told us what would result from the observance

of this rule, but established a new basis for society conformable to his

doctrine and opposed to the social basis established by the law of

Moses, by Roman law, and by the different codes in force to-day. He

formulated a new law whose effect would be to deliver humanity from its

self-inflicted woes. His declaration was: “You believe that your laws

reform criminals; as a matter of fact, they only make more criminals.

There is only one way to suppress evil, and that is to return good for

evil, without respect of persons. For thousands of years you have tried

the other method; now try mine, try the reverse.”

Strange to say, in these later days, I talked with different persons

about this commandment of Jesus, “Resist not evil,” and rarely found any

one to coincide with my opinion! Two classes of men would never, even by

implication, admit the literal interpretation of the law. These men were

at the extreme poles of the social scale,—they were the conservative

Christian patriots who maintained the infallibility of the Church, and

the atheistic revolutionists. Neither of these two classes was willing

to renounce the right to resist by violence what they regarded as evil.

And the wisest and most intelligent among them would not acknowledge the

simple and evident truth, that if we once admit the right of any man to

resist by violence what he regards as evil, every other man has equally

the right to resist by violence what he regards as evil.

Not long ago I had in my hands an interesting correspondence between an

orthodox Slavophile and a Christian revolutionist. The one advocated

violence as a partisan of a war for the relief of brother Slavs in

bondage; the other, as a partisan of revolution, in the name of our

brothers the oppressed Russian peasantry. Both invoked violence, and

each based himself upon the doctrine of Jesus. The doctrine of Jesus is

understood in a hundred different ways; but never, unhappily, in the

simple and direct way which harmonizes with the inevitable meaning of

Jesus’ words.

Our entire social fabric is founded upon principles that Jesus reproved;

we do not wish to understand his doctrine in its simple and direct

acceptation, and yet we assure ourselves and others that we follow his

doctrine, or else that his doctrine is not expedient for us. Believers

profess that Christ as God, the second person of the Trinity, descended

upon earth to teach men by his example how to live; they go through the

most elaborate ceremonies for the consummation of the sacraments, the

building of temples, the sending out of missionaries, the establishment

of priesthoods, for parochial administration, for the performance of

rituals; but they forget one little detail,—the practice of the

commandments of Jesus. Unbelievers endeavor in every possible way to

organize their existence independent of the doctrine of Jesus, they

having decided a priori that this doctrine is of no account. But to

endeavor to put his teachings in practice, this each refuses to do; and

the worst of it is, that without any attempt to put them in practice,

both believers and unbelievers decide a priori that it is impossible.

Jesus said, simply and clearly, that the law of resistance to evil by

violence, which has been made the basis of society, is false, and

contrary to man’s nature; and he gave another basis, that of

non-resistance to evil, a law which, according to his doctrine, would

deliver man from wrong. “You believe” (he says in substance) “that your

laws, which resort to violence, correct evil; not at all; they only

augment it. For thousands of years you have tried to destroy evil by

evil, and you have not destroyed it; you have only augmented it. Do as I

command you, follow my example, and you will know that my doctrine is

true.” Not only in words, but by his acts, by his death, did Jesus

propound his doctrine, “Resist not evil.”

Believers listen to all this. They hear it in their churches, persuaded

that the words are divine; they worship Jesus as God, and then they say:

“All this is admirable, but it is impossible; as society is now

organized, it would derange our whole existence, and we should be

obliged to give up the customs that are so dear to us. We believe it

all, but only in this sense: That it is the ideal toward which humanity

ought to move; the ideal which is to be attained by prayer, and by

believing in the sacraments, in the redemption, and in the resurrection

of the dead.”

The others, the unbelievers, the free-thinkers who comment on the

doctrine of Jesus, the historians of religions, the Strausses, the

Renans,—completely imbued with the teachings of the Church, which says

that the doctrine of Jesus accords with difficulty with our conceptions

of life,—tell us very seriously that the doctrine of Jesus is the

doctrine of a visionary, the consolation of feeble minds; that it was

all very well preached in the fishermen’s huts by Galilee; but that for

us it is only the sweet dream of one whom Renan calls the “charmant

docteur.”

In their opinion, Jesus could not rise to the heights of wisdom and

culture attained by our civilization. If he had been on an intellectual

level with his modern critics, he never would have uttered his charming

nonsense about the birds of the air, the turning of the other cheek, the

taking no thought for the morrow. These historical critics judge of the

value of Christianity by what they see of it as it now exists. The

Christianity of our age and civilization approves of society as it now

is, with its prison-cells, its factories, its houses of infamy, its

parliaments; but as for the doctrine of Jesus, which is opposed to

modern society, it is only empty words. The historical critics see this,

and, unlike the so-called believers, having no motives for concealment,

submit the doctrine to a careful analysis; they refute it

systematically, and prove that Christianity is made up of nothing but

chimerical ideas.

It would seem that before deciding upon the doctrine of Jesus, it would

be necessary to understand of what it consisted; and to decide whether

his doctrine is reasonable or not, it would be well first to realize

that he said exactly what he did say. And this is precisely what we do

not do, what the Church commentators do not do, what the free-thinkers

do not do—and we know very well why. We know perfectly well that the

doctrine of Jesus is directed at and denounces all human errors, all

tohu, all the empty idols that we try to except from the category of

errors, by dubbing them “Church,” “State,” “Culture,” “Science,” “Art,”

“Civilization.” But Jesus spoke precisely of all these, of these and all

other tohu. Not only Jesus, but all the Hebrew prophets, John the

Baptist, all the true sages of the world denounced the Church and State

and culture and civilization of their times as sources of man’s

perdition.

Imagine an architect who says to a house-owner, “Your house is good for

nothing; you must rebuild it,” and then describes how the supports are

to be cut and fastened. The proprietor turns a deaf ear to the words,

“Your house is good for nothing,” and only listens respectfully when the

architect begins to discuss the arrangement of the rooms. Evidently, in

this case, all the subsequent advice of the architect will seem to be

impracticable; less respectful proprietors would regard it as

nonsensical. But it is precisely in this way that we treat the doctrine

of Jesus. I give this illustration for want of a better. I remember now

that Jesus in teaching his doctrine made use of the same comparison.

“Destroy this temple,” he said, “and in three days I will raise it up.”

It was for this they put him on the cross, and for this they now crucify

his doctrine.

The least that can be asked of those who pass judgment upon any doctrine

is that they shall judge of it with the same understanding as that with

which it was propounded. Jesus understood his doctrine, not as a vague

and distant ideal impossible of attainment, not as a collection of

fantastic and poetical reveries with which to charm the simple

inhabitants on the shores of Galilee; to him his doctrine was a doctrine

of action, of acts which should become the salvation of mankind. This he

showed in his manner of applying his doctrine. The crucified one who

cried out in agony of spirit and died for his doctrine was not a

dreamer; he was a man of action. They are not dreamers who have died,

and still die, for his doctrine. No; that doctrine is not a chimera!

All doctrine that reveals the truth is chimerical to the blind. We may

say, as many people do say (I was of the number), that the doctrine of

Jesus is chimerical because it is contrary to human nature. It is

against nature, we say, to turn the other cheek when we have been

struck, to give all that we possess, to toil not for ourselves but for

others. It is natural, we say, for a man to defend his person, his

family, his property; that is to say, it is the nature of man to

struggle for existence. A learned person has proved scientifically that

the most sacred duty of man is to defend his rights, that is, to fight.

But the moment we detach ourselves from the idea that the existing

organization established by man is the best, is sacred, the moment we do

this, the objection that the doctrine of Jesus is contrary to human

nature turns immediately upon him who makes it. No one will deny that

not only to kill or torture a man, but to torture a dog, to kill a fowl

or a calf, is to inflict suffering reproved by human nature. (I have

known of farmers who had ceased to eat meat solely because it had fallen

to their lot to slaughter animals.) And yet our existence is so

organized that every personal enjoyment is purchased at the price of

human suffering contrary to human nature.

We have only to examine closely the complicated mechanism of our

institutions that are based upon coercion to realize that coercion and

violence are contrary to human nature. The judge who has condemned

according to the code, is not willing to hang the criminal with his own

hands; no clerk would tear a villager from his weeping family and cast

him into prison; the general or the soldier, unless he be hardened by

discipline and service, will not undertake to slay a hundred Turks or

Germans or destroy a village, would not, if he could help it, kill a

single man. Yet all these things are done, thanks to the administrative

machinery which divides responsibility for misdeeds in such a way that

no one feels them to be contrary to nature.

Some make the laws, others execute them; some train men by discipline to

automatic obedience; and these last, in their turn, become the

instruments of coercion, and slay their kind without knowing why or to

what end. But let a man disentangle himself for a moment from this

complicated network, and he will readily see that coercion is contrary

to his nature. Let us abstain from affirming that organized violence, of

which we make use to our own profit, is a divine, immutable law, and we

shall see clearly which is most in harmony with human nature,—the

doctrine of violence or the doctrine of Jesus.

What is the law of nature? Is it to know that my security and that of my

family, all my amusements and pleasures, are purchased at the expense of

misery, deprivation, and suffering to thousands of human beings—by the

terror of the gallows; by the misfortune of thousands stifling within

prison walls; by the fear inspired by millions of soldiers and guardians

of civilization, torn from their homes and besotted by discipline, to

protect our pleasures with loaded revolvers against the possible

interference of the famishing? Is it to purchase every fragment of bread

that I put in my mouth and the mouths of my children by the numberless

privations that are necessary to procure my abundance? Or is it to be

certain that my piece of bread only belongs to me when I know that every

one else has a share, and that no one starves while I eat?

It is only necessary to understand that, thanks to our social

organization, each one of our pleasures, every minute of our cherished

tranquility, is obtained by the sufferings and privations of thousands

of our fellows—it is only necessary to understand this, to know what is

conformable to human nature; not to our animal nature alone, but the

animal and spiritual nature which constitutes man. When we once

understand the doctrine of Jesus in all its bearings, with all its

consequences, we shall be convinced that his doctrine is not contrary to

human nature; but that its sole object is to supplant the chimerical law

of the struggle against evil by violence—itself the law contrary to

human nature and productive of so many evils.

Do you say that the doctrine of Jesus, “Resist not evil,” is vain? What,

then, are we to think of the lives of those who are not filled with love

and compassion for their kind,—of those who make ready for their

fellow-men punishment at the stake, by the knout, the wheel, the rack,

chains, compulsory labor, the gibbet, dungeons, prisons for women and

children, the hecatombs of war, or bring about periodical revolutions;

of those who carry these horrors into execution; of those who benefit by

these calamities or prepare reprisals,—are not such lives vain?

We need only understand the doctrine of Jesus, to be convinced that

existence,—not the reasonable existence which gives happiness to

humanity, but the existence men have organized to their own hurt,—that

such an existence is a vanity, the most savage and horrible of vanities,

a veritable delirium of folly, to which, once reclaimed, we do not again

return.

God descended to earth, became incarnate to redeem Adam’s sin, and (so

we were taught to believe) said many mysterious and mystical things

which are difficult to understand, which it is not possible to

understand except by the aid of faith and grace—and suddenly the words

of God are found to be simple, clear, and reasonable! God said, Do no

evil, and evil will cease to exist. Was the revelation from God really

so simple—nothing but that? It would seem that every one might

understand it, it is so simple!

The prophet Elijah, a fugitive from men, took refuge in a cave, and was

told that God would appear to him. There came a great wind that

devastated the forest; Elijah thought that the Lord had come, but the

Lord was not in the wind. After the wind came the thunder and the

lightning, but God was not there. Then came the earthquake: the earth

belched forth fire, the rocks were shattered, the mountain was rent to

its foundations; Elijah looked for the Lord, but the Lord was not in the

earthquake. Then, in the calm that followed, a gentle breeze came to the

prophet, bearing the freshness of the fields; and Elijah knew that God

was there. It is a magnificent illustration of the words, “Resist not

evil.”

They are very simple, these words; but they are, nevertheless, the

expression of a law divine and human. If there has been in history a

progressive movement for the suppression of evil, it is due to the men

who understood the doctrine of Jesus—who endured evil, and resisted not

evil by violence. The advance of humanity towards righteousness is due,

not to the tyrants, but to the martyrs. As fire cannot extinguish fire,

so evil cannot suppress evil. Good alone, confronting evil and resisting

its contagion, can overcome evil. And in the inner world of the human

soul, the law is as absolute as it was for the hearers by Galilee, more

absolute, more clear, more immutable. Men may turn aside from it, they

may hide its truth from others; but the progress of humanity towards

righteousness can only be attained in this way. Every step must be

guided by the command, “Resist not evil.” A disciple of Jesus may say

now, with greater assurance than they of Galilee, in spite of

misfortunes and threats: “And yet it is not violence, but good, that

overcomes evil.” If the progress is slow, it is because the doctrine of

Jesus (which, through its clearness, simplicity, and wisdom, appeals so

inevitably to human nature), because the doctrine of Jesus has been

cunningly concealed from the majority of mankind under an entirely

different doctrine falsely called by his name.

CHAPTER V.

The true meaning of the doctrine of Jesus was revealed to me; everything

confirmed its truth. But for a long time I could not accustom myself to

the strange fact, that after the eighteen centuries during which the law

of Jesus had been professed by millions of human beings, after the

eighteen centuries during which thousands of men had consecrated their

lives to the study of this law, I had discovered it for myself anew. But

strange as it seemed, so it was. Jesus’ law, “Resist not evil,” was to

me wholly new, something of which I had never had any conception before.

I asked myself how this could be; I must certainly have had a false idea

of the doctrine of Jesus to cause such a misunderstanding. And a false

idea of it I unquestionably had. When I began to read the Gospel, I was

not in the condition of one who, having heard nothing of the doctrine of

Jesus, becomes acquainted with it for the first time; on the contrary, I

had a preconceived theory as to the manner in which I ought to

understand it. Jesus did not appeal to me as a prophet revealing the

divine law, but as one who continued and amplified the absolute divine

law which I already knew; for I had very definite and complex notions

about God, the creator of the world and of man, and about the

commandments of God given to men through the instrumentality of Moses.

When I came to the words, “Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye

for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: But I say unto you, That ye resist

not evil,”—the words, “An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth,”

expressed the law given by God to Moses; the words, “But I say unto you,

That ye resist not evil,” expressed the new law, which was a negation of

the first. If I had seen Jesus’ words, simply, in their true sense, and

not as a part of the theological theory that I had imbibed at my

mother’s breast, I should have understood immediately that Jesus

abrogated the old law, and substituted for it a new law. But I had been

taught that Jesus did not abrogate the law of Moses, that, on the

contrary, he confirmed it to the slightest iota, and that he made it

more complete. Verses 17–20 of the fifth chapter of Matthew always

impressed me, when I read the Gospel, by their obscurity, and they

plunged me into doubt. I knew the Old Testament, particularly the last

books of Moses, very thoroughly, and recalling certain passages in which

minute doctrines, often absurd and even cruel in their purport, are

preceded by the words, “And the Lord said unto Moses,” it seemed to me

very singular that Jesus should confirm all these injunctions; I could

not understand why he did so. But I allowed the question to pass without

solution, and accepted with confidence the explanations inculcated in my

infancy,—that the two laws were equally inspired by the Holy Spirit,

that they were in perfect accord, and that Jesus confirmed the law of

Moses while completing and amplifying it. I did not concern myself with

accounting for the process of this amplification, with the solution of

the contradictions apparent throughout the whole Gospel, in verses 17–20

of the fifth chapter, in the words, “But I say unto you.”

Now that I understood the clear and simple meaning of the doctrine of

Jesus, I saw clearly that the two laws are directly opposed to one

another; that they can never be harmonized; that, instead of

supplementing one by the other, we must inevitably choose between the

two; and that the received explanation of the verses, Matthew v. 17–20,

which had impressed me by their obscurity, must be incorrect.

When I now came to read once more the verses that had before impressed

me as obscure, I was astonished at the clear and simple meaning which

was suddenly revealed to me. This meaning was revealed, not by any

combination and transposition, but solely by rejecting the factitious

explanations with which the words had been encumbered. According to

Matthew, Jesus said (v. 17–18):—

“Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets (the

doctrine of the prophets): I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For

verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle

shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled.”

And in verse 20 he added:—

“For I say unto you, That except your righteousness shall exceed the

righteousness of the scribes and Pharisees, ye shall in no case enter

into the kingdom of heaven.”

I am not come (Jesus said) to destroy the eternal law of whose

fulfilment your books of prophecy foretell. I am come to teach you the

fulfilment of the eternal law; not of the law that your scribes and

pharisees call the divine law, but of that eternal law which is more

immutable than the earth and the heavens.

I have expressed the idea in other words in order to detach the thoughts

of my readers from the traditional false interpretation. If this false

interpretation had never existed, the idea expressed in the verses could

not be rendered in a better or more definite manner.

The view that Jesus did not abrogate the old law arises from the

arbitrary conclusion that “law” in this passage signifies the written

law instead of the law eternal, the reference to the iota—jot and

tittle—perhaps furnishing the grounds for such an opinion. But if Jesus

had been speaking of the written law, he would have used the expression

“the law and the prophets,” which he always employed in speaking of the

written law; here, however, he uses a different expression,—“the law or

the prophets.” If Jesus had meant the written law, he would have used

the expression, “the law and the prophets,” in the verses that follow

and that continue the thought; but he says, briefly, “the law.”

Moreover, according to Luke, Jesus made use of the same phraseology, and

the context renders the meaning inevitable. According to Luke, Jesus

said to the Pharisees, who assumed the justice of their written law:—

“Ye are they which justify yourselves before men; but God knoweth your

hearts: for that which is highly esteemed among men is abomination in

the sight of God. The law and the prophets were until John: since that

time the kingdom of God is preached, and every man presseth into it. And

it is easier for heaven and earth to pass, than one tittle of the law to

fail.” (Luke xvi. 15–17.)

In the words, “The law and the prophets were until John,” Jesus

abrogated the written law; in the words, “And it is easier for heaven

and earth to pass, than one tittle of the law to fail,” Jesus confirmed

the law eternal. In the first passage cited he said, “the law and the

prophets,” that is, the written law; in the second he said “the law”

simply, therefore the law eternal. It is clear, then, that the eternal

law is opposed to the written law,[7] exactly as in the context of

Matthew where the eternal law is defined by the phrase, “the law or the

prophets.”

The history of the variants of the text of these verses is quite worthy

of notice. The majority of texts have simply “the law,” without the

addition, “and the prophets,” thus avoiding a false interpretation in

the sense of the written law. In other texts, notably that of

Tischendorf, and in the canonical versions, we find the word “prophets”

used, not with the conjunction “and,” but with the conjunction

“or,”—“the law or the prophets,”—which also excludes any question of the

written law, and indicates, as the proper signification, the law

eternal. In several other versions, not countenanced by the Church, we

find the word “prophets” used with the conjunction “and,” not with “or”;

and in these versions every repetition of the words “the law” is

followed by the phrase, “and the prophets,” which would indicate that

Jesus spoke only of the written law.

The history of the commentaries on the passage in question coincides

with that of the variants. The only clear meaning is that authorized by

Luke,—that Jesus spoke of the eternal law. But among the copyists of the

Gospel were some who desired that the written law of Moses should

continue to be regarded as obligatory. They therefore added to the words

“the law” the phrase “and the prophets,” and thereby changed the

interpretation of the text.

Other Christians, not recognizing to the same degree the authority of

the books of Moses, suppressed the added phrase, and replaced the

particle καί, “and,” with ἤ, “or”; and with this substitution the

passage was admitted to the canon. Nevertheless, in spite of the

unequivocal clearness of the text as thus written, the commentators

perpetuated the interpretation supported by the phrase which had been

rejected in the canon. The passage evoked innumerable comments, which

stray from the true signification in proportion to the lack, on the part

of the commentators, of fidelity to the simple and obvious meaning of

Jesus’ doctrine. Most of them recognize the reading rejected by the

canonical text.

To be absolutely convinced that Jesus spoke only of the eternal law, we

need only examine the true meaning of the word which has given rise to

so many false interpretations. The word “law” (in Greek νόμος, in Hebrew

תּוֹרָהּ, torah) has in all languages two principal meanings: one, law in

the abstract sense, independent of formulæ; the other, the written

statutes which men generally recognize as law. In the Greek of Paul’s

Epistles the distinction is indicated by the use of the article. Without

the article Paul uses νόμος the most frequently in the sense of the

divine eternal law. By the ancient Hebrews, as in books of Isaiah and

the other prophets, תּוֹרָהּ, torah, is always used in the sense of an

eternal revelation, a divine intuition. It was not till the time of

Esdras, and later in the Talmud, that “Torah” was used in the same sense

in which we use the word “Bible”—with this difference, that while we

have words to distinguish between the Bible and the divine law, the Jews

employed the same word to express both meanings.

And so Jesus sometimes speaks of law as the divine law (of Isaiah and

the other prophets), in which case he confirms it; and sometimes in the

sense of the written law of the Pentateuch, in which case he rejects it.

To distinguish the difference, he always, in speaking of the written

law, adds, “and the prophets,” or prefixes the word “your,”—“your law.”

When he says: “Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should

do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets”

(Matt. vii. 12), he speaks of the written law. The entire written law,

he says, may be reduced to this expression of the eternal law, and by

these words he abrogated the eternal law. When he says, “The law and the

prophets were until John” (Luke xvi. 16), he speaks of the written law,

and abrogates it. When he says, “Did not Moses give you the law, and yet

none of you keepeth the law” (John vii. 19), “It is also written in your

law” (John viii. 17), “that the word might be fulfilled that is written

in their law” (John xv. 25), he speaks of the written law, the law whose

authority he denied, the law that condemned him to death: “The Jews

answered him, We have a law, and by our law he ought to die” (John xix.

7). It is plain that this Jewish law, which authorized condemnation to

death, was not the law of Jesus. But when Jesus says, “I am not come to

destroy the law, but to teach you the fulfilment of the law; for nothing

of this law shall be changed, but all shall be fulfilled,” then he

speaks, not of the written law, but of the divine and eternal law.

Admit that all this is merely formal proof; admit that I have carefully

combined contexts and variants, and excluded everything contrary to my

theory; admit that the commentators of the Church are clear and

convincing, that, in fact, Jesus did not abrogate the law of Moses, but

upheld it—admit this: then the question is, what were the teachings of

Jesus?

According to the Church, he taught that he was the second person of the

Trinity, the Son of God, and that he came into the world to atone by his

death for Adam’s sin. Those, however, who have read the Gospels know

that Jesus taught nothing of the sort, or at least spoke but very

vaguely on these topics. The passages in which Jesus affirms that he is

the second person of the Trinity, and that he was to atone for the sins

of humanity, form a very inconsiderable and very obscure portion of the

Gospels. In what, then, does the rest of Jesus’ doctrine consist? It is

impossible to deny, for all Christians have recognized the fact, that

the doctrine of Jesus aims summarily to regulate the lives of men, to

teach them how they ought to live with regard to one another. But to

realize that Jesus taught men a new way of life, we must have some idea

of the condition of the people to whom his teachings were addressed.

When we examine into the social development of the Russians, the

English, the Chinese, the Indians, or even the races of insular savages,

we find that each people invariably has certain practical rules or laws

which govern its existence; consequently, if any one would inculcate a

new law, he must at the same time abolish the old; in any race or nation

this would be inevitable. Laws that we are accustomed to regard as

almost sacred would assuredly be abrogated; with us, perhaps, it might

happen that a reformer who taught a new law would abolish only our civil

laws, the official code, our administrative customs, without touching

what we consider as our divine laws, although it is difficult to believe

that such could be the case. But with the Jewish people, who had but one

law, and that recognized as divine,—a law which enveloped life to its

minutest details,—what could a reformer accomplish if he declared in

advance that the existing law was inviolable?

Admit that this argument is not conclusive, and try to interpret the

words of Jesus as an affirmation of the entire Mosaic law; in that case,

who were the Pharisees, the scribes, the doctors of the law, denounced

by Jesus during the whole of his ministry? Who were they that rejected

the doctrine of Jesus and, their High Priests at their head, crucified

him? If Jesus approved the law of Moses, where were the faithful

followers of that law, who practised it sincerely, and must thereby have

obtained Jesus’ approval? Is it possible that there was not one such?

The Pharisees, we are told, constituted a sect; where, then, were the

righteous?

In the Gospel of John the enemies of Jesus are spoken of directly as

“the Jews.” They are opposed to the doctrine of Jesus; they are hostile

because they are Jews. But it is not only the Pharisees and the

Sadducees who figure in the Gospels as the enemies of Jesus: we also

find mention of the doctors of the law, the guardians of the law of

Moses, the scribes, the interpreters of the law, the ancients, those who

are always considered as representatives of the people’s wisdom. Jesus

said, “I am not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance,”

to change their way of life (μετάνοια). But where were the righteous?

Was Nicodemus the only one? He is represented as a good, but misguided

man.

We are so habituated to the singular opinion that Jesus was crucified by

the Pharisees and a number of Jewish shopkeepers, that we never think to

ask, Where were the true Jews, the good Jews, the Jews that practised

the law? When we have once propounded this query, everything becomes

perfectly clear. Jesus, whether he was God or man, brought his doctrine

to a people possessing rules, called the divine law, governing their

whole existence. How could Jesus avoid denouncing that law?

Every prophet, every founder of a religion, inevitably meets, in

revealing the divine law to men, with institutions which are regarded as

upheld by the laws of God. He cannot, therefore, avoid a double use of

the word “law,” which expresses what his hearers wrongfully consider the

law of God (“your law”), and the law he has come to proclaim, the true

law, the divine and eternal law. A reformer not only cannot avoid the

use of the word in this manner; often he does not wish to avoid it, but

purposely confounds the two ideas, thus indicating that, in the law

confessed by those whom he would convert, there are still some eternal

truths. Every reformer takes these truths, so well known to his hearers,

as the basis of his teaching. This is precisely what Jesus did in

addressing the Jews, by whom the two laws were vaguely grouped together

as “Torah.” Jesus recognized that the Mosaic law, and still more the

prophetical books, especially the writings of Isaiah, whose words he

constantly quotes,—Jesus recognized that these contained divine and

eternal truths in harmony with the eternal law, and these he takes as

the basis of his own doctrine. This method was many times referred to by

Jesus; thus he said, “What is written in the law? how readest thou?”

(Luke x. 26). That is, one may find eternal truth in the law, if one

reads it aright. And more than once he affirms that the commandments of

the Mosaic law, to love the Lord and one’s neighbor, are also

commandments of the eternal law. At the conclusion of the parables by

which Jesus explained the meaning of his doctrine to his disciples, he

pronounced words that have a bearing upon all that precedes:—

“Therefore every scribe which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven

(the truth) is like unto a man that is a householder, which bringeth

forth out of his treasure (without distinction) things new and old.”

(Matt. xiii. 52.)

The Church understands these words, as they were understood by Irenæus;

but at the same time, in defiance of the true signification, it

arbitrarily attributes to them the meaning that everything old is

sacred. The manifest meaning is this: He who seeks for the good, takes

not only the new, but also the old; and because a thing is old, he does

not therefore reject it. By these words Jesus meant that he did not deny

what was eternal in the old law. But when they spoke to him of the whole

law, or of the formalities exacted by the old law, his reply was that

new wine should not be put into old bottles. Jesus could not affirm the

whole law; neither could he deny the entire teachings of the law and the

prophets,—the law which says, “love thy neighbor as thyself,” the

prophets whose words often served to express his own thoughts. And yet,

in place of this clear and simple explanation of Jesus’ words, we are

offered a vague interpretation which introduces needless contradictions,

which reduces the doctrine of Jesus to nothingness, and which

re-establishes the doctrine of Moses in all its savage cruelty.

Commentators of the Church, particularly those who have written since

the fifth century, tell us that Jesus did not abolish the written law;

that, on the contrary, he affirmed it. But in what way? How is it

possible that the law of Jesus should harmonize with the law of Moses?

To these inquiries we get no response. The commentators all make use of

a verbal juggle to the effect that Jesus fulfilled the law of Moses, and

that the sayings of the prophets were fulfilled in his person; that

Jesus fulfilled the law as our mediator by our faith in him. And the

essential question for every believer—How to harmonize two conflicting

laws, each designed to regulate the lives of men?—is left without the

slightest attempt at explanation. Thus the contradiction between the

verse where it is said that Jesus did not come to destroy the law, but

to fulfil the law, and Jesus’ saying, “Ye have heard that it hath been

said, An eye for an eye... But I say unto you,”—the contradiction

between the doctrine of Jesus and the very spirit of the Mosaic

doctrine,—is left without any mitigation.

Let those who are interested in the question look through the Church

commentaries touching this passage from the time of Chrysostom to our

day. After a perusal of the voluminous explanations offered, they will

be convinced not only of the complete absence of any solution for the

contradiction, but of the presence of a new, factitious contradiction

arising in its place. Let us see what Chrysostom says in reply to those

who reject the law of Moses:—

“He made this law, not that we might strike out one another’s eyes, but

that fear of suffering by others might restrain us from doing any such

thing to them. As therefore He threatened the Ninevites with overthrow,

not that He might destroy them (for had that been His will, He ought to

have been silent), but that He might by fear make them better, and so

quiet His wrath: so also hath He appointed a punishment for those who

wantonly assail the eyes of others, that if good principle dispose them

not to refrain from such cruelty, fear may restrain them from injuring

their neighbors’ sight.

“And if this be cruelty, it is cruelty also for the murderer to be

restrained, and the adulterer checked. But these are the sayings of

senseless men, and of those that are mad to the extreme of madness. For

I, so far from saying that this comes of cruelty, should say that the

contrary to this would be unlawful, according to men’s reckoning. And

whereas thou sayest, ‘Because He commanded to pluck out an eye for an

eye, therefore He is cruel’; I say that if He had not given this

commandment, then He would have seemed, in the judgment of most men, to

be that which thou sayest He is.”

Chrysostom clearly recognized the law. An eye for an eye, as divine, and

the contrary of that law, that is, the doctrine of Jesus, Resist not

evil, as an iniquity. “For let us suppose,” says Chrysostom further:—

“For let us suppose that this law had been altogether done away, and

that no one feared the punishment ensuing thereupon, but that license

had been given to all the wicked to follow their own dispositions in all

security to adulterers, and to murderers, to perjured persons, and to

parricides; would not all things have been turned upside down? would not

cities, market-places and houses, sea and land, and the whole world have

been filled with unnumbered pollutions and murders? Every one sees it.

For if, when there are laws, and fear, and threatening, our evil

dispositions are hardly checked; were even this security taken away,

what is there to prevent men’s choosing vice? and what degree of

mischief would not then come revelling upon the whole of human life?

“The rather, since cruelty lies not only in allowing the bad to do what

they will, but in another thing too quite as much,—to overlook, and

leave uncared for, him who hath done no wrong, but who is without cause

or reason suffering ill. For tell me; were any one to gather together

wicked men from all quarters, and arm them with swords, and bid them go

about the whole city, and massacre all that came in their way, could

there be anything more like a wild beast than he? And what if some

others should bind, and confine with the utmost strictness, those whom

that man had armed, and should snatch from those lawless hands them who

were on the point of being butchered; could anything be greater humanity

than this?”

Chrysostom does not say what would be the estimate of these others in

the opinion of the wicked. And what if these others were themselves

wicked and cast the innocent into prison? Chrysostom continues:—

“Now then, I bid thee transfer these examples to the Law likewise; for

He that commands to pluck out an eye for an eye hath laid the fear as a

kind of strong chain upon the souls of the bad, and so resembles him who

detains those assassins in prison; whereas he who appoints no punishment

for them, doth all but arm them by such security, and acts the part of

that other, who was putting the swords in their hands, and letting them

loose over the whole city.” (“Homilies on the Gospel of St. Matthew,”

xvi.)

If Chrysostom had understood the law of Jesus, he would have said, Who

is it that strikes out another’s eyes? who is it that casts men into

prison? If God, who made the law, does this, then there is no

contradiction; but it is men who carry out the decrees, and the Son of

God has said to men that they must abstain from violence. God commanded

to strike out, and the Son of God commanded not to strike out. We must

accept one commandment or the other; and Chrysostom, like all the rest

of the Church, accepted the commandment of Moses and denied that of the

Christ, whose doctrine he nevertheless claims to believe.

Jesus abolished the Mosaic law, and gave his own law in its place. To

one who really believes in Jesus there is not the slightest

contradiction; such an one will pay no attention to the law of Moses,

but will practise the law of Jesus, which he believes. To one who

believes in the law of Moses there is no contradiction. The Jews looked

upon the words of Jesus as foolishness, and believed in the law of

Moses. The contradiction is only for those who would follow the law of

Moses under the cover of the law of Jesus—for those whom Jesus denounced

as hypocrites, as a generation of vipers.

Instead of recognizing as divine truth the one or the other of the two

laws, the law of Moses or that of Jesus, we recognize the divine quality

of both. But when the question comes with regard to the acts of

every-day life, we reject the law of Jesus and follow that of Moses. And

this false interpretation, when we realize its importance, reveals the

source of that terrible drama which records the struggle between evil

and good, between darkness and light.

To the Jewish people, trained to the innumerable formal regulations

instituted by the Levites in the rubric of divine laws, each preceded by

the words, “And the Lord said unto Moses”—to the Jewish people Jesus

appeared. He found everything, to the minutest detail, prescribed by

rule; not only the relation of man with God, but his sacrifices, his

feasts, his fasts, his social, civil, and family duties, the details of

personal habits, circumcision, the purification of the body, of domestic

utensils, of clothing—all these regulated by laws recognized as

commandments of God, and therefore as divine.

Excluding the question of Jesus’ divine mission, what could any prophet

or reformer do who wished to establish his own doctrines among a people

so enveloped in formalism—what but abolish the law by which all these

details were regulated? Jesus selected from what men considered as the

law of God the portions which were really divine; he took what served

his purpose, rejected the rest, and upon this foundation established the

eternal law. It was not necessary to abolish all, but inevitable to

abrogate much that was looked upon as obligatory. This Jesus did, and

was accused of destroying the divine law; for this he was condemned and

put to death. But his doctrine was cherished by his disciples, traversed

the centuries, and is transmitted to other peoples. Under these

conditions it is again hidden beneath heterogeneous dogmas, obscure

comments, and factitious explanations. Pitiable human sophisms replace

the divine revelation. For the formula, “And the Lord said unto Moses,”

we substitute “Thus saith the Holy Spirit.” And again formalism hides

the truth. Most astounding of all, the doctrine of Jesus is amalgamated

with the written law, whose authority he was forced to deny. This Torah,

this written law, is declared to have been inspired by the Holy Spirit,

the spirit of truth; and thus Jesus is taken in the snare of his own

revelation—his doctrine is reduced to nothingness.

This is why, after eighteen hundred years, it so singularly happened

that I discovered the meaning of the doctrine of Jesus as some new

thing. But no; I did not discover it; I did simply what all must do who

seek after God and His law; I sought for the eternal law amid the

incongruous elements that men call by that name.

CHAPTER VI.

When I understood the law of Jesus as the law of Jesus, and not as the

law of Jesus and of Moses, when I understood the commandment of this law

which absolutely abrogated the law of Moses, then the Gospels, before to

me so obscure, diffuse, and contradictory, blended into a harmonious

whole, the substance of whose doctrine, until then incomprehensible, I

found to be formulated in terms simple, clear, and accessible to every

searcher after truth.[8]

Throughout the Gospels we are called upon to consider the commandments

of Jesus and the necessity of practising them. All the theologians

discuss the commandments of Jesus; but what are these commandments? I

did not know before. I thought that the commandment of Jesus was to love

God, and one’s neighbor as one’s self. I did not see that this could not

be a new commandment of Jesus, since it was given by them of old in

Deuteronomy and Leviticus. The words:—

“Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and

shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of

heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called

great in the kingdom of heaven,” (Matt. v. 19.)—these words I believed

to relate to the Mosaic law. But it never had occurred to me that Jesus

had propounded, clearly and precisely, new laws. I did not see that in

the passage where Jesus declares, “Ye have heard that it was said....

But I say unto you,” he formulated a series of very definite

commandments—five entirely new, counting as one the two references to

the ancient law against adultery. I had heard of the beatitudes of Jesus

and of their number; their explanation and enumeration had formed a part

of my religious instruction; but the commandments of Jesus—I had never

heard them spoken of. To my great astonishment, I now discovered them

for myself. In the fifth chapter of Matthew I found these verses:—

“Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not

kill; and whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgment: But I

say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause

shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his

brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall

say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of the Gehenna of fire. Therefore if

thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there rememberest that thy brother

hath aught against thee; Leave there thy gift before the altar, and go

thy way; first be reconciled to thy brother, and then come and offer thy

gift. Agree with thine adversary quickly, while thou art in the way with

him; lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the

judge deliver thee to the officer, and thou be cast into prison. Verily

I say unto thee, Thou shalt by no means come out thence, till thou hast

paid the uttermost farthing.” (Matt. v. 21–26.)

When I understood the commandment, “Resist not evil,” it seemed to me

that these verses must have a meaning as clear and intelligible as has

the commandment just cited. The meaning I had formerly given to the

passage was, that every one ought to avoid angry feelings against

others, ought never to utter abusive language, and ought to live in

peace with all men, without exception. But there was in the text a

phrase which excluded this meaning, “Whosoever shall be angry with his

brother without a cause”—the words could not then be an exhortation to

absolute peace. I was greatly perplexed, and I turned to the

commentators, the theologians, for the removal of my doubts. To my

surprise I found that the commentators were chiefly occupied with the

endeavor to define under what conditions anger was permissible. All the

commentators of the Church dwelt upon the qualifying phrase “without a

cause,” and explained the meaning to be that one must not be offended

without a reason, that one must not be abusive, but that anger is not

always unjust; and, to confirm their view, they quoted instances of

anger on the part of saints and apostles. I saw plainly that the

commentators who authorized anger “for the glory of God” as not

reprehensible, although entirely contrary to the spirit of the Gospel,

based their argument on the phrase “without a cause,” in the

twenty-second verse. These words change entirely the meaning of the

passage.

Be not angry without cause? Jesus exhorts us to pardon every one, to

pardon without restriction or limit. He pardoned all who did him wrong,

and chided Peter for being angry with Malchus when the former sought to

defend his Master at the time of the betrayal, when, if at any time, it

would seem that anger might have been justifiable. And yet did this same

Jesus formally teach men not to be angry “without a cause,” and thereby

sanction anger for a cause? Did Jesus enjoin peace upon all men, and

then, in the phrase “without a cause,” interpolate the reservation that

this rule did not apply to all cases; that there were circumstances

under which one might be angry with a brother, and so give the

commentators the right to say that anger is sometimes expedient?

But who is to decide when anger is expedient and when it is not

expedient? I never yet encountered an angry person who did not believe

his wrath to be justifiable. Every one who is angry thinks anger

legitimate and serviceable. Evidently the qualifying phrase “without a

cause” destroys the entire force of the verse. And yet there were the

words in the sacred text, and I could not efface them. The effect was

the same as if the word “good” had been added to the phrase. “Love thy

neighbor”—love thy good neighbor, the neighbor that agrees with thee!

The entire signification of the passage was changed by this phrase,

“without a cause.” Verses 23 and 24, which exhort us to be reconciled

with all men before appealing for divine aid, also lost their direct and

imperative meaning and acquired a conditional import through the

influence of the foregoing qualification. It had seemed to me, however,

that Jesus forbade all anger, all evil sentiment, and, that it might not

continue in our hearts, exhorted us before entering into communion with

God to ask ourselves if there were any person who might be angry with

us. If such were the case, whether this anger were with cause or without

cause, he commanded us to be reconciled. In this manner I had

interpreted the passage; but it now seemed, according to the

commentators, that the injunction must be taken as a conditional

affirmation. The commentators all explained that we ought to try to be

at peace with everybody; but, they added, if this is impossible, if,

actuated by evil instincts, any one is at enmity with you, try to be

reconciled with him in spirit, in idea, and then the enmity of others

will be no obstacle to divine communion.

Nor was this all. The words, “Whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca,

shall be in danger of the council,” always seemed to me strange and

absurd. If we are forbidden to be abusive, why this example with its

ordinary and harmless epithet; why this terrible threat against those

that utter abuse so feeble as that implied in the word raca, which means

a good-for-nothing? All this was obscure to me.

I was convinced that I had before me a problem similar to that which had

confronted me in the words, “Judge not.” I felt that here again the

simple, grand, precise, and practical meaning of Jesus had been hidden,

and that the commentators were groping in gloom. It seemed to me that

Jesus, in saying, “be reconciled to thy brother,” could not have meant,

“be reconciled in idea,”—an explanation not at all clear, supposing it

were true. I understood what Jesus meant when, using the words of the

prophet, he said, “I will have mercy, and not sacrifice;” that is, I

will that men shall love one another. If you would have your acts

acceptable to God, then, before offering prayer, interrogate your

conscience; and if you find that any one is angry with you, go and make

your peace with him, and then pray as you desire. After this clear

interpretation, what was I to understand by the comment, “be reconciled

in idea”?

I saw that what seemed to me the only clear and direct meaning of the

verse was destroyed by the phrase, “without a cause.” If I could

eliminate that, there would be no difficulty in the way of a lucid

interpretation. But all the commentators were united against any such

course; and the canonical text authorized the rendering to which I

objected. I could not drop these words arbitrarily, and yet, if they

were excluded, everything would become clear. I therefore sought for

some interpretation which would not conflict with the sense of the

entire passage.

I consulted the dictionary. In ordinary Greek, the word εἰκῆ means

“heedlessly, inconsiderately.” I tried to find some term that would not

destroy the sense; but the words, “without a cause,” plainly had the

meaning attributed to them. In New Testament Greek the signification of

εἰκῆ is exactly the same. I consulted the concordances. The word occurs

but once in the Gospels, namely, in this passage. In the first epistle

to the Corinthians, xv. 2, it occurs in exactly the same sense. It is

impossible to interpret it otherwise, and if we accept it, we must

conclude that Jesus uttered in vague words a commandment easily so

construed as to be of no effect. To admit this seemed to me equivalent

to rejecting the entire Gospel. There remained one more resource—was the

word to be found in all the manuscripts? I consulted Griesbach, who

records all recognized variants, and discovered to my joy that the

passage in question was not invariable, and that the variation depended

upon the word εἰκῆ. In most of the Gospel texts and the citations of the

Fathers, this word does not occur. I consulted Tischendorf for the most

ancient reading: the word εἰκῆ did not appear.

This word, so destructive to the meaning of the doctrine of Jesus, is

then an interpolation which had not crept into the best copies of the

Gospel as late as the fifth century. Some copyist added the word; others

approved it and undertook its explanation. Jesus did not utter, could

not have uttered, this terrible word; and the primary meaning of the

passage, its simple, direct, impressive meaning, is the true

interpretation.

Now that I understood Jesus to forbid anger, whatever the cause, and

without distinction of persons, the warning against the use of the words

“raca” and “fool” had a purport quite distinct from any prohibition with

regard to the utterance of abusive epithets. The strange Hebrew word,

raca, which is not translated in the Greek text, serves to reveal the

meaning. Raca means, literally, “vain, empty, that which does not

exist.” It was much used by the Hebrews to express exclusion. It is

employed in the plural form in Judges ix. 4, in the sense, “empty and

vain.” This word Jesus forbids us to apply to any one, as he forbids us

to use the word “fool,” which, like “raca,” relieves us of all the

obligations of humanity. We get angry, we do evil to men, and then to

excuse ourselves we say that the object of our anger is an empty person,

the refuse of a man, a fool. It is precisely such words as these that

Jesus forbids us to apply to men. He exhorts us not to be angry with any

one, and not to excuse our anger with the plea that we have to do with a

vain person, a person bereft of reason.

And so in place of insignificant, vague, and uncertain phrases subject

to arbitrary interpretation, I found in Matthew v. 21–26 the first

commandment of Jesus: Live in peace with all men. Do not regard anger as

justifiable under any circumstances. Never look upon a human being as

worthless or as a fool. Not only refrain from anger yourself, but do not

regard the anger of others toward you as vain. If any one is angry with

you, even without reason, be reconciled to him, that all hostile

feelings may be effaced. Agree quickly with those that have a grievance

against you, lest animosity prevail to your loss.

The first commandment of Jesus being thus freed from obscurity, I was

able to understand the second, which also begins with a reference to the

ancient law:—

“Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not

commit adultery: But I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman

to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart.

And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from thee:

for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and

not that thy whole body should be cast into hell. And if thy right hand

offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee: for it is profitable for

thee that one of thy members should perish, and not that thy whole body

should be cast into hell. It hath been said,[9] Whosoever shall put away

his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit

adultery: and whosoever shall marry her that is divorced committeth

adultery. (Matt. v. 27–32.)

By these words I understood that a man ought not, even in imagination,

to admit that he could approach any woman save her to whom he had once

been united, and her he might never abandon to take another, although

permitted to do so by the Mosaic law.

In the first commandment, Jesus counselled us to extinguish the germ of

anger, and illustrated his meaning by the fate of the man who is

delivered to the judges; in the second commandment, Jesus declares that

debauchery arises from the disposition of men and women to regard one

another as instruments of voluptuousness, and, this being so, we ought

to guard against every idea that excites to sensual desire, and, once

united to a woman, never to abandon her on any pretext, for women thus

abandoned are sought by other men, and so debauchery is introduced into

the world.

The wisdom of this commandment impressed me profoundly. It would

suppress all the evils in the world that result from the sexual

relations. Convinced that license in the sexual relations leads to

contention, men, in obedience to this injunction, would avoid every

cause for voluptuousness, and, knowing that the law of humanity is to

live in couples, would so unite themselves, and never destroy the bond

of union. All the evils arising from dissensions caused by sexual

attraction would be suppressed, since there would be neither men nor

women deprived of the sexual relation.

But I was much more impressed, as I read the Sermon on the Mount, with

the words, “Saving for the cause of fornication,” which permitted a man

to repudiate his wife in case of infidelity. The very form in which the

idea was expressed seemed to me unworthy of the dignity of the occasion,

for here, side by side with the profound truths of the Sermon on the

Mount, occurred, like a note in a criminal code, this strange exception

to the general rule; but I shall not dwell upon the question of form; I

shall speak only of the exception itself, so entirely in contradiction

with the fundamental idea.

I consulted the commentators; all, Chrysostom and the others, even

authorities on exegesis like Reuss, all recognized the meaning of the

words to be that Jesus permitted divorce in case of infidelity on the

part of the woman, and that, in the exhortation against divorce in the

nineteenth chapter of Matthew, the same words had the same

signification. I read the thirty-second verse of the fifth chapter again

and again, and reason refused to accept the interpretation. To verify my

doubts I consulted the other portions of the New Testament texts, and I

found in Matthew (xix.), Mark (x.), Luke (xvi.), and in the first

epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, affirmation of the doctrine of the

indissolubility of marriage. In Luke (xvi. 18) it is said:—

“Whosoever putteth away his wife, and marrieth another, committeth

adultery: and whosoever marrieth her that is put away from her husband

committeth adultery.”

In Mark (x. 5–12) the doctrine is also proclaimed without any exception

whatever:—

“For the hardness of your heart he [Moses] wrote you this precept. But

from the beginning of the creation God made them male and female. For

this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and cleave to his

wife; And they twain shall be one flesh: so then they are no more twain,

but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put

asunder. And in the house his disciples asked him again of the same

matter. And he said unto them, Whosoever shall put away his wife, and

marry another, committeth adultery against her. And if a woman shall put

away her husband, and be married to another, she committeth adultery.”

The same idea is expressed in Matt. xix. 4–9. Paul, in the first epistle

to the Corinthians (vii. 1–11), develops systematically the idea that

the only way of preventing debauchery is that every man have his own

wife, and every woman have her own husband, and that they mutually

satisfy the sexual instinct; then he says, without equivocation, “Let

not the wife depart from her husband: But and if she depart, let her

remain unmarried, or be reconciled to her husband: and let not the

husband put away his wife.”

According to Mark, and Luke, and Paul, divorce is forbidden. It is

forbidden by the assertion repeated in two of the Gospels, that husband

and wife are one flesh whom God hath joined together. It is forbidden by

the doctrine of Jesus, who exhorts us to pardon every one, without

excepting the adulterous woman. It is forbidden by the general sense of

the whole passage, which explains that divorce is provocative of

debauchery, and for this reason that divorce with an adulterous woman is

prohibited.

Upon what, then, is based the opinion that divorce is permissible in

case of infidelity on the part of the woman? Upon the words which had so

impressed me in Matt. v. 32; the words every one takes to mean that

Jesus permits divorce in case of adultery by the woman; the words,

repeated in Matt. xix. 9, in a number of copies of the Gospel text, and

by many Fathers of the Church,—the words, “unless for the cause of

adultery.” I studied these words carefully anew. For a long time I could

not understand them. It seemed to me that there must be a defect in the

translation, and an erroneous exegesis; but where was the source of the

error? I could not find it; and yet the error itself was very plain.

In opposition to the Mosaic law, which declares that if a man take an

aversion to his wife he may write her a bill of divorcement and send her

out of his house—in opposition to this law Jesus is made to declare,

“But I say unto you, That whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for

the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery.” I saw nothing

in these words to allow us to affirm that divorce was either permitted

or forbidden. It is said that whoever shall put away his wife causes her

to commit adultery, and then an exception is made with regard to a woman

guilty of adultery. This exception, which throws the guilt of marital

infidelity entirely upon the woman is, in general, strange and

unexpected; but here, in relation to the context, it is simply absurd,

for even the very doubtful meaning which might otherwise be attributed

to it is wholly destroyed. Whoever puts away his wife exposes her to the

crime of adultery, and yet a man is permitted to put away a wife guilty

of adultery, as if a woman guilty of adultery would no more commit

adultery after she were put away.

But this is not all; when I had examined this passage attentively, I

found it also to be lacking in grammatical meaning. The words are,

“Whoever shall put away his wife, except for the fault of adultery,

exposes her to the commission of adultery,”—and the proposition is

complete. It is a question of the husband, of him who in putting away

his wife exposes her to the commission of the crime of adultery; what,

then, is the purport of the qualifying phrase, “except for the fault of

adultery”? If the proposition were in this form: Whoever shall put away

his wife is guilty of adultery, unless the wife herself has been

unfaithful—it would be grammatically correct. But as the passage now

stands, the subject “whoever” has no other predicate than the word

“exposes,” with which the phrase “except for the fault of adultery”

cannot be connected. What, then, is the purport of this phrase? It is

plain that whether for or without the fault of adultery on the part of

the woman, the husband who puts away his wife exposes her to the

commission of adultery.

The proposition is analogous to the following sentence: Whoever refuses

food to his son, besides the fault of spitefulness, exposes him to the

possibility of being cruel. This sentence evidently cannot mean that a

father may refuse food to his son if the latter is spiteful. It can only

mean that a father who refuses food to his son, besides being spiteful

towards his son, exposes his son to the possibility of becoming cruel.

And in the same way, the Gospel proposition would have a meaning if we

could replace the words, “the fault of adultery,” by libertinism,

debauchery, or some similar phrase, expressing not an act but a quality.

And so I asked myself if the meaning here was not simply that whoever

puts away his wife, besides being himself guilty of libertinism (since

no one puts away his wife except to take another), exposes his wife to

the commission of adultery? If, in the original text, the word

translated “adultery” or “fornication” had the meaning of libertinism,

the meaning of the passage would be clear. And then I met with the same

experience that had happened to me before in similar instances. The text

confirmed my suppositions and entirely effaced my doubts.

The first thing that occurred to me in reading the text was that the

word πορνεία, translated in common with μοιχᾶσθαι, “adultery” or

“fornication,” is an entirely different word from the latter. But

perhaps these two words are used as synonyms in the Gospels? I consulted

the dictionary, and found that the word πορνεία, corresponding in Hebrew

to zanah, in Latin to fornicatio, in German to hurerei, in French to

libertinage, has a very precise meaning, and that it never has

signified, and never can signify, the act of adultery, ehebruch, as

Luther and the Germans after him have rendered the word. It signifies a

state of depravity,—a quality, and not an act,—and never can be properly

translated by “adultery” or “fornication.” I found, moreover, that

“adultery” is expressed throughout the Gospel, as well as in the passage

under consideration, by the word μοιχεύω. I had only to correct the

false translation, which had evidently been made intentionally, to

render absolutely inadmissible the meaning attributed by commentators to

the text, and to show the proper grammatical relation of πορνεία to the

subject of the sentence.

A person acquainted with Greek would construe as follows: παρεκτὸς,

“except, outside,” λόγου, “the matter, the cause,” πορνείας, “of

libertinism,” ποιεῖ, “obliges,” αὐτὴν, “her,” μοιχᾶσθαι, “to be an

adulteress”—which rendering gives, word for word, Whoever puts away his

wife, besides the fault of libertinism, obliges her to be an adulteress.

We obtain the same meaning from Matt. xix. 9. When we correct the

unauthorized translation of πορνεία, by substituting “libertinism” for

“fornication,” we see at once that the phrase εἴ μὴ ἐπὶ πορνείᾳ cannot

apply to “wife.” And as the words παρεκτὸς λόγου πορνείας could signify

nothing else than the fault of libertinism on the part of the husband,

so the words εἴ μὴ ἐπὶ πορνείᾳ, in the nineteenth chapter, can have no

other than the same meaning. The phrase εἴ μὴ ἐπὶ πορνείᾳ is, word for

word, “if this is not through libertinism” (to give one’s self up to

libertinism). The meaning then becomes clear. Jesus replies to the

theory of the Pharisees, that a man who abandons his wife to marry

another without the intention of giving himself up to libertinism does

not commit adultery—Jesus replies to this theory that the abandonment of

a wife, that is, the cessation of sexual relations, even if not for the

purpose of libertinism, but to marry another, is none the less adultery.

Thus we come at the simple meaning of this commandment—a meaning which

accords with the whole doctrine, with the words of which it is the

complement, with grammar, and with logic. This simple and clear

interpretation, harmonizing so naturally with the doctrine and the words

from which it was derived, I discovered after the most careful and

prolonged research. Upon a premeditated alteration of the text had been

based an exegesis which destroyed the moral, religious, logical, and

grammatical meaning of Jesus’ words.

And thus once more I found a confirmation of the terrible fact that the

meaning of the doctrine of Jesus is simple and clear, that its

affirmations are emphatic and precise, but that commentaries upon the

doctrine, inspired by a desire to sanction existing evil, have so

obscured it that determined effort is demanded of him who would know the

truth. If the Gospels had come down to us in a fragmentary condition, it

would have been easier (so it seemed to me) to restore the true meaning

of the text than to find that meaning now, beneath the accumulations of

fallacious comments which have apparently no purpose save to conceal the

doctrine they are supposed to expound. With regard to the passage under

consideration, it is plain that to justify the divorce of some Byzantine

emperor this ingenious pretext was employed to obscure the doctrine

regulating the relations between the sexes. When we have rejected the

suggestions of the commentators, we escape from the mist of uncertainty,

and the second commandment of Jesus becomes precise and clear. “Guard

against libertinism. Let every man justified in entering into the sexual

relation have one wife, and every wife one husband, and under no pretext

whatever let this union be violated by either.”

Immediately after the second commandment is another reference to the

ancient law, followed by the third commandment:—

“Again, ye have heard that it hath been said[10] by them of old time,

Thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine

oaths: But I say unto you, Swear not at all; neither by heaven; for it

is God’s throne: Nor by the earth; for it is his footstool: neither by

Jerusalem; for it is the city of the great king. Neither shalt thou

swear by thy head, because thou canst not make one hair white or black.

But let your communications be, Yea, yea; Nay, nay: for whatsoever is

more than these cometh of evil.” (Matt. v. 33–37.)

This passage always troubled me when I read it. It did not trouble me by

its obscurity, like the passage about divorce; or by conflicting with

other passages, like the authorization of anger for cause; or by the

difficulty in the way of obedience, as in the case of the command to

turn the other cheek;—it troubled me rather by its very clearness,

simplicity, and practicality. Side by side with rules whose magnitude

and importance I felt profoundly, was this saying, which seemed to me

superfluous, frivolous, weak, and without consequence to me or to

others. I naturally did not swear, either by Jerusalem, or by heaven, or

by anything else, and it cost me not the least effort to refrain from

doing so; on the other hand, it seemed to me that whether I swore or did

not swear could not be of the slightest importance to any one. And

desiring to find an explanation of this rule, which troubled me through

its very simplicity, I consulted the commentators. They were in this

case of great assistance to me.

The commentators all found in these words a confirmation of the third

commandment of Moses,—not to swear by the name of the Lord; but, in

addition to this, they explained that this commandment of Jesus against

an oath was not always obligatory, and had no reference whatever to the

oath which citizens are obliged to take before the authorities. And they

brought together Scripture citations, not to support the direct meaning

of Jesus’ commandment, but to prove when it ought and ought not to be

obeyed. They claimed that Jesus had himself sanctioned the oath in

courts of justice by his reply, “Thou hast said,” to the words of the

High Priest, “I adjure thee by the living God;” that the apostle Paul

invoked God to witness the truth of his words, which invocation was

evidently equivalent to an oath; that the law of Moses proscribing the

oath was not abrogated by Jesus; and that Jesus forbade only false

oaths, the oaths of Pharisees and hypocrites. When I had read these

comments, I understood that unless I excepted from the oaths forbidden

by Jesus the oath of fidelity to the State, the commandment was as

insignificant as superficial, and as easy to practise as I had supposed.

And I asked myself the question, Does this passage contain an

exhortation to abstain from an oath that the commentators of the Church

are so zealous to justify? Does it not forbid us to take the oath

indispensable to the assembling of men into political groups and the

formation of a military caste? The soldier, that special instrument of

violence, goes in Russia by the nickname of prissaiaga (sworn in). If I

had asked the soldier at the Borovitzky Gate how he solved the

contradiction between the Gospels and military regulations, he would

have replied that he had taken the oath, that is, that he had sworn by

the Gospels. This is the reply that soldiers always make. The oath is so

indispensable to the horrors of war and armed coercion that in France,

where Christianity is out of favor, the oath remains in full force. If

Jesus did not say in so many words, “Do not take an oath,” the

prohibition ought to be a consequence of his teaching. He came to

suppress evil, and, if he did not condemn the oath, he left a terrible

evil untouched. It may be said, perhaps, that at the time at which Jesus

lived this evil passed unperceived; but this is not true. Epictetus and

Seneca declare against the taking of oaths. A similar rule is inscribed

in the laws of Mani. The Jews of the time of Jesus made proselytes, and

obliged them to take the oath. How could it be said that Jesus did not

perceive this evil when he forbade it in clear, direct, and

circumstantial terms? He said, “Swear not at all.” This expression is as

simple, clear, and absolute as the expression, “Judge not, condemn not,”

and is as little subject to explanation; moreover, he added to this,

“Let your communication be, Yea, yea; Nay, nay: for whatsoever is more

than these cometh of evil.”

If obedience to the doctrine of Jesus consists in perpetual observance

of the will of God, how can a man swear to observe the will of another

man or other men? The will of God cannot coincide with the will of man.

And this is precisely what Jesus said in Matt. v. 36:—

“Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, because thou canst not make one

hair white or black.”

And the apostle James says in his epistle, v. 12:—

“But above all things, my brethren, swear not, neither by heaven,

neither by earth, neither by any other oath: but let your yea be yea;

and your nay, nay; lest ye fall into condemnation.”

The apostle tells us clearly why we must not swear: the oath in itself

may be unimportant, but by it men are condemned, and so we ought not to

swear at all. How could we express more clearly the saying of Jesus and

his apostle?

My ideas had become so confused that for a long time I had kept before

me the question, Do the words and the meaning of this passage agree?—it

does not seem possible. But, after having read the commentaries

attentively, I saw that the impossible had become a fact. The

explanations of the commentators were in harmony with those they had

offered concerning the other commandments of Jesus: judge not, be not

angry, do not violate the marital bonds.

We have organized a social order which we cherish and look upon as

sacred. Jesus, whom we recognize as God, comes and tells us that our

social organization is wrong. We recognize him as God, but we are not

willing to renounce our social institutions. What, then, are we to do?

Add, if we can, the words “without a cause” to render void the command

against anger; mutilate the sense of another law, as audacious

prevaricators have done by substituting for the command absolutely

forbidding divorce, phraseology which permits divorce; and if there is

no possible way of deriving an equivocal meaning, as in the case of the

commands, “Judge not, condemn not,” and “Swear not at all,” then with

the utmost effrontery openly violate the rule while affirming that we

obey it.

In fact, the principal obstacle to a comprehension of the truth that the

Gospel forbids all manner of oaths exists in the fact that our

pseudo-Christian commentators themselves, with unexampled audacity, take

oath upon the Gospel itself. They make men swear by the Gospel, that is

to say, they do just the contrary of what the Gospel commands. Why does

it never occur to the man who is made to take an oath upon the cross and

the Gospel that the cross was made sacred only by the death of one who

forbade all oaths, and that in kissing the sacred book he perhaps is

pressing his lips upon the very page where is recorded the clear and

direct commandment, “Swear not at all”?

But I was troubled no more with regard to the meaning of the passage

comprised in Matt. v. 33–37 when I found the plain declaration of the

third commandment, that we should take no oath, since all oaths are

imposed for an evil purpose.

After the third commandment comes the fourth reference to the ancient

law and the enunciation of the fourth commandment:—

“Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth

for a tooth: But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever

shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if

any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have

thy cloak also. And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with

him twain. Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow

of thee turn not thou away.” (Matt. V. 38–42.)

I have already spoken of the direct and precise meaning of these words;

I have already said that we have no reason whatever for basing upon them

an allegorical explanation. The comments that have been made upon them,

from the time of Chrysostom to our day, are really surprising. The words

are pleasing to every one, and they inspire all manner of profound

reflections save one,—that these words express exactly what Jesus meant

to say. The Church commentators, not at all awed by the authority of one

whom they recognize as God, boldly distort the meaning of his words.

They tell us, of course, that these commandments to bear offences and to

refrain from reprisals are directed against the vindictive character of

the Jews; they not only do not exclude all general measures for the

repression of evil and the punishment of evil-doers, but they exhort

every one to individual and personal effort to sustain justice, to

apprehend aggressors, and to prevent the wicked from inflicting evil

upon others,—for, otherwise (they tell us) these spiritual commandments

of the Saviour would become, as they became among the Jews, a dead

letter, and would serve only to propagate evil and to suppress virtue.

The love of the Christian should be patterned after the love of God; but

divine love circumscribes and reproves evil only as may be required for

the glory of God and the safety of his servants. If evil is propagated,

we must set bounds to evil and punish it,—now this is the duty of

authorities.[11]

Christian scholars and free-thinkers are not embarrassed by the meaning

of these words of Jesus, and do not hesitate to correct them. The

sentiments here expressed, they tell us, are very noble, but are

completely inapplicable to life; for if we practised to the letter the

commandment, “Resist not evil,” our entire social fabric would be

destroyed. This is what Renan, Strauss, and all the liberal commentators

tell us. If, however, we take the words of Jesus as we would take the

words of any one who speaks to us, and admit that he says exactly what

he does say, all these profound circumlocutions vanish away. Jesus says,

“Your social system is absurd and wrong. I propose to you another.” And

then he utters the teachings reported by Matthew (v. 38–42). It would

seem that before correcting them one ought to understand them; now this

is exactly what no one wishes to do. We decide in advance that the

social order which controls our existence, and which is abolished by

these words, is the superior law of humanity.

For my part, I consider our social order to be neither wise nor sacred;

and that is why I have understood this commandment when others have not.

And when I had understood these words just as they are written, I was

struck with their truth, their lucidity, and their precision. Jesus

said, “You wish to suppress evil by evil; this is not reasonable. To

abolish evil, avoid the commission of evil.” And then he enumerates

instances where we are in the habit of returning evil for evil, and says

that in these cases we ought not so to do.

This fourth commandment was the one that I first understood; and it

revealed to me the meaning of all the others. This simple, clear, and

practical fourth commandment says: “Never resist evil by force, never

return violence for violence: if any one beat you, bear it; if one would

deprive you of anything, yield to his wishes; if any one would force you

to labor, labor; if any one would take away your property, abandon it at

his demand.”

After the fourth commandment we find a fifth reference to the ancient

law, followed by the fifth commandment:—

“Ye have heard that it hath been said,[12] Thou shall love thy neighbor

and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them

that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which

despitefully use you, and persecute you; That ye may be the children of

your Father which is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the

evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust.

For if ye love them which love you, what reward have ye? do not even the

publicans the same? And if ye salute your brethren only, what do ye more

than others? do not even the publicans so? Be ye therefore perfect, even

as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.” (Matt. v. 43–48.)

These verses I had formerly regarded as a continuation, an exposition,

an enforcement, I might almost say an exaggeration, of the words,

“Resist not evil.” But as I had found a simple, precise, and practical

meaning in each of the passages beginning with a reference to the

ancient law, I anticipated a similar experience here. After each

reference of this sort had thus far come a commandment, and each

commandment had been important and distinct in meaning; it ought to be

so now. The closing words of the passage, repeated by Luke, which are to

the effect that God makes no distinction of persons, but lavishes his

gifts upon all, and that we, following his precepts, ought to regard all

men as equally worthy, and to do good to all,—these words were clear;

they seemed to me to be a confirmation and exposition of some definite

law—but what was this law? For a long time I could not understand it.

To love one’s enemies?—this was impossible. It was one of those sublime

thoughts that we must look upon only as an indication of a moral ideal

impossible of attainment. It demanded all or nothing. We might, perhaps,

refrain from doing injury to our enemies—but to love them!—no; Jesus did

not command the impossible. And besides, in the words referring to the

ancient law, “Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt ... hate

thine enemy,” there was cause for doubt. In other references Jesus cited

textually the terms of the Mosaic law; but here he apparently cites

words that have no such authority; he seems to calumniate the law of

Moses.

As with regard to my former doubts, so now the commentators gave me no

explanation of the difficulty. They all agreed that the words “hate

thine enemy” were not in the Mosaic law, but they offered no suggestion

as to the meaning of the unauthorized phrase. They spoke of the

difficulty of loving one’s enemies, that is, wicked men (thus they

emended Jesus’ words); and they said that while it is impossible to love

our enemies, we may refrain from wishing them harm and from inflicting

injury upon them. Moreover, they insinuated that we might and should

“convince” our enemies, that is, resist them; they spoke of the

different degrees of love for our enemies which we might attain—from all

of which the final conclusion was that Jesus, for some inexplicable

reason, quoted as from the law of Moses words not to be found therein,

and then uttered a number of sublime phrases which at bottom are

impracticable and empty of meaning.

I could not agree with this conclusion. In this passage, as in the

passages containing the first four commandments, there must be some

clear and precise meaning. To find this meaning, I set myself first of

all to discover the purport of the words containing the inexact

reference to the ancient law, “Ye have heard that it hath been said,

Thou shalt... hate thine enemy.” Jesus had some reason for placing at

the head of each of his commandments certain portions of the ancient law

to serve as the antitheses of his own doctrine. If we do not understand

what is meant by the citations from the ancient law, we cannot

understand what Jesus proscribed. The commentators say frankly (it is

impossible not to say so) that Jesus in this instance made use of words

not to be found in the Mosaic law, but they do not tell us why he did so

or what meaning we are to attach to the words thus used.

It seemed to me above all necessary to know what Jesus had in view when

he cited these words which are not to be found in the law. I asked

myself what these words could mean. In all other references of the sort,

Jesus quotes a single rule from the ancient law: “Thou shalt not

kill”—“Thou shalt not commit adultery”—“Thou shalt not forswear

thyself”—“An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”—and with regard to

each rule he propounds his own doctrine. In the instance under

consideration, he cites two contrasting rules: “Ye have heard that it

hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbor and hate thine enemy,”—from

which it would appear that the contrast between these two rules of the

ancient law, relative to one’s neighbor and one’s enemy, should be the

basis of the new law. To understand clearly what this contrast was, I

sought for the meanings of the words “neighbor” and “enemy,” as used in

the Gospel text. After consulting dictionaries and Biblical texts, I was

convinced that “neighbor” in the Hebrew language meant, invariably and

exclusively, a Hebrew. We find the same meaning expressed in the Gospel

parable of the Samaritan. From the inquiry of the Jewish scribe (Luke x.

29), “And who is my neighbor?” it is plain that he did not regard the

Samaritan as such. The word “neighbor” is used with the same meaning in

Acts vii. 27. “Neighbor,” in Gospel language, means a compatriot, a

person belonging to the same nationality. And so the antithesis used by

Jesus in the citation, “love thy neighbor, hate thine enemy,” must be in

the distinction between the words “compatriot” and “foreigner.” I then

sought for the Jewish understanding of “enemy,” and I found my

supposition confirmed. The word “enemy” is nearly always employed in the

Gospels in the sense, not of a personal enemy, but, in general, of a

“hostile people” (Luke i. 71, 74; Matt. xxii. 44; Mark xii. 36; Luke xx.

43, etc.). The use of the word “enemy” in the singular form, in the

phrase “hate thine enemy,” convinced me that the meaning is a “hostile

people.” In the Old Testament, the conception “hostile people” is nearly

always expressed in the singular form.

When I understood this, I understood why Jesus, who had before quoted

the authentic words of the law, had here cited the words “hate thine

enemy.” When we understand the word “enemy” in the sense of “hostile

people,” and “neighbor” in the sense of “compatriot,” the difficulty is

completely solved. Jesus spoke of the manner in which Moses directed the

Hebrews to act toward “hostile peoples.” The various passages scattered

through the different books of the Old Testament, prescribing the

oppression, slaughter, and extermination of other peoples, Jesus summed

up in one word, “hate,”—make war upon the enemy. He said, in substance:

“You have heard that you must love those of your own race, and hate

foreigners; but I say unto you, love every one without distinction of

nationality.” When I had understood these words in this way, I saw

immediately the force of the phrase, “Love your enemies.” It is

impossible to love one’s personal enemies; but it is perfectly possible

to love the citizens of a foreign nation equally with one’s compatriots.

And I saw clearly that in saying, “Ye have heard that it hath been said,

Thou shalt love thy neighbor, and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you,

Love your enemies,” Jesus meant to say that men are in the habit of

looking upon compatriots as neighbors, and foreigners as enemies; and

this he reproved. His meaning was that the law of Moses established a

difference between the Hebrew and the foreigner—the hostile peoples; but

he forbade any such difference. And then, according to Matthew and Luke,

after giving this commandment, he said that with God all men are equal,

all are warmed by the same sun, all profit by the same rain. God makes

no distinction among peoples, and lavishes his gifts upon all men; men

ought to act exactly in the same way toward one another, without

distinction of nationality, and not like the heathen, who divide

themselves into distinct nationalities.

Thus once more I found confirmed on all sides the simple, clear,

important, and practical meaning of the words of Jesus. Once more, in

place of an obscure sentence, I had found a clear, precise, important,

and practical rule: To make no distinction between compatriots and

foreigners, and to abstain from all the results of such

distinction,—from hostility towards foreigners, from wars, from all

participation in war, from all preparations for war; to establish with

all men, of whatever nationality, the same relations granted to

compatriots. All this was so simple and so clear, that I was astonished

that I had not perceived it from the first.

The cause of my error was the same as that which had perplexed me with

regard to the passages relating to judgments and the taking of oaths. It

is very difficult to believe that tribunals upheld by professed

Christians, blest by those who consider themselves the guardians of the

law of Jesus, could be incompatible with the Christian religion; could

be, in fact, diametrically opposed to it. It is still more difficult to

believe that the oath which we are obliged to take by the guardians of

the law of Jesus, is directly reproved by this law. To admit that

everything in life that is considered essential and natural, as well as

what is considered the most noble and grand,—love of country, its

defence, its glory, battle with its enemies,—to admit that all this is

not only an infraction of the law of Jesus, but is directly denounced by

Jesus,—this, I say, is difficult.

Our existence is now so entirely in contradiction with the doctrine of

Jesus, that only with the greatest difficulty can we understand its

meaning. We have been so deaf to the rules of life that he has given us,

to his explanations,—not only when he commands us not to kill, but when

he warns us against anger, when he commands us not to resist evil, to

turn the other cheek, to love our enemies; we are so accustomed to speak

of a body of men especially organized for murder, as a Christian army,

we are so accustomed to prayers addressed to the Christ for the

assurance of victory, we who have made the sword, that symbol of murder,

an almost sacred object (so that a man deprived of this symbol, of his

sword, is a dishonored man); we are so accustomed, I say, to this, that

the words of Jesus seem to us compatible with war. We say, “If he had

forbidden it, he would have said so plainly.” We forget that Jesus did

not foresee that men having faith in his doctrine of humility, love, and

fraternity, could ever, with calmness and premeditation, organize

themselves for the murder of their brethren.

Jesus did not foresee this, and so he did not forbid a Christian to

participate in war. A father who exhorts his son to live honestly, never

to wrong any person, and to give all that he has to others, would not

forbid his son to kill people upon the highway. None of the apostles, no

disciple of Jesus during the first centuries of Christianity, realized

the necessity of forbidding a Christian that form of murder which we

call war.

Here, for example, is what Origen says in his reply to Celsus:[13]—

“In the next place, Celsus urges us ‘to help the king with all our

might, and to labor with him in the maintenance of justice, to fight for

him; and, if he requires it, to fight under him, or lead an army along

with him.’ To this, our answer is that we do, when occasion requires,

give help to kings, and that, so to say, a divine help, ‘putting on the

whole armour of God.’ And this we do in obedience to the injunction of

the apostle, ‘I exhort, therefore, that first of all, supplications,

prayers, intercessions, and giving of thanks, be made for all men, for

kings, and for all that are in authority’; and the more any one excels

in piety, the more effective help does he render to kings, even more

than is given by soldiers, who go forth to fight and slay as many of the

enemy as they can. And to those enemies of our faith who require us to

bear arms for the commonwealth, and to slay men, we can reply: ‘Do not

those who are priests at certain shrines, and those who attend on

certain gods, as you account them, keep their hands free from blood,

that they may with hands unstained and free from human blood, offer the

appointed sacrifices to your gods? and even when war is upon you, you

never enlist the priests in the army. If that, then, is a laudable

custom, how much more so, that while others are engaged in battle, these

too should engage as the priests and ministers of God, keeping their

hands pure, and wrestling in prayers to God on behalf of those who are

fighting in a righteous cause, and for the king who reigns righteously,

that whatever is opposed to those who act righteously may be

destroyed!’”

And at the close of the chapter, in explaining that Christians, through

their peaceful lives, are much more helpful to kings than soldiers are,

Origen says:—

“And none fight better for the king than we do. We do not, indeed, fight

under him, although he require it; but we fight on his behalf, forming a

special army,—an army of piety,—by offering our prayers to God.”

This is the way in which the Christians of the first centuries regarded

war, and such was the language that their leaders addressed to the

rulers of the earth at a period when martyrs perished by hundreds and by

thousands for having confessed the religion of Jesus, the Christ.

And now is not the question settled as to whether a Christian may or may

not go to war? All young men brought up according to the doctrine of the

Church called Christian, are obliged at a specified date during every

autumn, to report at the bureaus of conscription and, under the guidance

of their spiritual directors, deliberately to renounce the religion of

Jesus. Not long ago, there was a peasant who refused military service on

the plea that it was contrary to the Gospel. The doctors of the Church

explained to the peasant his error; but, as the peasant had faith, not

in their words, but in those of Jesus, he was thrown into prison, where

he remained until he was ready to renounce the law of Christ. And all

this happened after Christians had heard for eighteen hundred years the

clear, precise, and practical commandment of their Master, which teaches

not to consider men of different nationality as enemies, but to consider

all men as brethren, and to maintain with them the same relations

existing among compatriots; to refrain not only from killing those who

are called enemies, but to love them and to minister to their needs.

When I had understood these simple and precise commandments of Jesus,

these commandments so ill adapted to the ingenious distortions of

commentators,—I asked myself what would be the result if the whole

Christian world believed in them, believed not only in reading and

chanting them for the glory of God, but also in obeying them for the

good of humanity? What would be the result if men believed in the

observance of these commandments at least as seriously as they believe

in daily devotions, in attendance on Sunday worship, in weekly fasts, in

the holy sacrament? What would be the result if the faith of men in

these commandments were as strong as their faith in the requirements of

the Church? And then I saw in imagination a Christian society living

according to these commandments and educating the younger generation to

follow their precepts. I tried to picture the results if we taught our

children from infancy, not what we teach them now—to maintain personal

dignity, to uphold personal privileges against the encroachments of

others (which we can never do without humiliating or offending

others)—but to teach them that no man has a right to privileges, and can

neither be above or below any one else; that he alone debases and

demeans himself who tries to domineer over others; that a man can be in

a no more contemptible condition than when he is angry with another;

that what may seem to be foolish and despicable in another is no excuse

for wrath or enmity. I sought to imagine the results if, instead of

extolling our social organization as it now is, with its theatres, its

romances, its sumptuous methods for stimulating sensuous desires—if,

instead of this, we taught our children by precept and by example, that

the reading of lascivious romances and attendance at theatres and balls

are the most vulgar of all distractions, and that there is nothing more

grotesque and humiliating than to pass one’s time in the collection and

arrangement of personal finery to make of one’s body an object of show.

I endeavored to imagine a state of society where, instead of permitting

and approving libertinism in young men before marriage, instead of

regarding the separation of husband and wife as natural and desirable,

instead of giving to women the legal right to practise the trade of

prostitution, instead of countenancing and sanctioning divorce—if,

instead of this, we taught by words and actions that the state of

celibacy, the solitary existence of a man properly endowed for, and who

has not renounced the sexual relation, is a monstrous and opprobrious

wrong; and that the abandonment of wife by husband or of husband by wife

for the sake of another, is an act against nature, an act bestial and

inhuman.

Instead of regarding it as natural that our entire existence should be

controlled by coercion; that every one of our amusements should be

provided and maintained by force; that each of us from childhood to old

age should be by turns victim and executioner—instead of this I tried to

picture the results if, by precept and example, we endeavored to inspire

the world with the conviction that vengeance is a sentiment unworthy of

humanity; that violence is not only debasing, but that it deprives us of

all capacity for happiness; that the true pleasures of life are not

those maintained by force; and that our greatest consideration ought to

be bestowed, not upon those who accumulate riches to the injury of

others, but upon those who best serve others and give what they have to

lessen the woes of their kind. If instead of regarding the taking of an

oath and the placing of ourselves and our lives at the disposition of

another as a rightful and praiseworthy act,—I tried to imagine what

would be the result if we taught that the enlightened will of man is

alone sacred; and that if a man place himself at the disposition of any

one, and promise by oath anything whatever, he renounces his rational

manhood and outrages his most sacred right. I tried to imagine the

results, if, instead of the national hatred with which we are inspired

under the name of “patriotism”; if, in place of the glory associated

with that form of murder which we call war,—if, in place of this, we

were taught, on the contrary, horror and contempt for all the

means—military, diplomatic, and political—which serve to divide men; if

we were educated to look upon the division of men into political States,

and a diversity of codes and frontiers, as an indication of barbarism;

and that to massacre others is a most horrible forfeit, which can only

be exacted of a depraved and misguided man, who has fallen to the lowest

level of the brute. I imagined that all men had arrived at these

convictions, and I considered what I thought would be the result.

Up to this time (I said), what have been the practical results of the

doctrine of Jesus as I understand it? and the involuntary reply was,

Nothing. We continue to pray, to partake of the sacraments, to believe

in the redemption, and in our personal salvation as well as that of the

world by Jesus the Christ,—and yet that this salvation will never come

by our efforts, but will come because the period set for the end of the

world will have arrived when the Christ will appear in his glory to

judge the quick and the dead, and the kingdom of heaven will be

established.

Now the doctrine of Jesus, as I understood it, had an entirely different

meaning. The establishment of the kingdom of God depended upon our

personal efforts in the practice of Jesus’ doctrine as propounded in the

five commandments, which instituted the kingdom of God upon earth. The

kingdom of God upon earth consists in this, that all men should be at

peace with one another. It was thus that the Hebrew prophets conceived

of the rule of God. Peace among men is the greatest blessing that can

exist upon this earth, and it is within reach of all men. This ideal is

in every human heart. The prophets all brought to men the promise of

peace. The whole doctrine of Jesus has but one object, to establish

peace—the kingdom of God—among men.

In the Sermon on the Mount, in the interview with Nicodemus, in the

instructions given to his disciples, in all his teachings, Jesus spoke

only of this, of the things that divided men, that kept them from peace,

that prevented them from entering into the kingdom of heaven. The

parables make clear to us what the kingdom of heaven is, and show us the

only way of entering therein, which is to love our brethren, and to be

at peace with all. John the Baptist, the forerunner of Jesus, proclaimed

the approach of the kingdom of God, and declared that Jesus was to bring

it upon earth. Jesus himself said that his mission was to bring peace:—

“Peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you: not as the world

giveth, give I unto you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it

be afraid” (John xiv. 27).

And the observance of his five commandments will bring peace upon the

earth. They all have but one object,—the establishment of peace among

men. If men will only believe in the doctrine of Jesus and practise it,

the reign of peace will come upon earth,—not that peace which is the

work of man, partial, precarious, and at the mercy of chance; but the

peace that is all-pervading, inviolable, and eternal.

The first commandment tells us to be at peace with every one and to

consider none as foolish or unworthy. If peace is violated, we are to

seek to re-establish it. The true religion is in the extinction of

enmity among men. We are to be reconciled without delay, that we may not

lose that inner peace which is the true life (Matt. v. 22–24).

Everything is comprised in this commandment; but Jesus knew the worldly

temptations that prevent peace among men. The first temptation perilous

to peace is that of the sexual relation. We are not to consider the body

as an instrument of lust; each man is to have one wife, and each woman

one husband, and one is never to forsake the other under any pretext

(Matt. v. 28–32). The second temptation is that of the oath, which draws

men into sin; this is wrong, and we are not to be bound by any such

promise (Matt. v. 34–37). The third temptation is that of vengeance,

which we call human justice; this we are not to resort to under any

pretext; we are to endure offences and never to return evil for evil

(Matt. v. 38–42). The fourth temptation is that arising from difference

in nationalities, from hostility between peoples and States; but we are

to remember that all men are brothers, and children of the same Father,

and thus take care that difference in nationality leads not to the

destruction of peace (Matt. v. 43–48).

If men abstain from practising any one of these commandments, peace will

be violated. Let men practise all these commandments, which exclude evil

from the lives of men, and peace will be established upon earth. The

practice of these five commandments would realize the ideal of human

life existing in every human heart. All men would be brothers, each

would be at peace with others, enjoying all the blessings of earth to

the limit of years accorded by the Creator. Men would beat their swords

into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks, and then would

come the kingdom of God,—that reign of peace foretold by all the

prophets, which was foretold by John the Baptist as near at hand, and

which Jesus proclaimed in the words of Isaiah:—

“’The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he hath anointed me to

preach the gospel to the poor; he hath sent me to heal the broken

hearted, to preach deliverance to the captives, and recovering of sight

to the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised, to preach the

acceptable year of the Lord.’[14]... And he began to say unto them,

To-day hath this Scripture been fulfilled in your ears” (Luke iv. 18,

19, 21).

The commandments for peace given by Jesus,—those simple and clear

commandments, foreseeing all possibilities of discussion, and

anticipating all objections,—these commandments proclaimed the kingdom

of God upon earth. Jesus, then, was, in truth, the Messiah. He fulfilled

what had been promised. But we have not fulfilled the commands we must

fulfil if the kingdom of God is to be established upon earth,—that

kingdom which men in all ages have earnestly desired, and have sought

for continually, all their days.

CHAPTER VII.

Why is it that men have not done as Jesus commanded them, and thus

secured the greatest happiness within their reach, the happiness they

have always longed for and still desire? The reply to this inquiry is

always the same, although expressed in different ways. The doctrine of

Jesus (we are told) is admirable, and it is true that if we practised

it, we should see the kingdom of God established upon earth; but to

practise it is difficult, and consequently this doctrine is

impracticable. The doctrine of Jesus, which teaches men how they should

live, is admirable, is divine; it brings true happiness, but it is

difficult to practise. We repeat this, and hear it repeated so many,

many times, that we do not observe the contradiction contained in these

words.

It is natural to each human being to do what seems to him best. Any

doctrine teaching men how they should live instructs them only as to

what is best for each. If we show men what they have to do to attain

what is best for each, how can they say that they would like to do it,

but that it is impossible of attainment? According to the law of their

nature they cannot do what is worse for each, and yet they declare that

they cannot do what is best.

The reasonable activity of man, from his earliest existence, has been

applied to the search for what is best among the contradictions that

envelop human life. Men struggled for the soil, for objects which are

necessary to them; then they arrived at the division of goods, and

called this property; finding that this arrangement, although difficult

to establish, was best, they maintained ownership. Men fought with one

another for the possession of women, they abandoned their children; then

they found it was best that each should have his own family; and

although it was difficult to sustain a family, they maintained the

family, as they did ownership and many other things. As soon as they

discover that a thing is best, however difficult of attainment, men do

it. What, then, is the meaning of the saying that the doctrine of Jesus

is admirable, that a life according to the doctrine of Jesus would be

better than the life which men now lead, but that men cannot lead this

better life because it is difficult?

If the word “difficult,” used in this way, is to be understood in the

sense that it is difficult to renounce the fleeting satisfaction of

sensual desires that we may obtain a greater good, why do we not say

that it is difficult to labor for bread, difficult to plant a tree that

we may enjoy the fruit? Every being endowed with even the most

rudimentary reason knows that he must endure difficulties to procure any

good, superior to that which he has enjoyed before. And yet we say that

the doctrine of Jesus is admirable, but impossible of practice, because

it is difficult! Now it is difficult, because in following it we are

obliged to deprive ourselves of many things that we have hitherto

enjoyed. Have we never heard that it is far more to our advantage to

endure difficulties and privations than to satisfy all our desires? Man

may fall to the level of the beasts, but he ought not to make use of his

reason to devise an apology for his bestiality. From the moment that he

begins to reason, he is conscious of being endowed with reason, and this

consciousness stimulates him to distinguish between the reasonable and

the unreasonable. Reason does not proscribe; it enlightens.

Suppose that I am shut into a dark room, and in searching for the door I

continually bruise myself against the walls. Some one brings me a light,

and I see the door. I ought no longer to bruise myself when I see the

door; much less ought I to affirm that, although it is best to go out

through the door, it is difficult to do so, and that, consequently, I

prefer to bruise myself against the walls.

In this marvellous argument that the doctrine of Jesus is admirable, and

that its practice would give the world true happiness, but that men are

weak and sinful, that they would do the best and do the worst, and so

cannot do the best,—in this strange plea there is an evident

misapprehension; there is something else besides defective reasoning;

there is also a chimerical idea. Only a chimerical idea, mistaking

reality for what does not exist, and taking the non-existent for

reality, could lead men to deny the possibility of practising that which

by their own avowal would be for their true welfare.

The chimerical idea which has reduced men to this condition is that of

the dogmatic Christian religion, as it is taught through the various

catechisms, to all who profess the Christianity of the Church. This

religion, according to the definition of it given by its followers,

consists in accepting as real that which does not exist—these are Paul’s

words,[15] and they are repeated in all the theologies and catechisms as

the best definition of faith. It is this faith in the reality of what

does not exist that leads men to make the strange affirmation that the

doctrine of Jesus is excellent for all men, but is worth nothing as a

guide to their way of living. Here is an exact summary of what this

religion teaches:—

A personal God, who is from all eternity—one of three persons—decided to

create a world of spirits. This God of goodness created the world of

spirits for their own happiness, but it so happened that one of the

spirits became spontaneously wicked. Time passed, and God created a

material world, created man for man’s own happiness, created man happy,

immortal, and without sin. The felicity of man consisted in the

enjoyment of life without toil; his immortality was due to the promise

that this life should last forever; his innocence was due to the fact

that he had no conception of evil.

Man was beguiled in paradise by one of the spirits of the first

creation, who had become spontaneously wicked. From this dates the fall

of man, who engendered other men fallen like himself, and from this time

men have endured toil, sickness, suffering, death, the physical and

moral struggle for existence; that is to say, the fantastic being

preceding the fall became real, as we know him to be, as we have no

right or reason to imagine him not to be. The state of man who toils,

who suffers, who chooses what is for his own welfare and rejects what

would be injurious to him, who dies,—this state, which is the real and

only conceivable state, is not, according to the doctrine of this

religion, the normal state of man, but a state which is unnatural and

temporary.

Although this state, according to the doctrine, has lasted for all

humanity since the expulsion of Adam from paradise, that is, from the

commencement of the world until the birth of Jesus, and has continued

since the birth of Jesus under exactly the same conditions, the faithful

are asked to believe that this is an abnormal and temporary state.

According to this doctrine, the Son of God, the second person of the

Trinity, who was himself God, was sent by God into the world in the garb

of humanity to rescue men from this temporary and abnormal state; to

deliver them from the pains with which they had been stricken by this

same God because of Adam’s sin; and to restore them to their former

normal state of felicity,—that is to immortality, innocence, and

idleness. The second person of the Trinity (according to this doctrine),

by suffering death at the hands of man, atoned for Adam’s sin, and put

an end to that abnormal state which had lasted from the commencement of

the world. And from that time onward, the men who have had faith in

Jesus have returned to the state of the first man in paradise; that is,

have become immortal, innocent, and idle.

The doctrine does not concern itself too closely with the practical

result of the redemption, in virtue of which the earth after Jesus’

coming ought to have become once more, at least for believers,

everywhere fertile, without need of human toil; sickness ought to have

ceased, and mothers have borne children without pain;—since it is

difficult to assure even believers who are worn by excessive labor and

broken down by suffering, that toil is light, and suffering easy to

endure.

But that portion of the doctrine which proclaims the abrogation of death

and of sin, is affirmed with redoubled emphasis. It is asserted that the

dead continue to live. And as the dead cannot bear witness that they are

dead or prove that they are living (just as a stone is unable to affirm

either that it can or cannot speak), this absence of denial is admitted

as proof, and it is affirmed that dead men are not dead. It is affirmed

with still more solemnity and assurance that, since the coming of Jesus,

the man who has faith in him is free from sin; that is, that since the

coming of Jesus, it is no longer necessary that man should guide his

life by reason, and choose what is best for himself. He has only to

believe that Jesus has redeemed his sins and he then becomes infallible,

that is, perfect. According to this doctrine, men ought to believe that

reason is powerless, and that for this cause they are without sin, that

is, cannot err. A faithful believer ought to be convinced that since the

coming of Jesus, the earth brings forth without labor, that childbirth

no longer entails suffering, that diseases no longer exist, and that

death and sin, that is, error, are destroyed; in a word, that what is,

is not, and what is not, is.

Such is the rigorously logical theory of Christian theology. This

doctrine, by itself, seems to be innocent. But deviations from truth are

never inoffensive, and the significance of their consequences is in

proportion to the importance of the subject to which these errors are

applied. And here the subject at issue is the whole life of man. What

this doctrine calls the true life, is a life of personal happiness,

without sin, and eternal; that is, a life that no one has ever known,

and which does not exist. But the life that is, the only life that we

know, the life that we live and that all humanity lives and has lived,

is, according to this doctrine, a degraded and evil existence, a mere

phantasmagoria of the happy life which is our due.

Of the struggle between animal instincts and reason, which is the

essence of human life, this doctrine takes no account. The struggle that

Adam underwent in paradise, in deciding whether to eat or not to eat the

fruit of the tree of knowledge, is, according to this doctrine, no

longer within the range of human experience. The question was decided,

once for all, by Adam in paradise. Adam sinned for all; in other words,

he did wrong, and all men are irretrievably degraded; and all our

efforts to live by reason are vain and even impious. This I ought to

know, for I am irreparably bad. My salvation does not depend upon living

by the light of reason, and, after distinguishing between good and evil,

choosing the good; no, Adam, once for all, sinned for me, and Jesus,

once for all, has atoned for the wrong committed by Adam; and so I

ought, as a looker-on, to mourn over the fall of Adam and rejoice at the

redemption through Jesus.

All the love for truth and goodness in the heart of man, all his efforts

to illuminate his spiritual life by the light of reason, are not only of

slight importance, according to this doctrine; they are a temptation, an

incitement to pride. Life as it is upon this earth, with all its joys

and its splendors, its struggles of reason with darkness,—the life of

all men that have lived before me, my own life with its inner struggles

and triumphs,—all this is not the true life; it is the fallen life, a

life irretrievably bad. The true life, the life without sin, is only in

faith, that is, in imagination, that is, in lunacy.

Let any one break the habit contracted from infancy of believing in all

this; let him look boldly at this doctrine as it is; let him endeavor to

put himself in the position of a man without prejudice, educated

independently of this doctrine—and then let him ask himself if this

doctrine would not appear to such a man as a product of absolute

insanity.

However strange and shocking all this might appear to me, I was obliged

to examine into it, for here alone I found the explanation of the

objection, so devoid of logic and common-sense, that I heard everywhere

with regard to the impossibility of practising the doctrine of Jesus: It

is admirable, and would give true happiness to men, but men are not able

to obey it.

Only a conviction that reality does not exist, and that the non-existent

is real, could lead men to this surprising contradiction. And this false

conviction I found in the pseudo-Christian religion which men had been

teaching for fifteen hundred years.

The objection that the doctrine of Jesus is excellent but impracticable,

comes not only from believers, but from sceptics, from those who do not

believe, or think that they do not believe, in the dogmas of the fall of

man and the redemption; from men of science and philosophers who

consider themselves free from all prejudice. They believe, or imagine

that they believe, in nothing, and so consider themselves as above such

a superstition as the dogma of the fall and the redemption. At first it

seemed to me that all such persons had serious motives for denying the

possibility of practising the doctrine of Jesus. But when I came to look

into the source of their negation, I was convinced that the sceptics, in

common with the believers, have a false conception of life; to them life

is not what it is, but what they imagine it ought to be,—and this

conception rests upon the same foundation as does that of the believers.

It is true that the sceptics, who pretend to believe in nothing, believe

not in God, or in Jesus, or in Adam; but they believe in a fundamental

idea which is at the basis of their misconception,—in the rights of man

to a life of happiness,—much more firmly than do the theologians.

In vain do science and philosophy pose as the arbiters of the human

mind, of which they are in fact only the servants. Religion has provided

a conception of life, and science travels in the beaten path. Religion

reveals the meaning of life, and science only applies this meaning to

the course of circumstances. And so, if religion falsifies the meaning

of human life, science, which builds upon the same foundation, can only

make manifest the same fantastic ideas.

According to the doctrine of the Church, men have a right to happiness,

and this happiness is not the result of their own efforts, but of

external causes. This conception has become the base of science and

philosophy. Religion, science, and public opinion all unite in telling

us that the life we now live is bad, and at the same time they affirm

that the doctrine which teaches us how we can succeed in ameliorating

life by becoming better, is an impracticable doctrine. Religion says

that the doctrine of Jesus, which provides a reasonable method for the

improvement of life by our own efforts, is impracticable because Adam

fell and the world was plunged into sin. Philosophy says that the

doctrine of Jesus is impracticable because human life is developed

according to laws that are independent of the human will. In other

words, the conclusions of science and philosophy are exactly the same as

the conclusion reached by religion in the dogmas of original sin and the

redemption.

There are two leading theses at the basis of the doctrine of the

redemption: (1) the normal life of man is a life of happiness, but our

life on earth is one of misery, and it can never be bettered by our own

efforts; (2) our salvation is in faith, which enables us to escape from

this life of misery. These two theses are the source of the religious

conceptions of the believers and sceptics who make up our

pseudo-Christian societies. The second thesis gave birth to the Church

and its organization; from the first is derived the received tenets of

public opinion and our political and philosophical theories. The germ of

all political and philosophical theories that seek to justify the

existing order of things—such as Hegelianism and its offshoots—is in

this second thesis. Pessimism, which demands of life what it cannot give

and then denies its value, has also its origin in the same dogmatic

proposition. Materialism, with its strange and enthusiastic affirmation

that man is the product of natural forces and nothing more, is the

legitimate result of the doctrine that teaches that life on earth is a

degraded existence. Spiritism, with its learned adherents, is the best

proof we have that the conclusions of philosophy and science are based

upon the religious doctrine of that eternal happiness which should be

the natural heritage of man.

This false conception of life has had a deplorable influence upon all

reasonable human activity. The dogma of the fall and the redemption has

debarred man from the most important and legitimate field for the

exercise of his powers, and has deprived him entirely of the idea that

he can of himself do anything to make his life happier or better.

Science and philosophy, proudly believing themselves hostile to

pseudo-Christianity, only carry out its decrees. Science and philosophy

concern themselves with everything except the theory that man can do

anything to make himself better or happier. Ethical and moral

instruction have disappeared from our pseudo-Christian society without

leaving a trace.

Believers and sceptics who concern themselves so little with the problem

how to live, how to make use of the reason with which we are endowed,

ask why our earthly life is not what they imagine it ought to be, and

when it will become what they wish. This singular phenomenon is due to

the false doctrine which has penetrated into the very marrow of

humanity. The effects of the knowledge of good and evil, which man so

unhappily acquired in paradise, do not seem to have been very lasting;

for, neglecting the truth that life is only a solution of the

contradictions between animal instincts and reason, he stolidly refrains

from applying his reason to the discovery of the historical laws that

govern his animal nature.

Excepting the philosophical doctrines of the pseudo-Christian world, all

the philosophical and religious doctrines of which we have

knowledge—Judaism, the doctrine of Confucius, Buddhism, Brahmanism, the

wisdom of the Greeks—all aim to regulate human life, and to enlighten

men with regard to what they must do to improve their condition. The

doctrine of Confucius teaches the perfecting of the individual; Judaism,

personal fidelity to an alliance with God; Buddhism, how to escape from

a life governed by animal instincts; Socrates taught the perfecting of

the individual through reason; the Stoics recognized the independence of

reason as the sole basis of the true life.

The reasonable activity of man has always been—it could not be

otherwise—to light by the torch of reason his progress toward beatitude.

Philosophy tells us that free-will is an illusion, and then boasts of

the boldness of such a declaration. Free-will is not only an illusion;

it is an empty word invented by theologians and experts in criminal law;

to refute it would be to undertake a battle with a wind-mill. But

reason, which illuminates our life and impels us to modify our actions,

is not an illusion, and its authority can never be denied. To obey

reason in the pursuit of good is the substance of the teachings of all

the masters of humanity, and it is the substance of the doctrine of

Jesus; it is reason itself, and we cannot deny reason by the use of

reason.

Making use of the phrase “son of man,” Jesus teaches that all men have a

common impulse toward good and toward reason, which leads to good. It is

superfluous to attempt to prove that “son of man” means “Son of God.” To

understand by the words “son of man” anything different from what they

signify is to assume that Jesus, to say what he wished to say,

intentionally made use of words which have an entirely different

meaning. But even if, as the Church says, “son of man” means “Son of

God,” the phrase “son of man” applies none the less to man, for Jesus

himself called all men “the sons of God.”

The doctrine of the “son of man” finds its most complete expression in

the interview with Nicodemus. Every man, Jesus says, aside from his

consciousness of his material, individual life and of his birth in the

flesh, has also a consciousness of a spiritual birth (John iii. 5, 6,

7), of an inner liberty, of something within; this comes from on high,

from the infinite that we call God (John iii. 14–17); now it is this

inner consciousness born of God, the son of God in man, that we must

possess and nourish if we would possess true life. The son of man is

homogeneous (of the same race) with God.

Whoever lifts up within himself this son of God, whoever identifies his

life with the spiritual life, will not deviate from the true way. Men

wander from the way because they do not believe in this light which is

within them, the light of which John speaks when he says, “In him was

life; and the life was the light of men.” Jesus tells us to lift up the

son of man, who is the son of God, for a light to all men. When we have

lifted up the son of man, we shall then know that we can do nothing

without his guidance (John viii. 28). Asked, “Who is this son of man?”

Jesus answers:—

“Yet a little while is the light in you.[16] Walk while ye have the

light, lest darkness come upon you: for he that walketh in darkness

knoweth not whither he goeth.” (John xii. 35.)

The son of man is the light in every man that ought to illuminate his

life. “Take heed therefore, that the light which is in thee be not

darkness,” is Jesus’ warning to the multitude (Luke xi. 35).

In all the different ages of humanity we find the same thought, that man

is the receptacle of the divine light descended from heaven, and that

this light is reason, which alone should be the object of our worship,

since it alone can show the way to true well-being. This has been said

by the Brahmins, by the Hebrew prophets, by Confucius, by Socrates, by

Marcus Aurelius, by Epictetus, and by all the true sages,—not by

compilers of philosophical theories, but by men who sought goodness for

themselves and for others.[17] And yet we declare, in accordance with

the dogma of the redemption, that it is entirely superfluous to think of

the light that is in us, and that we ought not to speak of it at all!

We must, say the believers, study the three persons of the Trinity; we

must know the nature of each of these persons, and what sacraments we

ought or ought not to perform, for our salvation depends, not on our own

efforts, but on the Trinity and the regular performance of the

sacraments. We must, say the sceptics, know the laws by which this

infinitesimal particle of matter was evolved in infinite space and

infinite time; but it is absurd to believe that by reason alone we can

secure true well-being, because the amelioration of man’s condition does

not depend upon man himself, but upon the laws that we are trying to

discover.

I firmly believe that, a few centuries hence, the history of what we

call the scientific activity of this age will be a prolific subject for

the hilarity and pity of future generations. For a number of centuries,

they will say, the scholars of the western portion of a great continent

were the victims of epidemic insanity; they imagined themselves to be

the possessors of a life of eternal beatitude, and they busied

themselves with divers lucubrations in which they sought to determine in

what way this life could be realized, without doing anything themselves,

or even concerning themselves with what they ought to do to ameliorate

the life which they already had. And what to the future historian will

seem much more melancholy, it will be found that this group of men had

once had a master who had taught them a number of simple and clear

rules, pointing out what they must do to render their lives happy,—and

that the words of this master had been construed by some to mean that he

would come on a cloud to re-organize human society, and by others as

admirable doctrine, but impracticable, since human life was not what

they conceived it to be, and consequently was not worthy of

consideration; as to human reason, it must concern itself with the study

of the laws of an imaginary existence, without concerning itself about

the welfare of the individual man.

The Church says that the doctrine of Jesus cannot be literally practised

here on earth, because this earthly life is naturally evil, since it is

only a shadow of the true life. The best way of living is to scorn this

earthly existence, to be guided by faith (that is, by imagination) in a

happy and eternal life to come, and to continue to live a bad life here

and to pray to the good God.

Philosophy, science, and public opinion all say that the doctrine of

Jesus is not applicable to human life as it now is, because the life of

man does not depend upon the light of reason, but upon general laws;

hence it is useless to try to live absolutely conformable to reason; we

must live as we can with the firm conviction that according to the laws

of historical and sociological progress, after having lived very

imperfectly for a very long time, we shall suddenly find that our lives

have become very good.

People come to a farm; they find there all that is necessary to sustain

life,—a house well furnished, barns filled with grain, cellars and

store-rooms well stocked with provisions, implements of husbandry,

horses and cattle,—in a word, all that is needed for a life of comfort

and ease. Each wishes to profit by this abundance, but each for himself,

without thinking of others, or of those who may come after him. Each

wants the whole for himself, and begins to seize upon all that he can

possibly grasp. Then begins a veritable pillage; they fight for the

possession of the spoils; oxen and sheep are slaughtered; wagons and

other implements are broken up into firewood; they fight for the milk

and grain; they grasp more than they can consume. No one is able to sit

down to the tranquil enjoyment of what he has, lest another take away

the spoils already secured, to surrender them in turn to some one

stronger. All these people leave the farm, bruised and famished.

Thereupon the Master puts everything to rights, and arranges matters so

that one may live there in peace. The farm is again a treasury of

abundance. Then comes another group of seekers, and the same struggle

and tumult is repeated, till these in their turn go away bruised and

angry, cursing the Master for providing so little and so ill. The good

Master is not discouraged; he again provides for all that is needed to

sustain life,—and the same incidents are repeated over and over again.

Finally, among those who come to the farm, is one who says to his

companions: “Comrades, how foolish we are! see how abundantly everything

is supplied, how well everything is arranged! There is enough here for

us and for those who will come after us; let us act in a reasonable

manner. Instead of robbing each other, let us help one another. Let us

work, plant, care for the dumb animals, and every one will be

satisfied.” Some of the company understand what this wise person says;

they cease from fighting and from robbing one another, and begin to

work. But others, who have not heard the words of the wise man, or who

distrust him, continue their former pillage of the Master’s goods. This

condition of things lasts for a long time. Those who have followed the

counsels of the wise man say to those about them: “Cease from fighting,

cease from wasting the Master’s goods; you will be better off for doing

so; follow the wise man’s advice.” Nevertheless, a great many do not

hear and will not believe, and matters go on very much as they did

before.

All this is natural, and will continue as long as people do not believe

the wise man’s words. But, we are told, a time will come when every one

on the farm will listen to and understand the words of the wise man, and

will realize that God spoke through his lips, and that the wise man was

himself none other than God in person; and all will have faith in his

words. Meanwhile, instead of living according to the advice of the wise

man, each struggles for his own, and they slay each other without pity,

saying, “The struggle for existence is inevitable; we cannot do

otherwise.”

What does it all mean? Even the beasts graze in the fields without

interfering with each other’s needs, and men, after having learned the

conditions of the true life, and after being convinced that God himself

has shown them how to live the true life, follow still their evil ways,

saying that it is impossible to live otherwise. What should we think of

the people at the farm if, after having heard the words of the wise man,

they had continued to live as before, snatching the bread from each

other’s mouths, fighting, and trying to grasp everything, to their own

loss? We should say that they had misunderstood the wise man’s words,

and imagined things to be different from what they really were. The wise

man said to them, “Your life here is bad; amend your ways, and it will

become good.” And they imagined that the wise man had condemned their

life on the farm, and had promised them another and a better life

somewhere else. They decided that the farm was only a temporary

dwelling-place, and that it was not worth while to try to live well

there; the important thing was not to be cheated out of the other life

promised them elsewhere. This is the only way in which we can explain

the strange conduct of the people on the farm, of whom some believed

that the wise man was God, and others that he was a man of wisdom, but

all continued to live as before in defiance of the wise man’s words.

They understood everything but the one significant truth in the wise

man’s teachings,—that they must work out for themselves their own peace

and happiness there on the farm, which they took for a temporary abode

thinking all the time of the better life they were to possess elsewhere.

Here is the origin of the strange declaration that the precepts of the

wise man were admirable, even divine, but that they were difficult to

practise.

Oh, if men would only cease from evil ways while waiting for the Christ

to come in his chariot of fire to their aid; if they would only cease to

invoke the law of the differentiation or integration of forces, or any

historical law whatever! None will come to their aid if they do not aid

themselves. And to aid ourselves to a better life, we need expect

nothing from heaven or from earth; we need only to cease from ways that

result in our own loss.

CHAPTER VIII.

If it be admitted that the doctrine of Jesus is perfectly reasonable,

and that it alone can give to men true happiness, what would be the

condition of a single follower of that doctrine in the midst of a world

that did not practise it at all? If all men would decide at the same

time to obey, its practice would then be possible. But one man alone

cannot act in defiance of the whole world; and so we hear continually

this plea: “If, among men who do not practise the doctrine of Jesus, I

alone obey it; if I give away all that I possess; if I turn the other

cheek; if I refuse to take an oath or to go to war, I should find myself

in profound isolation; if I did not die of hunger, I should be beaten;

if I survived that, I should be cast into prison; I should be shot, and

all the happiness of my life—my life itself—would be sacrificed in

vain.”

This plea is founded upon the doctrine of quid pro quo, which is the

basis of all arguments against the possibility of practising the

doctrine of Jesus. It is the current objection, and I sympathized with

it in common with all the rest of the world, until I finally broke

entirely away from the dogmas of the Church which prevented me from

understanding the true significance of the doctrine of Jesus. Jesus

prepared his doctrine as a means of salvation from the life of perdition

organized by men contrary to his precepts; and I declared that I should

be very glad to follow this doctrine if it were not for fear of this

very perdition. Jesus offered me the true remedy against a life of

perdition, and I clung to the life of perdition! from which it was plain

that I did not consider this life as a life of perdition, but as

something good, something real. The conviction that my personal, worldly

life was something real and good constituted the misunderstanding, the

obstacle, that prevented me from comprehending Jesus’ doctrine. Jesus

knew the disposition of men to regard their personal, worldly life as

real and good, and so, in a series of apothegms and parables, he taught

them that they had no right to life, and that they were given life only

that they might assure themselves of the true life by renouncing their

worldly and fantastic organization of existence.

To understand what is meant by “saving” one’s life, according to the

doctrine of Jesus, we must first understand what the prophets, what

Solomon, what Buddha, what all the wise men of the world have said about

the personal life of man. But, as Pascal says, we cannot endure to think

upon this theme, and so we carry always before us a screen to conceal

the abyss of death, toward which we are constantly moving. It suffices

to reflect on the isolation of the personal life of man, to be convinced

that this life, in so far as it is personal, is not only of no account

to each separately, but that it is a cruel jest to heart and reason. To

understand the doctrine of Jesus, we must, before all, return to

ourselves, reflect soberly, undergo the μετάνοια of which John the

Baptist, the precursor of Jesus, speaks, when addressing himself to men

of clouded judgment. “Repent” (such was his preaching); “repent, have

another mind, or you shall all perish. The axe is laid unto the root of

the trees. Death and perdition await each one of you. Be warned, turn

back, repent.” And Jesus declared, “Except ye repent, ye shall all

likewise perish.” When Jesus was told of the death of the Galileans

massacred by Pilate, he said:—

“Suppose ye that these Galileans were sinners above all the Galileans,

because they suffered such things? I tell you, Nay: but, except ye

repent, ye shall all likewise perish. Or those eighteen upon whom the

tower in Siloam fell, and slew them, think ye that they were sinners

above all men that dwelt in Jerusalem? I tell you. Nay: but, except ye

repent, ye shall all likewise perish.” (Luke xiii. 1–5.)

If he had lived in our day, in Russia, he would have said: “Think you

that those who perished in the circus at Berditchef or on the slopes of

Koukouyef were sinners above all others? I tell you, No; but you, if you

do not repent, if you do not arouse yourselves, if you do not find in

your life that which is imperishable, you also shall perish. You are

horrified by the death of those crushed by the tower, burned in the

circus; but your death, equally as frightful and as inevitable, is here,

before you. You are wrong to conceal it or to forget it; unlocked for,

it is only more hideous.”

To the people of his own time he said:—

“When ye see a cloud rise out of the west, straightway ye say, There

cometh a shower; and so it is. And when ye see the south wind blow, ye

say, There will be heat; and it cometh to pass. Ye hypocrites, ye can

discern the face of the sky and of the earth; but how is it that ye do

not discern this time? Yea, and why even of yourselves judge ye not what

is right?” (Luke xii. 54–57.)

We know how to interpret the signs of the weather; why, then, do we not

see what is before us? It is in vain that we fly from danger, and guard

our material life by all imaginable means; in spite of all, death is

before us, if not in one way, then in another; if not by massacre, or

the falling of a tower, then in our beds, amidst much greater suffering.

Make a simple calculation, as those do who undertake any worldly

project, any enterprise whatever, such as the construction of a house,

or the purchase of an estate, such as those make who labor with the hope

of seeing their calculations realized.

“For which of you intending to build a tower, sitteth not down first,

and counteth the cost whether he have sufficient to finish it? Lest

haply, after he hath laid the foundation, and is not able to finish it,

all that behold it begin to mock him, saying, This man began to build,

and was not able to finish. Or what king, going to make war against

another king, sitteth not down first and consulteth whether he be able

with ten thousand to meet him that cometh against him with twenty

thousand?” (Luke xiv. 28–31.)

Is it not the act of a madman to labor at what, under any circumstances,

one can never finish? Death will always come before the edifice of

worldly prosperity can be completed. And if we knew beforehand that,

however we may struggle with death, it is not we, but death, that will

triumph; is it not an indication that we ought not to struggle with

death, or to set our hearts upon that which will surely perish, but to

seek to perform the task whose results cannot be destroyed by our

inevitable departure?

“And he said unto his disciples, Therefore I say unto you, Take no

thought for your life what ye shall eat; neither for the body, what ye

shall put on. The life is more than meat and the body is more than

raiment. Consider the ravens: for they neither sow nor reap; which

neither have storehouse nor barn; and God feedeth them: How much more

are ye better than the fowls? And which of you with taking thought can

add to his stature one cubit? If ye then be not able to do that thing

which is least, why take ye thought for the rest? Consider the lilies

how they grow: they toil not, they spin not; and yet I say unto you that

Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.” (Luke xii.

22–27.)

Whatever pains we may take for our nourishment, for the care of the

body, we cannot prolong life by a single hour.[18] Is it not folly to

trouble ourselves about a thing that we cannot possibly accomplish? We

know perfectly well that our material life will end with death, and we

give ourselves up to evil to procure riches. Life cannot be measured by

what we possess; if we think so, we only delude ourselves. Jesus tells

us that the meaning of life does not lie in what we possess or in what

we can accumulate, but in something entirely different. He says:—

“The ground of a certain rich man brought forth plentifully: And he

thought within himself, saying, What shall I do, because I have no room

where to bestow my fruits? And he said, This will I do: I will pull down

my barns, and build greater; and there will I bestow all my fruits and

my goods. And I will say to my soul, Soul, thou hast much goods lead up

for many years; take thine ease, eat, drink, and be merry. But God said

unto him, Thou fool, this night thy soul shall be required of thee: then

whose shall those things be, which thou hast provided? So is he that

layeth up treasure for himself, and is not rich toward God.” (Luke xii.

16–21.)

Death threatens us every moment; Jesus says:—

“Let your loins be girded about, and your lights burning; and ye

yourselves like unto men that wait for their lord, when he will return

from the wedding; that, when he cometh and knocketh, they may open unto

him immediately. Blessed are those servants, whom the lord when he

cometh shall find watching; ...And if he shall come in the second watch,

or come in the third watch, and find them so, blessed are those

servants. And this know, that if the goodman of the house had known what

hour the thief would come, he would have watched, and not have suffered

his house to be broken through. Be ye therefore ready also: for the son

of man cometh at an hour when ye think not.” (Luke xii. 35–40.)

The parable of the virgins waiting for the bridegroom, that of the

consummation of the age and the last judgment, as the commentators all

agree, are designed to teach that death awaits us at every moment. Death

awaits us at every moment. Life is passed in sight of death. If we labor

for ourselves alone, for our personal future, we know that what awaits

us in the future is death. And death will destroy all the fruits of our

labor. Consequently, a life for self can have no meaning. The reasonable

life is different; it has another aim than the poor desires of a single

individual. The reasonable life consists in living in such a way that

life cannot be destroyed by death. We are troubled about many things,

but only one thing is necessary.

From the moment of his birth, man is menaced by an inevitable peril,

that is, by a life deprived of meaning, and a wretched death, if he does

not discover the thing essential to the true life. Now it is precisely

this one thing which insures the true life that Jesus reveals to men. He

invents nothing, he promises nothing through divine power; side by side

with this personal life, which is a delusion, he simply reveals to men

the truth.

In the parable of the husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33–42), Jesus explains the

cause of that blindness in men which conceals the truth from them, and

which impels them to take the apparent for the real, their personal life

for the true life. Certain men, having leased a vineyard, imagined that

they were its masters. And this delusion leads them into a series of

foolish and cruel actions, which ends in their exile. So each one of us

imagines that life is his personal property, and that he has a right to

enjoy it in such a way as may seem to him good, without recognizing any

obligation to others. And the inevitable consequence of this delusion is

a series of foolish and cruel actions followed by exclusion from life.

And as the husbandmen killed the servants and at last the son of the

householder, thinking that the more cruel they were, the better able

they would be to gain their ends, so we imagine that we shall obtain the

greatest security by means of violence.

Expulsion, the inevitable sentence visited upon the husbandmen for

having taken to themselves the fruits of the vineyard, awaits also all

men who imagine that the personal life is the true life. Death expels

them from life; they are replaced by others, as a consequence of the

error which led them to misconceive the meaning of life. As the

husbandmen forgot, or did not wish to remember, that they had received a

vineyard already hedged about and provided with winepress and tower,

that some one had labored for them and expected them to labor in their

turn for others;—so the men who would live for themselves forget, or do

not wish to remember, all that has been done for them during their life;

they forget that they are under an obligation to labor in their turn,

and that all the blessings of life which they enjoy are fruits that they

ought to divide with others.

This new manner of looking at life, this μετάνοια, or repentance, is the

corner-stone of the doctrine of Jesus. According to this doctrine, men

ought to understand and feel that they are insolvent, as the husbandmen

should have understood and felt that they were insolvent to the

householder, unable to pay the debt contracted by generations past,

present, and to come, with the overruling power. They ought to feel that

every hour of their existence is only a mortgage upon this debt, and

that every man who, by a selfish life, rejects this obligation,

separates himself from the principle of life, and so forfeits life. Each

one should remember that in striving to save his own life, his personal

life, he loses the true life, as Jesus so many times said. The true life

is the life which adds something to the store of happiness accumulated

by past generations, which increases this heritage in the present, and

hands it down to the future. To take part in this true life, man should

renounce his personal will for the will of the Father, who gives this

life to man. In John viii. 35, we read:—

“And the servant abideth not in the house forever: but the son abideth

forever.”

That is, only the son who observes the will of the father shall have

eternal life. Now, the will of the Father of Life is not the personal,

selfish life, but the filial life of the son of man; and so a man saves

his life when he considers it as a pledge, as something confided to him

by the Father for the profit of all, as something with which to live the

life of the son of man.

A man, about to travel into a far country, called his servants together

and divided among them his goods. Although receiving no precise

instructions as to the manner in which they were to use these goods,

some of the servants understood that the goods still belonged to the

master, and that they ought to employ them for the master’s gain. And

the servants who had labored for the good of the master were rewarded,

while the others, who had not so labored, were despoiled even of what

they had received. (Matt. xxv. 14–46.)

The life of the son of man has been given to all men, and they know not

why. Some of them understand that life is not for their personal use,

but that they must use it for the good of the son of man; others,

feigning not to understand the true object of life, refuse to labor for

the son of man; and those that labor for the true life will be united

with the source of life; those that do not so labor, will lose the life

they already have. Jesus tells us in what the service of the son of man

consists and what will be the recompense of that service. The son of

man, endowed with kingly authority, will call upon the faithful to

inherit the true life; they have fed the hungry, given drink to the

thirsty, clothed and consoled the wretched, and in so doing they have

ministered to the son of man, who is the same in all men; they have not

lived the personal life, but the life of the son of man, and they are

given the life eternal.

According to all the Gospels, the object of Jesus’ teaching was the life

eternal. And, strange as it may seem, Jesus, who is supposed to have

been raised in person, and to have promised a general

resurrection,—Jesus not only said nothing in affirmation of individual

resurrection and individual immortality beyond the grave, but on the

contrary, every time that he met with this superstition (introduced at

this period into the Talmud, and of which there is not a trace in the

records of the Hebrew prophets), he did not fail to deny its truth. The

Pharisees and the Sadducees were constantly discussing the subject of

the resurrection of the dead. The Pharisees believed in the resurrection

of the dead, in angels, and in spirits (Acts xxiii. 8), but the

Sadducees did not believe in resurrection, or angel, or spirit. We do

not know the source of the difference in belief, but it is certain that

it was one of the polemical subjects among the secondary questions of

the Hebraic doctrine that were constantly under discussion in the

Synagogues. And Jesus not only did not recognize the resurrection, but

denied it every time he met with the idea. When the Sadducees demanded

of Jesus, supposing that he believed with the Pharisees in the

resurrection, to which of the seven brethren the woman should belong, he

refuted with clearness and precision the idea of individual

resurrection, saying that on this subject they erred, knowing neither

the Scriptures nor the power of God. Those who are worthy of

resurrection, he said, will remain like the angels of heaven (Mark xii.

21–24); and with regard to the dead:—

“Have ye not read in the book of Moses, how in the bush God spake unto

him, saying, I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God

of Jacob?[19] He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living:

ye, therefore, do greatly err.” (Mark xii. 26, 27.)

Jesus’ meaning was that the dead are living in God. God said to Moses,

“I am the God of Abraham, and of Isaac, and of Jacob.” To God, all those

who have lived the life of the son of man, are living. Jesus affirmed

only this, that whoever lives in God, will be united to God; and he

admitted no other idea of the resurrection. As to personal resurrection,

strange as it may appear to those who have never carefully studied the

Gospels for themselves, Jesus said nothing about it whatever.

If, as the theologians teach, the foundation of the Christian faith is

the resurrection of Jesus, is it not strange that Jesus, knowing of his

own resurrection, knowing that in this consisted the principal dogma of

faith in him—is it not strange that Jesus did not speak of the matter at

least once, in clear and precise terms? Now, according to the canonical

Gospels, he not only did not speak of it in clear and precise terms; he

did not speak of it at all, not once, not a single word.

The doctrine of Jesus consisted in the elevation of the son of man, that

is, in the recognition on the part of man, that he, man, was the son of

God. In his own individuality Jesus personified the man who has

recognized the filial relation with God. He asked his disciples whom men

said that he was—the son of man? His disciples replied that some took

him for John the Baptist, and some for Elijah. Then came the question,

“But whom say ye that I am?” And Peter answered, “Thou art the Messiah,

the son of the living God.” Jesus responded, “Flesh and blood hath not

revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven;” meaning that

Peter understood, not through faith in human explanations, but because,

feeling himself to be the son of God, he understood that Jesus was also

the son of God. And after having explained to Peter that the true faith

is founded upon the perception of the filial relation to God, Jesus

charged his other disciples that they should tell no man that he was the

Messiah. After this, Jesus told them that although he might suffer many

things and be put to death, he, that is his doctrine, would be

triumphantly re-established. And these words are interpreted as a

prophecy of the resurrection (Matt. xvi. 13–21).

Of the thirteen passages[20] which are interpreted as prophecies of

Jesus in regard to his own resurrection, two refer to Jonah in the

whale’s belly, another to the rebuilding of the temple. The others

affirm that the son of man shall not be destroyed; but there is not a

word about the resurrection of Jesus. In none of these passages is the

word “resurrection” found in the original text. Ask any one who is

ignorant of theological interpretations, but who knows Greek, to

translate them, and he will never agree with the received versions. In

the original we find two different words, ἀνίστημι and ἐγείρω, which are

rendered in the sense of resurrection; one of these words means to

“re-establish”; the other means “to awaken, to rise up, to arouse one’s

self.” But neither the one nor the other can ever, in any case, mean to

“resuscitate”—to raise from the dead. With regard to these Greek words

and the corresponding Hebrew word, qum, we have only to examine the

scriptural passages where these words are employed, as they are very

frequently, to see that in no case is the meaning “to resuscitate”

admissible. The word voskresnovit, auferstehn, resusciter—“to

resuscitate”—did not exist in the Greek or Hebrew tongues, for the

reason that the conception corresponding to this word did not exist. To

express the idea of resurrection in Greek or in Hebrew, it is necessary

to employ a periphrasis, meaning, “is arisen, has awakened among the

dead.” Thus, in the Gospel of Matthew (xiv. 2) where reference is made

to Herod’s belief that John the Baptist had been resuscitated, we read,

αὐτὸς ἠγέρθη ἀπὸ τῶν νεκρῶν, “has awakened among the dead.” In the same

manner, in Luke (xvi. 31), at the close of the parable of Lazarus, where

it said that if men believe not the prophets, they would not believe

even though one be resuscitated, we find the periphrasis, ἐάν τις ἐκ

νεκρῶν ἀναστῆ, “if one arose among the dead.” But, if in these passages

the words “among the dead” were not added to the words “arose or

awakened,” the last two could never signify resuscitation. When Jesus

spoke of himself, he did not once use the words “among the dead” in any

of the passages quoted in support of the affirmation that Jesus foretold

his own resurrection.

Our conception of the resurrection is so entirely foreign to any idea

that the Hebrews possessed with regard to life, that we cannot even

imagine how Jesus would have been able to talk to them of the

resurrection, and of an eternal, individual life, which should be the

lot of every man. The idea of a future eternal life comes neither from

Jewish doctrine nor from the doctrine of Jesus, but from an entirely

different source. We are obliged to believe that belief in a future life

is a primitive and crude conception based upon a confused idea of the

resemblance between death and sleep,—an idea common to all savage races.

The Hebraic doctrine (and much more the Christian doctrine) was far

above this conception. But we are so convinced of the elevated character

of this superstition, that we use it as a proof of the superiority of

our doctrine to that of the Chinese or the Hindus, who do not believe in

it at all. Not the theologians only, but the free-thinkers, the learned

historians of religions, such as Tiele, and Max Müller, make use of the

same argument. In their classification of religions, they give the first

place to those which recognize the superstition of the resurrection, and

declare them to be far superior to those not professing that belief.

Schopenhauer boldly denounced the Hebraic religion as the most

despicable of all religions because it contains not a trace of this

belief. Not only the idea itself, but all means of expressing it, were

wanting to the Hebraic religion. Eternal life is in Hebrew hayail eolam.

By olam is meant the infinite, that which is permanent in the limits of

time; olam also means “world” or “cosmos.” Universal life, and much more

hayai leolam, “eternal life,” is, according to the Jewish doctrine, the

attribute of God alone. God is the God of life, the living God. Man,

according to the Hebraic idea, is always mortal. God alone is always

living. In the Pentateuch, the expression “eternal life” is twice met

with; once in Deuteronomy and once in Genesis. God is represented as

saying:—

“See now that I, even I, am he,

And there is no god with me:

I kill, and I make alive;

I have wounded, and I heal:

And there is none that can deliver out of my hand.

For I lift up my hand to heaven,

And say, As I live forever.”

(Deut. xxxii. 39, 40.)

“And Jehovah said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good

and evil; and now, lest he put forth his hand, and take also the tree of

life, and live forever.” (Gen. iii. 22.)

These two sole instances of the use of the expression “eternal life” in

the Old Testament (with the exception of another instance in the

apocryphal book of Daniel) determine clearly the Hebraic conception of

the life of man and the life eternal. Life itself, according to the

Hebrews, is eternal, is in God; but man is always mortal: it is his

nature to be so. According to the Jewish doctrine, man as man, is

mortal. He has life only as it passes from one generation to another,

and is so perpetuated in a race. According to the Jewish doctrine, the

faculty of life exists in the people. When God said, “Ye may live, and

not die,” he addressed these words to the people. The life that God

breathed into man is mortal for each separate human being; this life is

perpetuated from generation to generation, if men fulfil the union with

God, that is, obey the conditions imposed by God. After having

propounded the Law, and having told them that this Law was to be found

not in heaven, but in their own hearts, Moses said to the people:—

“See, I have set before thee this day life and good, and death and evil;

in that I command thee this day to love the Eternal, to walk in his

ways, and to keep his commandments, that thou mayest live.... I call

heaven and earth to witness against you this day, that I have set before

thee life and death, the blessing and the curse: therefore choose life,

that thou mayest live, thou and thy seed: to love the Eternal, to obey

his voice, and to cleave unto him: for he is thy life, and the length of

thy days.” (Deut. xxx. 15–19.)

The principal difference between our conception of human life and that

possessed by the Jews is, that while we believe that our mortal life,

transmitted from generation to generation, is not the true life, but a

fallen life, a life temporarily depraved,—the Jews, on the contrary,

believed this life to be the true and supreme good, given to man on

condition that he obey the will of God. From our point of view, the

transmission of the fallen life from generation to generation is the

transmission of a curse; from the Jewish point of view, it is the

supreme good to which man can attain, on condition that he accomplish

the will of God. It is precisely upon the Hebraic conception of life

that Jesus founded his doctrine of the true or eternal life, which he

contrasted with the personal and mortal life. Jesus said to the Jews:—

“Search the Scriptures; for in them ye think ye have eternal life: and

they are they which testify of me.” (John v. 39.)

To the young man who asked what he must do to have eternal life, Jesus

said in reply, “If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments.” He

did not say “the eternal life,” but simply “the life” (Matt. xix. 17).

To the same question propounded by the scribe, the answer was, “This do,

and thou shalt live” (Luke x. 28), once more promising life, but saying

nothing of eternal life. From these two instances, we know what Jesus

meant by eternal life; whenever he made use of the phrase in speaking to

the Jews, he employed it in exactly the same sense in which it was

expressed in their own law,—the accomplishment of the will of God. In

contrast with the life that is temporary, isolated, and personal, Jesus

taught of the eternal life promised by God to Israel—with this

difference, that while the Jews believed the eternal life was to be

perpetuated solely by their chosen people, and that whoever wished to

possess this life must follow the exceptional laws given by God to

Israel,—the doctrine of Jesus holds that the eternal life is perpetuated

in the son of man, and that to obtain it we must practise the

commandments of Jesus, who summed up the will of God for all humanity.

As opposed to the personal life, Jesus taught us, not of a life beyond

the grave, but of that universal life which comprises within itself the

life of humanity, past, present, and to come. According to the Jewish

doctrine, the personal life could be saved from death only by

accomplishing the will of God as propounded in the Mosaic law. On this

condition only the life of the Jewish race would not perish, but would

pass from generation to generation of the chosen people of God.

According to the doctrine of Jesus, the personal life is saved from

death by the accomplishment of the will of God as propounded in the

commandments of Jesus. On this condition alone the personal life does

not perish, but becomes eternal and immutable, in union with the son of

man. The difference is, that while the religion given by Moses was that

of a people for a national God, the religion of Jesus is the expression

of the aspirations of all humanity. The perpetuity of life in the

posterity of a people is doubtful, because the people itself may

disappear, and perpetuity depends upon a posterity in the flesh.

Perpetuity of life, according to the doctrine of Jesus, is indubitable,

because life, according to his doctrine, is an attribute of all humanity

in the son of man who lives in harmony with the will of God.

If we believe that Jesus’ words concerning the last judgment and the

consummation of the age, and other words reported in the Gospel of John,

are a promise of a life beyond the grave for the souls of men,—if we

believe this, it is none the less true that his teachings in regard to

the light of life and the kingdom of God have the same meaning for us

that they had for his hearers eighteen centuries ago; that is, that the

only real life is the life of the son of man conformable to the will of

the Giver of Life. It is easier to admit this than to admit that the

doctrine of the true life, conformable to the will of the Giver of Life,

contains the promise of the immortality of life beyond the grave.

Perhaps it is right to think that man, after this terrestrial life

passed in the satisfaction of personal desires, will enter upon the

possession of an eternal personal life in paradise, there to taste all

imaginable enjoyments; but to believe that this is so, to endeavor to

persuade ourselves that for our good actions we shall be recompensed

with eternal felicity, and for our bad actions punished with eternal

torments,—to believe this, does not aid us in understanding the doctrine

of Jesus, but, on the contrary, takes away the principal foundation of

that doctrine. The entire doctrine of Jesus inculcates renunciation of

the personal, imaginary life, and a merging of this personal life in the

universal life of humanity, in the life of the son of man. Now the

doctrine of the individual immortality of the soul does not impel us to

renounce the personal life; on the contrary, it affirms the continuance

of individuality forever.

The Jews, the Chinese, the Hindus, all men who do not believe in the

dogma of the fall and the redemption, conceive of life as it is. A man

lives, is united with a woman, engenders children, cares for them, grows

old, and dies. His life continues in his children, and so passes on from

one generation to another, like everything else in the world,—stones,

metals, earth, plants, animals, stars. Life is life, and we must make

the best of it.

To live for self alone, for the animal life, is not reasonable. And so

men, from their earliest existence, have sought for some reason for

living aside from the gratification of their own desires; they live for

their children, for their families, for their nation, for humanity, for

all that does not die with the personal life.

But according to the doctrine of the Church, human life, the supreme

good that we possess, is but a very small portion of another life of

which we are deprived for a season. Our life is not the life that God

intended to give us or such as is our due. Our life is degenerate and

fallen, a mere fragment, a mockery, compared with the real life to which

we think ourselves entitled. The principal object of life is not to try

to live this mortal life conformably to the will of the Giver of Life;

or to render it eternal in the generations, as the Hebrews believed; or

to identify ourselves with the will of God, as Jesus taught; no, it is

to believe that after this unreal life the true life will begin.

Jesus did not speak of the imaginary life that we believe to be our due,

and that God did not give to us for some unexplained reason. The theory

of the fall of Adam, of eternal life in paradise, of an immortal soul

breathed by God into Adam, was unknown to Jesus; he never spoke of it,

never made the slightest allusion to its existence. Jesus spoke of life

as it is, as it must be for all men; we speak of an imaginary life that

has never existed. How, then, can we understand the doctrine of Jesus?

Jesus did not anticipate such a singular change of view in his

disciples. He supposed that all men understood that the destruction of

the personal life is inevitable, and he revealed to them an imperishable

life. He offers true peace to them that suffer; but to those who believe

that they are certain to possess more than Jesus gives, his doctrine can

be of no value. How shall I persuade a man to toil in return for food

and clothing if this man is persuaded that he already possesses great

riches? Evidently he will pay no attention to my exhortations. So it is

with regard to the doctrine of Jesus. Why should I toil for bread when I

can be rich without labor? Why should I trouble myself to live this life

according to the will of God when I am sure of a personal life for all

eternity?

That Jesus Christ, as the second person of the Trinity, as God made

manifest in the flesh, was the salvation of men; that he took upon

himself the penalty for the sin of Adam and the sins of all men; that he

atoned to the first person of the Trinity for the sins of humanity; that

he instituted the Church and the sacraments for our salvation—believing

this, we are saved, and shall enter into the possession of personal,

eternal life beyond the grave. But meanwhile we cannot deny that he has

saved and still saves men by revealing to them their inevitable loss,

showing them that he is the way, the truth, and the life, the true way

to life instead of the false way to the personal life that men had

heretofore followed.

If there are any who doubt the life beyond the grave and salvation based

upon redemption, no one can doubt the salvation of all men, and of each

individual man, if they will accept the evidence of the destruction of

the personal life, and follow the true way to safety by bringing their

personal wills into harmony with the will of God. Let each man endowed

with reason ask himself, What is life? and What is death? and let him

try to give to life and death any other meaning than that revealed by

Jesus, and he will find that any attempt to find in life a meaning not

based upon the renunciation of self, the service of humanity, of the son

of man, is utterly futile. It cannot be doubted that the personal life

is condemned to destruction, and that a life conformable to the will of

God alone gives the possibility of salvation. It is not much in

comparison with the sublime belief in the future life! It is not much,

but it is sure.

I am lost with my companions in a snow-storm. One of them assures me

with the utmost sincerity that he sees a light in the distance, but it

is only a mirage which deceives us both; we strive to reach this light,

but we never can find it. Another resolutely brushes away the snow; he

seeks and finds the road, and he cries to us, “Go not that way, the

light you see is false, you will wander to destruction; here is the

road, I feel it beneath my feet; we are saved.” It is very little, we

say. We had faith in that light that gleamed in our deluded eyes, that

told us of a refuge, a warm shelter, rest, deliverance,—and now in

exchange for it we have nothing but the road. Ah, but if we continue to

travel toward the imaginary light, we shall perish; if we follow the

road, we shall surely arrive at a haven of safety.

What, then, must I do if I alone understand the doctrine of Jesus, and I

alone have trust in it among a people who neither understand it nor obey

it? What ought I to do, to live like the rest of the world, or to live

according to the doctrine of Jesus? I understood the doctrine of Jesus

as expressed in his commandments, and I believed that the practice of

these commandments would bring happiness to me and to all men. I

understood that the fulfilment of these commandments is the will of God,

the source of life. More than this, I saw that I should die like a brute

after a farcical existence if I did not fulfil the will of God, and that

the only chance of salvation lay in the fulfilment of His will. In

following the example of the world about me, I should unquestionably act

contrary to the welfare of all men, and, above all, contrary to the will

of the Giver of Life; I should surely forfeit the sole possibility of

bettering my desperate condition. In following the doctrine of Jesus, I

should continue the work common to all men who had lived before me; I

should contribute to the welfare of my fellows, and of those who were to

live after me; I should obey the command of the Giver of Life; I should

seize upon the only hope of salvation.

The circus at Berditchef[21] is in flames. A crowd of people are

struggling before the only place of exit,—a door that opens inward.

Suddenly, in the midst of the crowd, a voice rings out: “Back, stand

back from the door; the closer you press against it, the less the chance

of escape; stand back; that is your only chance of safety!” Whether I am

alone in understanding this command, or whether others with me also hear

and understand, I have but one duty, and that is, from the moment I have

heard and understood, to fall back from the door and to call upon every

one to obey the voice of the saviour. I may be suffocated, I may be

crushed beneath the feet of the multitude, I may perish; my sole chance

of safety is to do the one thing necessary to gain an exit. And I can do

nothing else. A saviour should be a saviour, that is, one who saves. And

the salvation of Jesus is the true salvation. He came, he preached his

doctrine, and humanity is saved.

The circus may burn in an hour, and those penned up in it may have no

time to escape. But the world has been burning for eighteen hundred

years; it has burned ever since Jesus said, “I am come to send fire on

the earth;” and I suffer as it burns, and it will continue to burn until

humanity is saved. Was not this fire kindled that men might have the

felicity of salvation? Understanding this, I understood and believed

that Jesus is not only the Messiah, that is, the Anointed One, the

Christ, but that he is in truth the Saviour of the world. I know that he

is the only way, that there is no other way for me or for those who are

tormented with me in this life. I know, that for me as for all, there is

no other safety than the fulfilment of the commandments of Jesus, who

gave to all humanity the greatest conceivable sum of benefits.

Would there be great trials to endure? Should I die in following the

doctrine of Jesus? This question did not alarm me. It might seem

frightful to any one who does not realize the nothingness and absurdity

of an isolated personal life, and who believes that he will never die.

But I know that my life, considered in relation to my individual

happiness, is, taken by itself, a stupendous farce, and that this

meaningless existence will end in a stupid death. Knowing this, I have

nothing to fear. I shall die as others die who do not observe the

doctrine of Jesus; but my life and my death will have a meaning for

myself and for others. My life and my death will have added something to

the life and salvation of others, and this will be in accordance with

the doctrine of Jesus.

CHAPTER IX.

Let all the world practise the doctrine of Jesus, and the reign of God

will come upon earth; if I alone practise it, I shall do what I can to

better my own condition and the condition of those about me. There is no

salvation aside from the fulfilment of the doctrine of Jesus. But who

will give me the strength to practise it, to follow it without ceasing,

and never to fail? “Lord, I believe; help thou mine unbelief.” The

disciples called upon Jesus to strengthen their faith. “When I would do

good,” says the apostle Paul, “evil is present with me.” It is hard to

work out one’s salvation.

A drowning man calls for aid. A rope is thrown to him, and he says:

“Strengthen my belief that this rope will save me. I believe that the

rope will save me; but help my unbelief.” What is the meaning of this?

If a man will not seize upon his only means of safety, it is plain that

he does not understand his condition.

How can a Christian who professes to believe in the divinity of Jesus

and of his doctrine, whatever may be the meaning that he attaches

thereto, say that he wishes to believe, and that he cannot believe? God

comes upon earth, and says, “Fire, torments, eternal darkness await you;

and here is your salvation—fulfil my doctrine.” It is not possible that

a believing Christian should not believe and profit by the salvation

thus offered to him; it is not possible that he should say, “Help my

unbelief.” If a man says this, he not only does not believe in his

perdition, but he must be certain that he shall not perish.

A number of children have fallen from a boat into the water. For an

instant their clothes and their feeble struggles keep them on the

surface of the stream, and they do not realize their danger. Those in

the boat throw out a rope. They warn the children against their peril,

and urge them to grasp the rope (the parables of the woman and the piece

of silver, the shepherd and the lost sheep, the marriage feast, the

prodigal son, all have this meaning), but the children do not believe;

they refuse to believe, not in the rope, but that they are in danger of

drowning. Children as frivolous as themselves have assured them that

they can continue to float gaily along even when the boat is far away.

The children do not believe; but when their clothes are saturated, the

strength of their little arms exhausted, they will sink and perish. This

they do not believe, and so they do not believe in the rope of safety.

Just as the children in the water will not grasp the rope that is thrown

to them, persuaded that they will not perish, so men who believe in the

resurrection of the soul, convinced that there is no danger, do not

practise the commandments of Jesus. They do not believe in what is

certain, simply because they do believe in what is uncertain. It is for

this cause they cry, “Lord, strengthen our faith, lest we perish.” But

this is impossible. To have the faith that will save them from

perishing, they must cease to do what will lead them to perdition, and

they must begin to do something for their own safety; they must grasp

the rope of safety. Now this is exactly what they do not wish to do;

they wish to persuade themselves that they will not perish, although

they see their comrades perishing one after another before their very

eyes. They wish to persuade themselves of the truth of what does not

exist, and so they ask to be strengthened in faith. It is plain that

they have not enough faith, and they wish for more.

When I understood the doctrine of Jesus, I saw that what these men call

faith is the faith denounced by the apostle James:[22]—

“What doth it profit, my brethren, if a man believe he hath faith, but

hath not works? can that faith save him? If a brother or sister be naked

and in lack of daily food, and one of you say unto them, Go in peace, be

ye warmed and filled; and yet ye give them not the things needful to the

body; what doth it profit? Even so faith, if it have not works, is dead

in itself. But some one will say, Thou hast faith, and I have works:

Shew me thy faith which is without works, and I, by my works, will show

thee my faith. Thou believest there is one God; thou doest well: the

demons also believe, and tremble. But wilt thou know, O vain man, that

faith without works is dead? Was not Abraham our father justified by

works when he offered up Isaac his son upon the altar? Thou seest that

faith wrought with his works, and by works was faith made perfect.... Ye

see that by works a man is justified, and not only by faith.... For as

the body without the spirit is dead, so faith is dead without works.”

(James ii. 14–26.)

James says that the indication of faith is the acts that it inspires,

and consequently that a faith which does not result in acts is of words

merely, with which one cannot feed the hungry, or justify belief, or

obtain salvation. A faith without acts is not faith. It is only a

disposition to believe in something, a vain affirmation of belief in

something in which one does not really believe. Faith, as the apostle

James defines it, is the motive power of actions, and actions are a

manifestation of faith.

The Jews said to Jesus: “What signs shewest thou then, that we may see,

and believe thee? what dost thou work?” (John vi. 30. See also Mark xv.

32; Matt. xxvii. 42). Jesus told them that their desire was vain, and

that they could not be made to believe what they did not believe. “If I

tell you,” he said, “ye will not believe” (Luke xxii. 67); “I told you,

and ye believed not.... But ye believe not because ye are not of my

sheep” (John x. 25, 26).

The Jews asked exactly what is asked by Christians brought up in the

Church; they asked for some outward sign which should make them believe

in the doctrine of Jesus. Jesus explained that this was impossible, and

he told them why it was impossible. He told them that they could not

believe because they were not of his sheep; that is, they did not follow

the road he had pointed out. He explained why some believed, and why

others did not believe, and he told them what faith really was. He said:

“How can ye believe which receive your doctrine (δόξα[23]) one of

another, and seek not the doctrine that cometh only from God?” (John v.

44).

To believe, Jesus says, we must seek for the doctrine that comes from

God alone.

“He that speaketh of himself seeketh (to extend) his own doctrine, δόξαν

τὴν ἴδιαν, but he that seeketh (to extend) the doctrine of him that sent

him, the same is true, and no untruth is in him.” (John vii. 18.)

The doctrine of life, δόξα, is the foundation of faith, and actions

result spontaneously from faith. But there are two doctrines of life:

Jesus denies the one and affirms the other. One of these doctrines, a

source of all error, consists of the idea that the personal life is one

of the essential and real attributes of man. This doctrine has been

followed, and is still followed, by the majority of men; it is the

source of divergent beliefs and acts. The other doctrine, taught by

Jesus and by all the prophets, affirms that our personal life has no

meaning save through fulfilment of the will of God. If a man confess a

doctrine that emphasizes his own personal life, he will consider that

his personal welfare is the most important thing in the world, and he

will consider riches, honors, glory, pleasure, as true sources of

happiness; he will have a faith in accordance with his inclination, and

his acts will always be in harmony with his faith. If a man confess a

different doctrine, if he find the essence of life in fulfilment of the

will of God in accordance with the example of Abraham and the teaching

and example of Jesus, his faith will accord with his principles, and his

acts will be conformable to his faith. And so those who believe that

true happiness is to be found in the personal life can never have faith

in the doctrine of Jesus. All their efforts to fix their faith upon it

will be always vain. To believe in the doctrine of Jesus, they must look

at life in an entirely different way. Their actions will coincide always

with their faith and not with their intentions and their words.

In men who demand of Jesus that he shall work miracles we may recognize

a desire to believe in his doctrine; but this desire never can be

realized in life, however arduous the efforts to obtain it. In vain they

pray, and observe the sacraments, and give in charity, and build

churches, and convert others; they cannot follow the example of Jesus

because their acts are inspired by a faith based upon an entirely

different doctrine from that which they confess. They could not

sacrifice an only son as Abraham was ready to do, although Abraham had

no hesitation whatever as to what he should do, just as Jesus and his

disciples were moved to give their lives for others, because such action

alone constituted for them the true meaning of life. This incapacity to

understand the substance of faith explains the strange moral state of

men, who, acknowledging that they ought to live in accordance with the

doctrine of Jesus, endeavor to live in opposition to this doctrine,

conformably to their belief that the personal life is a sovereign good.

The basis of faith is the meaning that we derive from life, the meaning

that determines whether we look upon life as important and good, or

trivial and corrupt. Faith is the appreciation of good and of evil. Men

with a faith based upon their own doctrines do not succeed at all in

harmonizing this faith with the faith inspired by the doctrine of Jesus;

and so it was with the early disciples. This misapprehension is

frequently referred to in the Gospels in clear and decisive terms.

Several times the disciples asked Jesus to strengthen their faith in his

words (Matt. xx. 20–28; Mark x. 35–48). After the message, so terrible

to every man who believes in the personal life and who seeks his

happiness in the riches of this world, after the words, “How hardly

shall they that have riches enter into the kingdom of God,” and after

words still more terrible for men who believe only in the personal life,

“Sell whatsoever thou hast and give to the poor;” after these warning

words Peter asked, “Behold, we have forsaken all and followed thee; what

shall we have therefore?” Then James and John and, according to the

Gospel of Matthew, their mother, asked him that they might be allowed to

sit with him in glory. They asked Jesus to strengthen their faith with a

promise of future recompense. To Peter’s question Jesus replied with a

parable (Matt. xx. 1–16); to James he replied that they did not know

what they asked; that they asked what was impossible; that they did not

understand the doctrine, which meant a renunciation of the personal

life, while they demanded personal glory, a personal recompense; that

they should drink the cup he drank of (that is, live as he lived), but

to sit upon his right hand and upon his left was not his to give. And

Jesus added that the great of this world had their profit and enjoyment

of glory and personal power only in the worldly life; but that his

disciples ought to know that the true meaning of human life is not in

personal happiness, but in ministering to others; “the son of man came

not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a

ransom for many.” In reply to the unreasonable demands which revealed

their slowness to understand his doctrine, Jesus did not command his

disciples to have faith in his doctrine, that is, to modify the ideas

inspired by their own doctrine (he knew that to be impossible), but he

explained to them the meaning of that life which is the basis of true

faith, that is, taught them how to discern good from evil, the important

from the secondary.

To Peter’s question, “What shall we receive?” Jesus replies with the

parable of the laborers in the vineyard (Matt. xx. 1–16), beginning with

the words “For the kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that is a

householder,” and by this means Jesus explains to Peter that failure to

understand the doctrine is the cause of lack of faith; and that

remuneration in proportion to the amount of work done is important only

from the point of view of the personal life.

This faith is based upon the presumption of certain imaginary rights;

but a man has a right to nothing; he is under obligations for the good

he has received, and so he can exact nothing. Even if he were to give up

his whole life to the service of others, he could not pay the debt he

has incurred, and so he cannot complain of injustice. If a man sets a

value upon his rights to life, if he keeps a reckoning with the

Overruling Power from whom he has received life, he proves simply that

he does not understand the meaning of life. Men who have received a

benefit act far otherwise. The laborers employed in the vineyard were

found by the householder idle and unhappy; they did not possess life in

the proper meaning of the term. And then the householder gave them the

supreme welfare of life,—work. They accepted the benefits offered, and

were discontented because their remuneration was not graduated according

to their imaginary deserts. They did the work, believing in their false

doctrine of life and work as a right, and consequently with an idea of

the remuneration to which they were entitled. They did not understand

that work is the supreme good, and that they should be thankful for the

opportunity to work, instead of exacting payment. And so all men who

look upon life as these laborers looked upon it, never can possess true

faith. This parable of the laborers, related by Jesus in response to the

request by his disciples that he strengthen their faith, shows more

clearly than ever the basis of the faith that Jesus taught.

When Jesus told his disciples that they must forgive a brother who

trespassed against them not only once, but seventy times seven times,

the disciples were overwhelmed at the difficulty of observing this

injunction, and said, “Increase our faith,” just as a little while

before they had asked, “What shall we receive?” Now they uttered the

language of would-be Christians: “We wish to believe, but cannot;

strengthen our faith that we may be saved; make us believe” (as the Jews

said to Jesus when they demanded miracles); “either by miracles or

promises of recompense, make us to have faith in our salvation.”

The disciples said what we all say: “How pleasant it would be if we

could live our selfish life, and at the same time believe that it is far

better to practise the doctrine of God by living for others.” This

disposition of mind is common to us all; it is contrary to the meaning

of the doctrine of Jesus, and yet we are astonished at our lack of

faith. Jesus disposed of this misapprehension by means of a parable

illustrating true faith. Faith cannot come of confidence in his words;

faith can come only of a consciousness of our condition; faith is based

only upon the dictates of reason as to what is best to do in a given

situation. He showed that this faith cannot be awakened in others by

promises of recompense or threats of punishment, which can only arouse a

feeble confidence that will fail at the first trial; but that the faith

which removes mountains, the faith that nothing can shatter, is inspired

by the consciousness of our inevitable loss if we do not profit by the

salvation that is offered.

To have faith, we must not count on any promise of recompense; we must

understand that the only way of escape from a ruined life is a life

conformable to the will of the Master. He who understands this will not

ask to be strengthened in his faith, but will work out his salvation

without the need of any exhortation. The householder, when he comes from

the fields with his workman, does not ask the latter to sit down at once

to dinner, but directs him to attend first to other duties and to wait

upon him, the master, and then to take his place at the table and dine.

This the workman does without any sense of being wronged; he does not

boast of his labor nor does he demand recognition or recompense, for he

knows that labor is the inevitable condition of his existence and the

true welfare of his life. So Jesus says that when we have done all that

we are commanded to do, we have only fulfilled our duty. He who

understands his relations to his master will understand that he has life

only as he obeys the master’s will; he will know in what his welfare

consists, and he will have a faith that does not demand the impossible.

This is the faith taught by Jesus, which has for its foundation a

thorough perception of the true meaning of life. The source of faith is

light:—

“That was the true light which lighteth every man that cometh into the

world. He was in the world, and the world was made by him, and the world

knew him not. He came unto his own, and his own received him not. But as

many as received him, to them gave he the right to become the children

of God, even to them that believe on his name.” (John i. 9–12.)

“And this is the condemnation, that light is come into the world, and

men loved darkness rather than light, because their deeds were evil. For

every one that doeth ill hateth the light, and cometh not to the light,

lest his works should be reproved. But he that doeth the truth cometh to

the light, that his works may be made manifest, because they have been

wrought in God.” (John iii. 19–21.)

He who understands the doctrine of Jesus will not ask to be strengthened

in his faith. The doctrine of Jesus teaches that faith is inspired by

the light of truth. Jesus never asked men to have faith in his person;

he called upon them to have faith in truth. To the Jews he said:—

“Ye seek to kill me, a man that hath told you the truth which I have

heard of God.” (John viii. 40.)

“Which of you convicteth me of sin? If I say truth, why do ye not

believe me?” (John viii. 46.)

“To this end have I been born, and to this end am I come into the world,

that I should bear witness unto the truth. Every one that is of the

truth heareth my voice.” (John xviii. 37.)

To his disciples he said:—

“I am the way, and the truth, and the life.” (John xiv. 6.)

“The Father ... shall give you another Comforter, that he may be with

you forever, even the Spirit of truth: whom the world cannot receive;

for it beholdeth him not, neither knoweth him: ye know him; for he

abideth with you, and shall be in you.” (John xiv. 16, 17.)

Jesus’ doctrine, then, is truth, and he himself is truth. The doctrine

of Jesus is the doctrine of truth. Faith in Jesus is not belief in a

system based upon his personality, but a consciousness of truth. No one

can be persuaded to believe in the doctrine of Jesus, nor can any one be

stimulated by any promised reward to practise it. He who understands the

doctrine of Jesus will have faith in him, because this doctrine is true.

He who knows the truth indispensable to his happiness must believe in

it, just as a man who knows that he is drowning grasps the rope of

safety. Thus, the question, What must I do to believe? is an indication

that he who asks it does not understand the doctrine of Jesus.

CHAPTER X.

We say, It is difficult to live according to the doctrine of Jesus! And

why should it not be difficult, when by our organization of life we

carefully hide from ourselves our true situation; when we endeavor to

persuade ourselves that our situation is not at all what it is, but that

it is something else? We call this faith, and regarding it as sacred, we

endeavor by all possible means, by threats, by flattery, by falsehood,

by stimulating the emotions, to attract men to its support. In this mad

determination to believe what is contrary to sense and reason, we reach

such a degree of aberration that we are ready to take as an indication

of truth the very absurdity of the object in whose behalf we solicit the

confidence of men. Are there not Christians who are ready to declare

with enthusiasm “Credo quia absurdum,” supposing that the absurd is the

best medium for teaching men the truth? Not long ago a man of

intelligence and great learning said to me that the Christian doctrine

had no importance as a moral rule of life. Morality, he said, must be

sought in the teachings of the Stoics and the Brahmins, and in the

Talmud. The essence of the Christian doctrine is not in morality, he

said, but in the theosophical doctrine propounded in its dogmas.

According to this I ought to prize in the Christian doctrine not what it

contains of eternal good to humanity, not its teachings indispensable to

a reasonable life; I ought to regard as the most important element of

Christianity that portion of it which it is impossible to understand,

and therefore useless,—and this in the name of thousands of men who have

perished for their faith.

We have a false conception of life, a conception based upon wrong doing

and inspired by selfish passions, and we consider our faith in this

false conception (which we have in some way attached to the doctrine of

Jesus), as the most important and necessary thing with which we are

concerned. If men had not for centuries maintained faith in what is

untrue, this false conception of life, as well as the truth of the

doctrine of Jesus, would long ago have been revealed.

It is a terrible thing to say, but it seems to me that if the doctrine

of Jesus, and that of the Church which has been foisted upon it, had

never existed, those who to-day call themselves Christians would be much

nearer than they are to the truth of the doctrine of Jesus; that is, to

the reasonable doctrine which teaches the true meaning of life. The

moral doctrines of all the prophets of the world would not then be

closed to them. They would have their little ideas of truth, and would

regard them with confidence. Now, all truth is revealed, and this truth

has so horrified those whose manner of life it condemned, that they have

disguised it in falsehood, and men have lost confidence in the truth.

In our European society, the words of Jesus, “To this end I am come into

the world, that I shall bear witness unto the truth. Every one that is

of the truth heareth my voice,”—have been for a long time supplanted by

Pilate’s question, “What is truth?” This question, quoted as a bitter

and profound irony against a Roman, we have taken as of serious purport,

and have made of it an article of faith.

With us, all men live not only without truth, not only without the least

desire to know truth, but with the firm conviction that, among all

useless occupations, the most useless is the endeavor to find the truth

that governs human life. The rule of life, the doctrine that all

peoples, excepting our European societies, have always considered as the

most important thing, the rule of which Jesus spoke as the one thing

needful, is an object of universal disdain. An institution called the

Church, in which no one, not even if he belong to it, really believes,

has for a long time usurped the place of this rule.

The only source of light for those who think and suffer is hidden. For a

solution of the questions, What am I? what ought I to do? I am not

allowed to depend upon the doctrine of him who came to save; I am told

to obey the authorities, and believe in the Church. But why is life so

full of evil? Why so much wrong-doing? May I not abstain from taking

part therein? Is it impossible to lighten this heavy load that weighs me

down? The reply is that this is impossible, that the desire to live well

and to help others to live well is only a temptation of pride; that one

thing is possible,—to save one’s soul for the future life. He who is not

willing to take part in this miserable life may keep aloof from it; this

way is open to all; but, says the doctrine of the Church, he who chooses

this way can take no part in the life of the world; he ceases to live.

Our masters tell us that there are only two ways,—to believe in and obey

the powers that be, to participate in the organized evil about us, or to

forsake the world and take refuge in convent or monastery; to take part

in the offices of the Church, doing nothing for men, and declaring the

doctrine of Jesus impossible to practise, accepting the iniquity of life

sanctioned by the Church, or to renounce life for what is equivalent to

slow suicide.

However surprising the belief that the doctrine of Jesus is excellent,

but impossible of practice, there is a still more surprising tradition

that he who wishes to practise this doctrine, not in word, but in deed,

must retire from the world. This erroneous belief that it is better for

a man to retire from the world than to expose himself to temptations,

existed amongst the Hebrews of old, but is entirely foreign, not only to

the spirit of Christianity, but to that of the Jewish religion. The

charming and significant story of the prophet Jonah, which Jesus so

loved to quote, was written in regard to this very error. The prophet

Jonah, wishing to remain upright and virtuous, retires from the perverse

companionship of men. But God shows him that as a prophet he ought to

communicate to misguided men a knowledge of the truth, and so ought not

to fly from men, but ought rather to live in communion with them. Jonah,

disgusted with the depravity of the inhabitants of Nineveh, flies from

the city; but he cannot escape his vocation. He is brought back, and the

will of God is accomplished; the Ninevites receive the words of Jonah

and are saved. Instead of rejoicing that he has been made the instrument

of God’s will, Jonah is angry, and condemns God for the mercy shown the

Ninevites, arrogating to himself alone the exercise of reason and

goodness. He goes out into the desert and makes him a shelter, whence he

addresses his reproaches to God. Then a gourd comes up over Jonah and

protects him from the sun, but the next day it withers. Jonah, smitten

by the heat, reproaches God anew for allowing the gourd to wither. Then

God says to him:—

“Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for the which thou hast not labored,

neither madest it grow; which came up in a night, and perished in a

night: and should I not have pity on Nineveh, that great city; wherein

are more than six score thousand persons that cannot discern between

their right hand and their left hand?”

Jesus knew this story, and often referred to it. In the Gospels we find

it related how Jesus, after the interview with John, who had retired

into the desert, was himself subjected to the same temptation before

beginning his mission. He was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, and

there tempted by the Devil (error), over which he triumphed and returned

to Galilee. Thereafter he mingled with the most depraved men, and passed

his life among publicans, Pharisees, and fishermen, teaching them the

truth.[24]

Even according to the doctrine of the Church, Jesus, as God in man, has

given us the example of his life. All of his life that is known to us

was passed in the company of publicans, of the downfallen, and of

Pharisees. The principal commandments of Jesus are that his followers

shall love others and spread his doctrine. Both exact constant communion

with the world. And yet the deduction is made that the doctrine of Jesus

permits retirement from the world. That is, to imitate Jesus we may do

exactly contrary to what he taught and did himself.

As the Church explains it, the doctrine of Jesus offers itself to men of

the world and to dwellers in monasteries, not as a rule of life for

bettering one’s own condition and the condition of others, but as a

doctrine which teaches the man of the world how to live an evil life and

at the same time gain for himself another life, and the monk how to

render existence still more difficult than it naturally is. But Jesus

did not teach this. Jesus taught the truth, and if metaphysical truth is

the truth, it will remain such in practice. If life in God is the only

true life, and is in itself profitable, then it is so here in this world

in spite of all that may happen. If in this world a life in accordance

with the doctrine of Jesus is not profitable, his doctrine cannot be

true.

Jesus did not ask us to pass from better to worse, but, on the contrary,

from worse to better. He had pity upon men, who to him were like sheep

without a shepherd. He said that his disciples would be persecuted for

his doctrine, and that they must bear the persecutions of the world with

resolution. But he did not say that those who followed his doctrine

would suffer more than those who followed the world’s doctrine; on the

contrary, he said that those who followed the world’s doctrine would be

wretched, and that those who followed his doctrine would have joy and

peace. Jesus did not teach salvation by faith in asceticism or voluntary

torture, but he taught us a way of life which, while saving us from the

emptiness of the personal life, would give us less of suffering and more

of joy. Jesus told men that in practising his doctrine among unbelievers

they would be, not more unhappy, but, on the contrary, much more happy,

than those who did not practise it. There was, he said, one infallible

rule, and that was to have no care about the worldly life. When Peter

said to Jesus, “We have forsaken all, and followed thee; what then shall

we have?” Jesus replied:—

“There is no man that hath left house, or brethren, or sisters, or

mother, or father, or children, or lands, for my sake, and for the

gospel’s sake, but he shall receive a hundred fold more in this time,

houses, and brethren, and sisters, and mothers, and children, and lands,

with persecutions; and in the age to come eternal life.” (Mark x.

28–30.)

Jesus declared, it is true, that those who follow his doctrine must

expect to be persecuted by those who do not follow it, but he did not

say that his disciples will be the worse off for that reason; on the

contrary, he said that his disciples would have, here, in this world,

more benefits than those who did not follow him. That Jesus said and

thought this is beyond a doubt, as the clearness of his words on this

subject, the meaning of his entire doctrine, his life and the life of

his disciples, plainly show. But was his teaching in this respect true?

When we examine the question as to which of the two conditions would be

the better, that of the disciples of Jesus or that of the disciples of

the world, we are obliged to conclude that the condition of the

disciples of Jesus ought to be the most desirable, since the disciples

of Jesus, in doing good to every one, would not arouse the hatred of

men. The disciples of Jesus, doing evil to no one, would be persecuted

only by the wicked. The disciples of the world, on the contrary, are

likely to be persecuted by every one, since the law of the disciples of

the world is the law of each for himself, the law of struggle; that is,

of mutual persecution. Moreover, the disciples of Jesus would be

prepared for suffering, while the disciples of the world use all

possible means to avoid suffering; the disciples of Jesus would feel

that their sufferings were useful to the world; but the disciples of the

world do not know why they suffer. On abstract grounds, then, the

condition of the disciples of Jesus would be more advantageous than that

of the disciples of the world. But is it so in reality? To answer this,

let each one call to mind all the painful moments of his life, all the

physical and moral sufferings that he has endured, and let him ask

himself if he has suffered these calamities in behalf of the doctrine of

the world or in behalf of the doctrine of Jesus. Every sincere man will

find in recalling his past life that he has never once suffered for

practising the doctrine of Jesus. He will find that the greater part of

the misfortunes of his life have resulted from following the doctrines

of the world. In my own life (an exceptionally happy one from a worldly

point of view) I can reckon up as much suffering caused by following the

doctrine of the world as many a martyr has endured for the doctrine of

Jesus. All the most painful moments of my life,—the orgies and duels in

which I took part as a student, the wars in which I have participated,

the diseases that I have endured, and the abnormal and insupportable

conditions under which I now live,—all these are only so much martyrdom

exacted by fidelity to the doctrine of the world. But I speak of a life

exceptionally happy from a worldly point of view. How many martyrs have

suffered for the doctrine of the world torments that I should find

difficulty in enumerating!

We do not realize the difficulties and dangers entailed by the practice

of the doctrine of the world, simply because we are persuaded that we

could not do otherwise than follow that doctrine. We are persuaded that

all the calamities that we inflict upon ourselves are the result of the

inevitable conditions of life, and we cannot understand that the

doctrine of Jesus teaches us how we may rid ourselves of these

calamities and render our lives happy. To be able to reply to the

question, Which of these two conditions is the happier? we must, at

least for the time being, put aside our prejudices and take a careful

survey of our surroundings.

Go through our great cities and observe the emaciated, sickly, and

distorted specimens of humanity to be found therein; recall your own

existence and that of all the people with whose lives you are familiar;

recall the instances of violent deaths and suicides of which you have

heard,—and then ask yourself for what cause all this suffering and

death, this despair that leads to suicide, has been endured. You will

find, perhaps to your surprise, that nine-tenths of all human suffering

endured by men is useless, and ought not to exist, that, in fact, the

majority of men are martyrs to the doctrine of the world.

One rainy autumn day I rode on the tramway by the Sukhareff Tower in

Moscow. For the distance of half a verst the vehicle forced its way

through a compact crowd which quickly reformed its ranks. From morning

till night these thousands of men, the greater portion of them starving

and in rags, tramped angrily through the mud, venting their hatred in

abusive epithets and acts of violence. The same sight may be seen in all

the market-places of Moscow. At sunset these people go to the taverns

and gaming-houses; their nights are passed in filth and wretchedness.

Think of the lives of these people, of what they abandon through choice

for their present condition; think of the heavy burden of labor without

reward which weighs upon these men and women, and you will see that they

are true martyrs. All these people have forsaken houses, lands, parents,

wives, and children; they have renounced all the comforts of life, and

they have come to the cities to acquire that which according to the

gospel of the world is indispensable to every one. And all these tens of

thousands of unhappy people sleep in hovels, and subsist upon strong

drink and wretched food. But aside from this class, all, from factory

workman, cab-driver, sewing girl, and lorette, to merchant and

government official, all endure the most painful and abnormal conditions

without being able to acquire what, according to the doctrine of the

world, is indispensable to each.

Seek among all these men, from beggar to millionaire, one who is

contented with his lot, and you will not find one such in a thousand.

Each one spends his strength in pursuit of what is exacted by the

doctrine of the world, and of what he is unhappy not to possess, and

scarcely has he obtained one object of his desires when he strives for

another, and still another, in that infinite labor of Sisyphus which

destroys the lives of men. Run over the scale of individual fortunes,

ranging from a yearly income of three hundred roubles to fifty thousand

roubles, and you will rarely find a person who is not striving to gain

four hundred roubles if he have three hundred, five hundred if he have

four hundred, and so on to the top of the ladder. Among them all you

will scarcely find one who, with five hundred roubles, is willing to

adopt the mode of life of him who has only four hundred. When such an

instance does occur, it is not inspired by a desire to make life more

simple, but to amass money and make it more sure. Each strives

continually to make the heavy burden of existence still more heavy, by

giving himself up body and soul to the practice of the doctrine of the

world. To-day we must buy an overcoat and galoches, to-morrow, a watch

and chain; the next day we must install ourselves in an apartment with a

sofa and a bronze lamp; then we must have carpets and velvet gowns; then

a house, horses and carriages, paintings and decorations, and then—then

we fall ill of overwork and die. Another continues the same task,

sacrifices his life to this same Moloch, and then dies also, without

realizing for what he has lived.

But possibly this existence is in itself attractive? Compare it with

what men have always called happiness, and you will see that it is

hideous. For what, according to the general estimate, are the principal

conditions of earthly happiness? One of the first conditions of

happiness is that the link between man and nature shall not be severed,

that is, that he shall be able to see the sky above him, and that he

shall be able to enjoy the sunshine, the pure air, the fields with their

verdure, their multitudinous life. Men have always regarded it as a

great unhappiness to be deprived of all these things. But what is the

condition of those men who live according to the doctrine of the world?

The greater their success in practising the doctrine of the world, the

more they are deprived of these conditions of happiness. The greater

their worldly success, the less they are able to enjoy the light of the

sun, the freshness of the fields and woods, and all the delights of

country life. Many of them—including nearly all the women—arrive at old

age without having seen the sun rise or the beauties of the early

morning, without having seen a forest except from a seat in a carriage,

without ever having planted a field or a garden, and without having the

least idea as to the ways and habits of dumb animals.

These people, surrounded by artificial light instead of sunshine, look

only upon fabrics of tapestry and stone and wood fashioned by the hand

of man; the roar of machinery, the roll of vehicles, the thunder of

cannon, the sound of musical instruments, are always in their ears; they

breathe an atmosphere heavy with distilled perfumes and tobacco smoke;

because of the weakness of their stomachs and their depraved tastes they

eat rich and highly spiced food. When they move about from place to

place, they travel in closed carriages. When they go into the country,

they have the same fabrics beneath their feet; the same draperies shut

out the sunshine; and the same array of servants cut off all

communication with the men, the earth, the vegetation, and the animals

about them. Wherever they go, they are like so many captives shut out

from the conditions of happiness. As prisoners sometimes console

themselves with a blade of grass that forces its way through the

pavement of their prison yard, or make pets of a spider or a mouse, so

these people sometimes amuse themselves with sickly plants, a parrot, a

poodle, or a monkey, to whose needs however they do not themselves

administer.

Another inevitable condition of happiness is work: first, the

intellectual labor that one is free to choose and loves; secondly, the

exercise of physical power that brings a good appetite and tranquil and

profound sleep. Here, again, the greater the imagined prosperity that

falls to the lot of men according to the doctrine of the world, the more

such men are deprived of this condition of happiness. All the prosperous

people of the world, the men of dignity and wealth, are as completely

deprived of the advantages of work as if they were shut up in solitary

confinement. They struggle unsuccessfully with the diseases caused by

the need of physical exercise, and with the ennui which pursues

them—unsuccessfully, because labor is a pleasure only when it is

necessary, and they have need of nothing; or they undertake work that is

odious to them, like the bankers, solicitors, administrators, and

government officials, and their wives, who plan receptions and routs and

devise toilettes for themselves and their children. (I say odious,

because I never yet met any person of this class who was contented with

his work or took as much satisfaction in it as the porter feels in

shovelling away the snow from before their doorsteps.) All these

favorites of fortune are either deprived of work or are obliged to work

at what they do not like, after the manner of criminals condemned to

hard labor.

The third undoubted condition of happiness is the family. But the more

men are enslaved by worldly success, the more certainly are they cut off

from domestic pleasures. The majority of them are libertines, who

deliberately renounce the joys of family life and retain only its cares.

If they are not libertines, their children, instead of being a source of

pleasure, are a burden, and all possible means are employed to render

marriage unfruitful. If they have children, they make no effort to

cultivate the pleasures of companionship with them. They leave their

children almost continually to the care of strangers, confiding them

first to the instruction of persons who are usually foreigners, and then

sending them to public educational institutions, so that of family life

they have only the sorrows, and the children from infancy are as unhappy

as their parents and wish their parents dead that they may become the

heirs.[25] These people are not confined in prisons, but the

consequences of their way of living with regard to the family are more

melancholy than the deprivation from the domestic relations inflicted

upon those who are kept in confinement under sentence of the law.

The fourth condition of happiness is sympathetic and unrestricted

intercourse with all classes of men. And the higher a man is placed in

the social scale, the more certainly is he deprived of this essential

condition of happiness. The higher he goes, the narrower becomes his

circle of associates; the lower sinks the moral and intellectual level

of those to whose companionship he is restrained.

The peasant and his wife are free to enter into friendly relations with

every one, and if a million men will have nothing to do with them, there

remain eighty millions of people with whom they may fraternize, from

Archangel to Astrakhan, without waiting for a ceremonious visit or an

introduction. A clerk and his wife will find hundreds of people who are

their equals; but the clerks of a higher rank will not admit them to a

footing of social equality, and they, in their turn, are excluded by

others. The wealthy man of the world reckons by dozens the families with

whom he is willing to maintain social ties—all the rest of the world are

strangers. For the cabinet minister and the millionaire there are only a

dozen people as rich and as important as themselves. For kings and

emperors, the circle is still more narrow. Is not the whole system like

a great prison where each inmate is restricted to association with a few

fellow-convicts?

Finally, the fifth condition of happiness is bodily health. And once

more we find that as we ascend the social scale this condition of

happiness is less and less within the reach of the followers of the

doctrine of the world. Compare a family of medium social status with a

family of peasants. The latter toil unremittingly and are robust of

body; the former is made up of men and women more or less subject to

disease. Recall to mind the rich men and women whom you have known; are

not most of them invalids? A person of that class whose physical

disabilities do not oblige him to take a periodical course of hygienic

and medical treatment is as rare as is an invalid among the laboring

classes. All these favorites of fortune are the victims and

practitioners of sexual vices that have become a second nature, and they

are toothless, gray, and bald at an age when a workingman is in the

prime of manhood. Nearly all are afflicted with nervous or other

diseases arising from excesses in eating, drunkenness, luxury, and

perpetual medication. Those who do not die young, pass half of their

lives under the influence of morphine or other drugs, as melancholy

wrecks of humanity incapable of self-attention, leading a parasitic

existence like that of a certain species of ants which are nourished by

their slaves. Here is the death list. One has blown out his brains,

another has rotted away from the effects of syphilitic poison; this old

man succumbed to sexual excesses, this young man to a wild outburst of

sensuality; one died of drunkenness, another of gluttony, another from

the abuse of morphine, another from an induced abortion. One after

another they perished, victims of the doctrine of the world. And a

multitude presses on behind them, like an army of martyrs, to undergo

the same sufferings, the same perdition.

To follow the doctrine of Jesus is difficult! Jesus said that they who

would forsake houses, and lands, and brethren, and follow his doctrine

should receive a hundred-fold in houses, and lands, and brethren, and

besides all this, eternal life. And no one is willing even to make the

experiment. The doctrine of the world commands its followers to leave

houses, and lands, and brethren; to forsake the country for the filth of

the city, there to toil as a bath-keeper soaping the backs of others; as

an apprentice in a little underground shop passing life in counting

kopecks; as a prosecuting attorney to serve in bringing unhappy wretches

under condemnation of the law; as a cabinet minister, perpetually

signing documents of no importance; as the head of an army, killing

men.—“Forsake all and live this hideous life ending in a cruel death,

and you shall receive nothing in this world or the other,” is the

command, and every one listens and obeys. Jesus tells us to take up the

cross and follow him, to bear submissively the lot apportioned out to

us. No one hears his words or follows his command. But let a man in a

uniform decked out with gold lace, a man whose speciality is to kill his

fellows, say, “Take, not your cross, but your knapsack and carbine, and

march to suffering and certain death,”—and a mighty host is ready to

receive his orders. Leaving parents, wives, and children, clad in

grotesque costumes, subject to the will of the first comer of a higher

rank, famished, benumbed, and exhausted by forced marches, they go, like

a herd of cattle to the slaughter-house, not knowing where,—and yet

these are not cattle, they are men.

With despair in their hearts they move on, to die of hunger, or cold, or

disease, or, if they survive, to be brought within range of a storm of

bullets and commanded to kill. They kill and are killed, none of them

knows why or to what end. An ambitious stripling has only to brandish

his sword and shout a few magniloquent words to induce them to rush to

certain death. And yet no one finds this to be difficult. Neither the

victims, nor those whom they have forsaken, find anything difficult in

such sacrifices, in which parents encourage their children to take part.

It seems to them not only that such things should be, but that they

could not be otherwise, and that they are altogether admirable and

moral.

If the practice of the doctrine of the world were easy, agreeable, and

without danger, we might perhaps believe that the practice of the

doctrine of Jesus is difficult, frightful, and cruel. But the doctrine

of the world is much more difficult, more dangerous, and more cruel,

than is the doctrine of Jesus. Formerly, we are told, there were martyrs

for the cause of Jesus; but they were exceptional. We cannot count up

more than about three hundred and eighty thousand of them, voluntary and

involuntary, in the whole course of eighteen hundred years; but who

shall count the martyrs to the doctrine of the world? For each Christian

martyr there have been a thousand martyrs to the doctrine of the world,

and the sufferings of each one of them have been a hundred times more

cruel than those endured by the others. The number of the victims of

wars in our century alone amounts to thirty millions of men. These are

the martyrs to the doctrine of the world, who would have escaped

suffering and death even if they had refused to follow the doctrine of

the world, to say nothing of following the doctrine of Jesus.

If a man will cease to have faith in the doctrine of the world and not

think it indispensable to wear varnished boots and a gold chain, to

maintain a useless salon, or to do the various other foolish things the

doctrine of the world demands, he will never know the effects of

brutalizing occupations, of unlimited suffering, of the anxieties of a

perpetual struggle; he will remain in communion with nature; he will be

deprived neither of the work he loves, or of his family, or of his

health, and he will not perish by a cruel and brutish death.

The doctrine of Jesus does not exact martyrdom similar to that of the

doctrine of the world; it teaches us rather how to put an end to the

sufferings that men endure in the name of the false doctrine of the

world. The doctrine of Jesus has a profound metaphysical meaning; it has

a meaning as an expression of the aspirations of humanity; but it has

also for each individual a very simple, very clear, and very practical

meaning with regard to the conduct of his own life. In fact, we might

say that Jesus taught men not to do foolish things. The meaning of the

doctrine of Jesus is simple and accessible to all.

Jesus said that we were not to be angry, and not to consider ourselves

as better than others; if we were angry and offended others, so much the

worse for us. Again, he said that we were to avoid libertinism, and to

that end choose one woman, to whom we should remain faithful. Once more,

he said that we were not to bind ourselves by promises or oaths to the

service of those who may constrain us to commit acts of folly and

wickedness. Then he said that we were not to return evil for evil, lest

the evil rebound upon ourselves with redoubled force. And, finally, he

says that we are not to consider men as foreigners because they dwell in

another country and speak a language different from our own. And the

conclusion is, that if we avoid doing any of these foolish things, we

shall be happy.

This is all very well (we say), but the world is so organized that, if

we place ourselves in opposition to it, our condition will be much more

calamitous than if we live in accordance with its doctrine. If a man

refuses to perform military service, he will be shut up in a fortress,

and possibly will be shot. If a man will not do what is necessary for

the support of himself and his family, he and his family will starve.

Thus argue the people who feel themselves obliged to defend the existing

social organization; but they do not believe in the truth of their own

words. They only say this because they cannot deny the truth of the

doctrine of Jesus which they profess, and because they must justify

themselves in some way for their failure to practise it. They not only

do not believe in what they say; they have never given any serious

consideration to the subject. They have faith in the doctrine of the

world, and they only make use of the plea they have learned from the

Church,—that much suffering is inevitable for those who would practise

the doctrine of Jesus; and so they have never tried to practise the

doctrine of Jesus at all.

We see enough of the frightful suffering endured by men in following the

doctrine of the world, but in these times we hear nothing of suffering

in behalf of the doctrine of Jesus. Thirty millions of men have perished

in wars, fought in behalf of the doctrine of the world; thousands of

millions of beings have perished, crushed by a social system organized

on the principle of the doctrine of the world; but where, in our day,

shall we find a million, a thousand, a dozen, or a single one, who has

died a cruel death, or has even suffered from hunger and cold, in behalf

of the doctrine of Jesus? This fear of suffering is only a puerile

excuse that proves how little we really know of Jesus’ doctrine. We not

only do not follow it; we do not even take it seriously. The Church has

explained it in such a way that it seems to be, not the doctrine of a

happy life, but a bugbear, a source of terror.

Jesus calls men to drink of a well of living water, which is free to

all. Men are parched with thirst, they have eaten of filth and drunk

blood, but they have been told that they will perish if they drink of

this water that is offered them by Jesus, and men believe in the

warnings of superstition. They die in torment, with the water that they

dare not touch within their reach. If they would only have faith in

Jesus’ words, and go to this well of living water and quench their

thirst, they would realize how cunning has been the imposture practised

upon them by the Church, and how needlessly their sufferings have been

prolonged. If they would only accept the doctrine of Jesus, frankly and

simply, they would see at once the horrible error of which we are each

and all the victims.

One generation after another strives to find the security of its

existence in violence, and by violence to protect its privileges. We

believe that the happiness of our life is in power, and domination, and

abundance of worldly goods. We are so habituated to this idea that we

are alarmed at the sacrifices exacted by the doctrine of Jesus, which

teaches that man’s happiness does not depend upon fortune and power, and

that the rich cannot enter into the kingdom of God. But this is a false

idea of the doctrine of Jesus, which teaches us, not to do what is the

worst, but to do what is the best for ourselves here in this present

life. Inspired by his love for men, Jesus taught them not to depend upon

security based upon violence, and not to seek after riches, just as we

teach the common people to abstain, for their own interest, from

quarrels and intemperance. He said that if men lived without defending

themselves against violence, and without possessing riches, they would

be more happy; and he confirms his words by the example of his life. He

said that a man who lives according to his doctrine must be ready at any

moment to endure violence from others, and, possibly, to die of hunger

and cold. But this warning, which seems to exact such great and

unbearable sacrifices, is simply a statement of the conditions under

which men always have existed, and always will continue to exist.

A disciple of Jesus should be prepared for everything, and especially

for suffering and death. But is the disciple of the world in a more

desirable situation? We are so accustomed to believe in all we do for

the so-called security of life (the organization of armies, the building

of fortresses, the provisioning of troops), that our wardrobes, our

systems of medical treatment, our furniture, and our money, all seem

like real and stable pledges of our existence. We forget the fate of him

who resolved to build greater storehouses to provide an abundance for

many years: he died in a night. Everything that we do to make our

existence secure is like the act of the ostrich, when she hides her head

in the sand, and does not see that her destruction is near. But we are

even more foolish than the ostrich. To establish the doubtful security

of an uncertain life in an uncertain future, we sacrifice a life of

certainty in a present that we might really possess.

The illusion is in the firm conviction that our existence can be made

secure by a struggle with others. We are so accustomed to this illusory

so-called security of our existence and our property, that we do not

realize what we lose by striving after it. We lose everything,—we lose

life itself. Our whole life is taken up with anxiety for personal

security, with preparations for living, so that we really never live at

all.

If we take a general survey of our lives, we shall see that all our

efforts in behalf of the so-called security of existence are not made at

all for the assurance of security, but simply to help us to forget that

existence never has been, and never can be, secure. But it is not enough

to say that we are the dupes of our own illusions, and that we forfeit

the true life for an imaginary life; our efforts for security often

result in the destruction of what we most wish to preserve. The French

took up arms in 1870 to make their national existence secure, and the

attempt resulted in the destruction of hundreds of thousands of

Frenchmen. All people who take up arms undergo the same experience. The

rich man believes that his existence is secure because he possesses

money, and his money attracts a thief who kills him. The invalid thinks

to make his life secure by the use of medicines, and the medicines

slowly poison him; if they do not bring about his death, they at least

deprive him of life, till he is like the impotent man who waited

thirty-five years at the pool for an angel to come down and trouble the

waters. The doctrine of Jesus, which teaches us that we cannot possibly

make life secure, but that we must be ready to die at any moment, is

unquestionably preferable to the doctrine of the world, which obliges us

to struggle for the security of existence. It is preferable because the

impossibility of escaping death, and the impossibility of making life

secure, is the same for the disciples of Jesus as it is for the

disciples of the world; but, according to the doctrine of Jesus, life

itself is not absorbed in the idle attempt to make existence secure. To

the follower of Jesus life is free, and can be devoted to the end for

which it is worthy,—its own welfare and the welfare of others. The

disciple of Jesus will be poor, but that is only saying that he will

always enjoy the gifts that God has lavished upon men. He will not ruin

his own existence. We make the word poverty a synonym for calamity, but

it is in truth a source of happiness, and however much we may regard it

as a calamity, it remains a source of happiness still. To be poor means

not to live in cities, but in the country, not to be shut up in close

rooms, but to labor out of doors, in the woods and fields, to have the

delights of sunshine, of the open heavens, of the earth, of observing

the habits of dumb animals; not to rack our brains with inventing dishes

to stimulate an appetite, and not to endure the pangs of indigestion. To

be poor is to be hungry three times a day, to sleep without passing

hours tossing upon the pillow a victim of insomnia, to have children,

and have them always with us, to do nothing that we do not wish to do

(this is essential), and to have no fear for anything that may happen.

The poor person will be ill and will suffer; he will die like the rest

of the world; but his sufferings and his death will probably be less

painful than those of the rich; and he will certainly live more happily.

Poverty is one of the conditions of following the doctrine of Jesus, a

condition indispensable to those who would enter into the kingdom of God

and be happy.

The objection to this is, that no one will care for us, and that we

shall be left to die of hunger. To this objection we may reply in the

words of Jesus, (words that have been interpreted to justify the

idleness of the clergy):—

“Get you no gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses; no wallet for

your journey, neither two coats, nor shoes, nor staff: for the laborer

is worthy of his food” (Matt. x. 10).

“And into whatsoever house ye shall enter, ... in that same house

remain, eating and drinking such things as they give: for the laborer is

worthy of his hire” (Luke x. 5, 7).

The laborer is worthy of (ἄξιος ἐστί means, word for word, can and ought

to have) his food. It is a very short sentence, but he who understands

it as Jesus understood it, will no longer have any fear of dying of

hunger. To understand the true meaning of these words we must get rid of

that traditional idea which we have developed from the doctrine of the

redemption that man’s felicity consists in idleness. We must get back to

that point of view natural to all men who are not fallen, that work, and

not idleness, is the indispensable condition of happiness for every

human being; that man cannot, in fact, refrain from work. We must rid

ourselves of the savage prejudice which leads us to think that a man who

has an income from a place under the government, from landed property,

or from stocks and bonds, is in a natural and happy position because he

is relieved from the necessity of work. We must get back into the human

brain the idea of work possessed by undegenerate men, the idea that

Jesus has, when he says that the laborer is worthy of his food. Jesus

did not imagine that men would regard work as a curse, and consequently

he did not have in mind a man who would not work, or desired not to

work. He supposed that all his disciples would work, and so he said that

if a man would work, his work would bring him food. He who makes use of

the labor of another will provide food for him who labors, simply

because he profits by that labor. And so he who works will always have

food; he may not have property, but as to food, there need be no

uncertainty whatever.

With regard to work there is a difference between the doctrine of Jesus

and the doctrine of the world. According to the doctrine of the world,

it is very meritorious in a man to be willing to work; he is thereby

enabled to enter into competition with others, and to demand wages

proportionate to his qualifications. According to the doctrine of Jesus,

labor is the inevitable condition of human life, and food is the

inevitable consequence of labor. Labor produces food, and food produces

labor. However cruel and grasping the employer may be, he will always

feed his workman, as he will always feed his horse; he feeds him that he

may get all the work possible, and in this way he contributes to the

welfare of the workman.

“For verily the Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to

minister and to give his life a ransom for many.”

According to the doctrine of Jesus, every individual will be the happier

the more clearly he understands that his vocation consists, not in

exacting service from others, but in ministering to others, in giving

his life for the ransom of many. A man who does this will be worthy of

his food and will not fail to have it. By the words, “came not to be

ministered unto but to minister,” Jesus established a method which would

insure the material existence of man; and by the words, “the laborer is

worthy of his food,” he answered once for all the objection that a man

who should practise the doctrine of Jesus in the midst of those who do

not practise it would be in danger of perishing from hunger and cold.

Jesus practised his own doctrine amid great opposition, and he did not

perish from hunger and cold. He showed that a man does not insure his

own subsistence by amassing worldly goods at the expense of others, but

by rendering himself useful and indispensable to others. The more

necessary he is to others, the more will his existence be made secure.

There are in the world as it is now organized millions of men who

possess no property and do not practise the doctrine of Jesus by

ministering unto others, but they do not die of hunger. How, then, can

we object to the doctrine of Jesus, that those who practise it by

working for others will perish for want of food? Men cannot die of

hunger while the rich have bread. In Russia there are millions of men

who possess nothing and subsist entirely by their own toil. The

existence of a Christian would be as secure among pagans as it would be

among those of his own faith. He would labor for others; he would be

necessary to them, and therefore he would be fed. Even a dog, if he be

useful, is fed and cared for; and shall not a man be fed and cared for

whose service is necessary to the whole world?

But those who seek by all possible means to justify the personal life

have another objection. They say that if a man be sick, even if he have

a wife, parents, and children dependent upon him,—if this man cannot

work, he will not be fed. They say so, and they will continue to say so;

but their own actions prove that they do not believe what they say.

These same people who will not admit that the doctrine of Jesus is

practicable, practise it to a certain extent themselves. They do not

cease to care for a sick sheep, a sick ox, or a sick dog. They do not

kill an old horse, but they give him work in proportion to his strength.

They care for all sorts of animals without expecting any benefit in

return; and can it be that they will not care for a useful man who has

fallen sick, that they will not find work suited to the strength of the

old man and the child, that they will not care for the very babes who

later on will be able to work for them in return? As a matter of fact

they do all this. Nine-tenths of men are cared for by the other tenth,

like so many cattle. And however great the darkness in which this

one-tenth live, however mistaken their views in regard to the other

nine-tenths of humanity, the tenth, even if they had the power, would

not deprive the other nine-tenths of food. The rich will not deprive the

poor of what is necessary, because they wish them to multiply and work,

and so in these days the little minority of rich people provide directly

or indirectly for the nourishment of the majority, that the latter may

furnish the maximum of work, and multiply, and bring up a new supply of

workers. Ants care for the increase and welfare of their slaves. Shall

not men care for those whose labor they find necessary? Laborers are

necessary. And those who profit by labor will always be careful to

provide the means of labor for those who are willing to work.

The objection concerning the possibility of practising the doctrine of

Jesus, that if men do not acquire something for themselves and have

wealth in reserve no one will take care of their families, is true, but

it is true only in regard to idle and useless and obnoxious people such

as make up the majority of our opulent classes. No one (with the

exception of foolish parents) takes the trouble to care for lazy people,

because lazy people are of no use to any one, not even to themselves; as

for the workers, the most selfish and cruel of men will contribute to

their welfare. People breed and train and care for oxen, and a man, as a

beast of burden, is much more useful than an ox, as the tariff of the

slave-mart shows. This is why children will never be left without

support.

Man is not in the world to work for himself; he is in the world to work

for others, and the laborer is worthy of his hire. These truths are

justified by universal experience; now, always, and everywhere, the man

who labors receives the means of bodily subsistence. This subsistence is

assured to him who works against his will; for such a workman desires

only to relieve himself of the necessity of work, and acquires all that

he possibly can in order that he may take the yoke from his own neck and

place it upon the neck of another. A workman like this—envious,

grasping, toiling against his will—will never lack for food and will be

happier than one, who without labor, lives upon the labor of others. How

much more happy, then, will that laborer be who labors in obedience to

the doctrine of Jesus with the object of accomplishing all the work of

which he is capable and wishing for it the least possible return? How

much more desirable will his condition be, as, little by little, he sees

his example followed by others. For services rendered he will then be

the recipient of equal services in return.

The doctrine of Jesus with regard to labor and the fruits of labor is

expressed in the story of the loaves and fishes, wherein it was shown

that man enjoys the greatest sum of the benefits accessible to humanity,

not by appropriating all that he can possibly grasp and using what he

has for his personal pleasure, but by administering to the needs of

others, as Jesus did by the borders of Galilee.

There were several thousand men and women to be fed. One of the

disciples told Jesus that there was a lad who had five loaves and two

fishes. Jesus understood that some of the people coming from a distance

had brought provisions with them and that some had not, for after all

were filled, the disciples gathered up twelve basketsful of fragments.

(If no one but the boy had brought anything, how could so much have been

left after so many were fed?) If Jesus had not set them an example, the

people would have acted as people of the world act now. Some of those

who had food would have eaten all that they had through gluttony or

avidity, and some, after eating what they could eat, would have taken

the rest to their homes. Those who had nothing would have been famished,

and would have regarded their more fortunate companions with envy and

hatred; some of them would perhaps have tried to take food by force from

them who had it, and so hunger and anger and quarrels would have been

the result. That is, the multitude would have acted just as people act

nowadays.

But Jesus knew exactly what to do. He asked that all be made to sit

down, and then commanded his disciples to give of what they had to those

who had nothing, and to request others to do the same. The result was

that those who had food followed the example of Jesus and his disciples,

and offered what they had to others. Every one ate and was satisfied,

and with the broken pieces that remained the disciples filled twelve

baskets.

Jesus teaches every man to govern his life by the law of reason and

conscience, for the law of reason is as applicable to the individual as

it is to humanity at large. Work is the inevitable condition of human

life, the true source of human welfare. For this reason a refusal to

divide the fruits of one’s labor with others is a refusal to accept the

conditions of true happiness. To give of the fruits of one’s labor to

others is to contribute to the welfare of all men. The retort is made

that if men did not wrest food from others, they would die of hunger. To

me it seems more reasonable to say, that if men do wrest their food from

one another, some of them will die of hunger, and experience confirms

this view.

Every man, whether he lives according to the doctrine of Jesus or

according to the doctrine of the world, lives only by the sufferance and

care of others. From his birth, man is cared for and nourished by

others. According to the doctrine of the world, man has a right to

demand that others should continue to nourish and care for him and for

his family, but, according to the doctrine of Jesus, he is only entitled

to care and nourishment on the condition that he do all he can for the

service of others, and so render himself useful and indispensable to

mankind. Men who live according to the doctrine of the world are usually

anxious to rid themselves of any one who is useless and whom they are

obliged to feed; at the first possible opportunity they cease to feed

such a one, and leave him to die, because of his uselessness; but him

who lives for others according to the doctrine of Jesus, all men,

however wicked they may be, will always nourish and care for, that he

may continue to labor in their behalf.

Which, then, is the more reasonable; which offers the more joy and the

greater security, a life according to the doctrine of the world, or a

life according to the doctrine of Jesus?

CHAPTER XI.

The doctrine of Jesus is to bring the kingdom of God upon earth. The

practice of this doctrine is not difficult; and not only so, its

practice is a natural expression of the belief of all who recognize its

truth. The doctrine of Jesus offers the only possible chance of

salvation for those who would escape the perdition that threatens the

personal life. The fulfilment of this doctrine not only will deliver men

from the privations and sufferings of this life, but will put an end to

nine-tenths of the suffering endured in behalf of the doctrine of the

world.

When I understood this I asked myself why I had never practised a

doctrine which would give me so much happiness and peace and joy; why,

on the other hand, I always had practised an entirely different

doctrine, and thereby made myself wretched? Why? The reply was a simple

one. Because I never had known the truth. The truth had been concealed

from me.

When the doctrine of Jesus was first revealed to me, I did not believe

that the discovery would lead me to reject the doctrine of the

Church.[26] I dreaded this separation, and in the course of my studies I

did not attempt to search out the errors in the doctrine of the Church.

I sought, rather, to close my eyes to propositions that seemed to be

obscure and strange, provided they were not in evident contradiction

with what I regarded as the substance of the Christian doctrine.

But the further I advanced in the study of the Gospels, and the more

clearly the doctrine of Jesus was revealed to me, the more inevitable

the choice became. I must either accept the doctrine of Jesus, a

reasonable and simple doctrine in accordance with my conscience and my

hope of salvation; or I must accept an entirely different doctrine, a

doctrine in opposition to reason and conscience and that offered me

nothing except the certainty of my own perdition and that of others. I

was therefore forced to reject, one after another, the dogmas of the

Church. This I did against my will, struggling with the desire to

mitigate as much as possible my disagreement with the Church, that I

might not be obliged to separate from the Church, and thereby deprive

myself of communion with fellow-believers, the greatest happiness that

religion can bestow. But when I had completed my task, I saw that in

spite of all my efforts to maintain a connecting-link with the Church,

the separation was complete. I knew before that the bond of union, if it

existed at all, must be a very slight one, but I was soon convinced that

it did not exist at all.

My son came to me one day, after I had completed my examination of the

Gospels, and told me of a discussion that was going on between two

domestics (uneducated persons who scarcely knew how to read) concerning

a passage in some religious book which maintained that it was not a sin

to put criminals to death, or to kill enemies in war. I could not

believe that an assertion of this sort could be printed in any book, and

I asked to see it. The volume bore the title of “A Book of Selected

Prayers; third edition; eighth ten thousand; Moscow: 1879.” On page 163

of this book I read:—

“What is the sixth commandment of God?

“Thou shalt not kill.

“What does God forbid by this commandment?

“He forbids us to kill, to take the life of any man.

“Is it a sin to punish a criminal with death according to the law, or to

kill an enemy in war?

“No; that is not a sin. We take the life of the criminal to put an end

to the wrong that he commits; we slay an enemy in war, because in war we

fight for our sovereign and our native land.”

And in this manner was enjoined the abrogation of the law of God! I

could scarcely believe that I had read aright.

My opinion was asked with regard to the subject at issue. To the one who

maintained that the instruction given by the book was true, I said that

the explanation was not correct.

“Why, then, do they print untrue explanations contrary to the law?” was

his question, to which I could say nothing in reply.

I kept the volume and looked over its contents. The book contained

thirty-one prayers with instructions concerning genuflexions and the

joining of the fingers; an explanation of the Credo; a citation from the

fifth chapter of Matthew without any explanation whatever, but headed,

“Commands for those who would possess the Beatitudes”; the ten

commandments accompanied by comments that rendered most of them void;

and hymns for every saint’s day.

As I have said, I not only had sought to avoid censure of the religion

of the Church; I had done my best to see only its most favorable side;

and knowing its academic literature from beginning to end, I had paid no

attention whatever to its popular literature. This book of devotion,

spread broadcast in an enormous number of copies, awakening doubts in

the minds of the most unlearned people, set me to thinking. The contents

of the book seemed to me so entirely pagan, so wholly out of accord with

Christianity, that I could not believe it to be the deliberate purpose

of the Church to propagate such a doctrine. To verify my belief, I

bought and read all the books published by the synod with its

“benediction” (blagoslovnia), containing brief expositions of the

religion of the Church for the use of children and the common people.

Their contents were to me almost entirely new, for at the time when I

received my early religious instruction, they had not yet appeared. As

far as I could remember there were no commandments with regard to the

beatitudes, and there was no doctrine which taught that it was not a sin

to kill. No such teachings appeared in the old catechisms; they were not

to be found in the catechism of Peter Mogilas, or in that of Beliokof,

or the abridged Catholic catechisms. The innovation was introduced by

the metropolitan Philaret, who prepared a catechism with proper regard

for the susceptibilities of the military class, and from this catechism

the Book of Selected Prayers was compiled. Philaret’s work is entitled,

The Christian Catechism of the Orthodox Church, for the Use of all

Orthodox Christians, and is published, “by order of his Imperial

Majesty.”[27]

The book is divided into three parts, “Concerning Faith,” “Concerning

Hope,” and “Concerning Love.” The first part contains the analysis of

the symbol of faith as given by the Council of Nice. The second part is

made up of an exposition of the Pater Noster, and the first eight verses

of the fifth chapter of Matthew, which serve as an introduction to the

Sermon on the Mount, and are called (I know not why) “Commands for those

who would possess the Beatitudes.” These first two parts treat of the

dogmas of the Church, prayers, and the sacraments, but they contain no

rules with regard to the conduct of life. The third part, “Concerning

Love,” contains an exposition of Christian duties, based not on the

commandments of Jesus, but upon the ten commandments of Moses. This

exposition of the commandments of Moses seems to have been made for the

especial purpose of teaching men not to obey them. Each commandment is

followed by a reservation which completely destroys its force. With

regard to the first commandment, which enjoins the worship of God alone,

the catechism inculcates the worship of saints and angels, to say

nothing of the Mother of God and the three persons of the Trinity

(“Special Catechism,” pp. 107, 108) . With regard to the second

commandment, against the worship of idols, the catechism enjoins the

worship of images (p. 108). With regard to the third commandment, the

catechism enjoins the taking of oaths as the principal token of

legitimate authority (p. 111). With regard to the fourth commandment,

concerning the observance of the Sabbath, the catechism inculcates the

observance of Sunday, of the thirteen principal feasts, of a number of

feasts of less importance, the observance of Lent, and of fasts on

Wednesdays and Fridays (pp. 112–115). With regard to the fifth

commandment, “Honor thy father and thy mother,” the catechism prescribes

honor to the sovereign, the country, spiritual fathers, all persons in

authority, and of these last gives an enumeration in three pages,

including college authorities, civil, judicial, and military

authorities, and owners of serfs, with instructions as to the manner of

honoring each of these classes (pp. 116–119). My citations are taken

from the sixty-fourth edition of the catechism, dated 1880. Twenty years

have passed since the abolition of serfdom, and no one has taken the

trouble to strike out the phrase which, in connection with the

commandment of God to honor parents, was introduced into the catechism

to sustain and justify slavery.

With regard to the sixth commandment, “Thou shalt not kill,” the

instructions of the catechism are from the first in favor of murder.

“Question.—What does the sixth commandment forbid?

“Answer.—It forbids manslaughter, to take the life of one’s neighbor in

any manner whatever.

“Question.—Is all manslaughter a transgression of the law?

“Answer.—Manslaughter is not a transgression of the law when life is

taken in pursuance of its mandate. For example:

“1^(st). When a criminal condemned in justice is punished by death.

“2d. When we kill in war for the sovereign and our country.”

The italics are in the original. Further on we read:—

“Question.—With regard to manslaughter, when is the law transgressed?

“Answer.—When any one conceals a murderer or sets him at liberty” (sic).

All this is printed in hundreds of thousands of copies, and under the

name of Christian doctrine is taught by compulsion to every Russian, who

is obliged to receive it under penalty of castigation. This is taught to

all the Russian people. It is taught to the innocent children,—to the

children whom Jesus commanded to be brought to him as belonging to the

kingdom of God; to the children whom we must resemble, in ignorance of

false doctrines, to enter into the kingdom of God; to the children whom

Jesus tried to protect in proclaiming woe on him who should cause one of

the little ones to stumble! And the little children are obliged to learn

all this, and are told that it is the only and sacred law of God. These

are not proclamations sent out clandestinely, whose authors are punished

with penal servitude; they are proclamations which inflict the

punishment of penal servitude upon all those who do not agree with the

doctrines they inculcate.

As I write these lines, I experience a feeling of insecurity, simply

because I have allowed myself to say that men cannot render void the

fundamental law of God inscribed in all the codes and in all hearts, by

such words as these:—

“Manslaughter is not a transgression of the law when life is taken in

pursuance of its mandate... when we kill in war for our sovereign and

our country.”

I tremble because I have allowed myself to say that such things should

not be taught to children.

It was against such teachings as these that Jesus warned men when he

said:—

“Look, therefore, whether the light that is in thee be not darkness.”

(Luke xi. 35.)

The light that is in us has become darkness; and the darkness of our

lives is full of terror.

“Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because ye shut the

kingdom of heaven against men: for ye enter not in yourselves, neither

suffer ye them that are entering in to enter. Woe unto you, scribes and

Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye devour widows’ houses, even while for a

pretense ye make long prayers: therefore ye shall receive greater

condemnation. Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye

compass sea and land to make one proselyte; and when he is become so, ye

make him twofold more a son of hell than yourselves. Woe unto you, ye

blind guides....

“Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye build the

sepulchres of the prophets, and garnish the tombs of the righteous, and

say, If we had been in the days of our fathers, ice should not have been

partakers with them in the blood of the prophets. Wherefore ye witness

to yourselves, that ye are sons of them that slew the prophets. Fill ye

up, then, the measure of your fathers.... I send unto you prophets, and

wise men, and scribes: some of them shall ye kill and crucify; and some

of them shall ye scourge in your synagogues, and persecute from city to

city: that upon you may come all the righteous blood shed on the earth,

from the blood of Abel....

“Every sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven unto men; but the blasphemy

against the Spirit shall not be forgiven.”

Of a truth we might say that all this was written but yesterday, not

against men who no longer compass sea and land to blaspheme against the

Spirit, or to convert men to a religion that renders its proselytes

worse than they were before, but against men who deliberately force

people to embrace their religion, and persecute and bring to death all

the prophets and the righteous who seek to reveal their falsehoods to

mankind. I became convinced that the doctrine of the Church, although

bearing the name of “Christian,” is one with the darkness against which

Jesus struggled, and against which he commanded his disciples to strive.

The doctrine of Jesus, like all religious doctrines, is regarded in two

ways,—first, as a moral and ethical system which teaches men how they

should live as individuals, and in relation to each other; second, as a

metaphysical theory which explains why men should live in a given manner

and not otherwise. One necessitates the other. Man should live in this

manner because such is his destiny; or, man’s destiny is this way, and

consequently he should follow it. These two methods of doctrinal

expression are common to all the religions of the world, to the religion

of the Brahmins, to that of Confucius, to that of Buddha, to that of

Moses, and to that of the Christ. But, with regard to the doctrine of

Jesus, as with regard to all other doctrines, men wander from its

precepts, and they always find some one to justify their deviations.

Those who, as Jesus said, sit in Moses’ seat, explain the metaphysical

theory in such a way that the ethical prescriptions of the doctrine

cease to be regarded as obligatory, and are replaced by external forms

of worship, by ceremonial. This is a condition common to all religions,

but, to me, it seems that it never has been manifested with so much pomp

as in connection with Christianity,—and for two reasons: first, because

the doctrine of Jesus is the most elevated of all doctrines (the most

elevated because the metaphysical and ethical portions are so closely

united that one cannot be separated from the other without destroying

the vitality of the whole); second, because the doctrine of Jesus is in

itself a protest against all forms, a negation not only of Jewish

ceremonial, but of all exterior rites of worship. Therefore, the

arbitrary separation of the metaphysical and ethical aspects of

Christianity entirely disfigures the doctrine, and deprives it of every

sort of meaning. The separation began with the preaching of Paul, who

knew but imperfectly the ethical doctrine set forth in the Gospel of

Matthew, and who preached a metaphysico-cabalistic theory entirely

foreign to the doctrine of Jesus; and this theory was perfected under

Constantine, when the existing pagan social organization was proclaimed

Christian simply by covering it with the mantle of Christianity. After

Constantine, that arch-pagan, whom the Church in spite of all his crimes

and vices admits to the category of the saints, after Constantine began

the domination of the councils, and the centre of gravity of

Christianity was permanently displaced till only the metaphysical

portion was left in view. And this metaphysical theory with its

accompanying ceremonial deviated more and more from its true and

primitive meaning, until it has reached its present stage of

development, as a doctrine which explains the mysteries of a celestial

life beyond the comprehension of human reason, and, with all its

complicated formulas, gives no religious guidance whatever with regard

to the regulation of this earthly life.

All religions, with the exception of the religion of the Christian

Church, demand from their adherents aside from forms and ceremonies, the

practice of certain actions called good, and abstinence from certain

actions that are called bad. The Jewish religion prescribed

circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, the giving of alms, the

feast of the Passover. Mohammedanism prescribes circumcision, prayer

five times a day, the giving of tithes to the poor, pilgrimage to the

tomb of the Prophet, and many other things. It is the same with all

other religions. Whether these prescriptions are good or bad, they are

prescriptions which exact the performance of certain actions.

Pseudo-Christianity alone prescribes nothing. There is nothing that a

Christian is obliged to observe except fasts and prayers, which the

Church itself does not recognize as obligatory. All that is necessary to

the pseudo-Christian is the sacrament. But the sacrament is not

fulfilled by the believer; it is administered to him by others. The

pseudo-Christian is obliged to do nothing or to abstain from nothing for

his own salvation, since the Church administers to him everything of

which he has need. The Church baptizes him, anoints him, gives him the

eucharist, confesses him, even after he has lost consciousness,

administers extreme unction to him, and prays for him,—and he is saved.

From the time of Constantine the Christian Church has prescribed no

religious duties to its adherents. It has never required that they

should abstain from anything. The Christian Church has recognized and

sanctioned divorce, slavery, tribunals, all earthly powers, the death

penalty, and war; it has exacted nothing except a renunciation of a

purpose to do evil on the occasion of baptism, and this only in its

early days: later on, when infant baptism was introduced, even this

requirement was no longer observed.

The Church confesses the doctrine of Jesus in theory, but denies it in

practice. Instead of guiding the life of the world, the Church, through

affection for the world, expounds the metaphysical doctrine of Jesus in

such a way as not to derive from it any obligation as to the conduct of

life, any necessity for men to live differently from the way in which

they have been living. The Church has surrendered to the world, and

simply follows in the train of its victor. The world does as it pleases,

and leaves to the Church the task of justifying its actions with

explanations as to the meaning of life. The world organizes an existence

in absolute opposition to the doctrine of Jesus, and the Church

endeavors to demonstrate that men who live contrary to the doctrine of

Jesus really live in accordance with that doctrine. The final result is

that the world lives a worse than pagan existence, and the Church not

only approves, but maintains that this existence is in exact conformity

to the doctrine of Jesus.

But a time comes when the light of the true doctrine of Jesus shines

forth from the Gospels, notwithstanding the guilty efforts of the Church

to conceal it from men’s eyes, as, for instance, in prohibiting the

translation of the Bible; there comes a time when the light reaches the

people, even through the medium of sectarians and free-thinkers, and the

falsity of the doctrine of the Church is shown so clearly that men begin

to transform the method of living that the Church has justified.

Thus men of their own accord, and in opposition to the sanction of the

Church, have abolished slavery, abolished the divine right of emperors

and popes, and are now proceeding to abolish property and the State. And

the Church cannot forbid such action because the abolition of these

iniquities is in conformity to the Christian doctrine, that the Church

preaches after having falsified.

And in this way the conduct of human life is freed from the control of

the Church, and subjected to an entirely different authority. The Church

retains its dogmas, but what are its dogmas worth? A metaphysical

explanation can be of use only when there is a doctrine of life which it

serves to make manifest. But the Church possesses only the explanation

of an organization which it once sanctioned, and which no longer exists.

The Church has nothing left but temples and shrines and canonicals and

vestments and words.

For eighteen centuries the Church has hidden the light of Christianity

behind its forms and ceremonials, and by this same light it is put to

shame. The world, with an organization sanctioned by the Church, has

rejected the Church in the name of the very principles of Christianity

that the Church has professed. The separation between the two is

complete and cannot be concealed. Everything that truly lives in the

world of Europe to-day (everything not cold and dumb in hateful

isolation),—everything that is living, is detached from the Church, from

all churches, and has an existence independent of the Church. Let it not

be said that this is true only of the decayed civilizations of Western

Europe. Russia, with its millions of civilized and uncivilized Christian

rationalists, who have rejected the doctrine of the Church, proves

incontestably that as regards emancipation from the yoke of the Church,

she is, thanks be to God, in a worse condition of decay than the rest of

Europe.

All that lives is independent of the Church. The power of the State is

based upon tradition, upon science, upon popular suffrage, upon brute

force, upon everything except upon the Church. Wars, the relation of

State with State, are governed by principles of nationality, of the

balance of power, but not by the Church. The institutions established by

the State frankly ignore the Church. The idea that the Church can, in

these times, serve as a basis for justice or the conservation of

property, is simply absurd. Science not only does not sustain the

doctrine of the Church, but is, in its development, entirely hostile to

the Church. Art, formerly entirely devoted to the service of the Church,

has wholly forsaken the Church. It is little to say that human life is

now entirely emancipated from the Church; it has now, with regard to the

Church, only contempt when the Church does not interfere with human

affairs, and hatred when the Church seeks to re-assert its ancient

privileges. The Church is still permitted a formal existence simply

because men dread to shatter the chalice that once contained the water

of life. In this way only can we account, in our age, for the existence

of Catholicism, of Orthodoxy, and of the different Protestant churches.

All these churches—Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant—are like so many

sentinels still keeping careful watch before the prison doors, although

the prisoners have long been at liberty before their eyes, and even

threaten their existence. All that actually constitutes life, that is,

the activity of humanity towards progress and its own welfare,

socialism, communism, the new politico-economical theories,

utilitarianism, the liberty and equality of all social classes, and of

men and women, all the moral principles of humanity, the sanctity of

work, reason, science, art,—all these that lend an impulse to the

world’s progress in hostility to the Church are only fragments of the

doctrine which the Church has professed, and so carefully endeavored to

conceal. In these times, the life of the world is entirely independent

of the doctrine of the Church. The Church is left so far behind, that

men no longer hear the voices of those who preach its doctrines. This is

easily to be understood because the Church still clings to an

organization of the world’s life, which has been forsaken, and is

rapidly falling to destruction.

Imagine a number of men rowing a boat, a pilot steering. The men rely

upon the pilot, and the pilot steers well; but after a time the good

pilot is replaced by another, who does not steer at all. The boat moves

along rapidly and easily. At first the men do not notice the negligence

of the new pilot; they are only pleased to find that the boat goes along

so easily. Then they discover that the new pilot is utterly useless, and

they mock at him, and drive him from his place.

The matter would not be so serious if the men, in thrusting aside the

unskilful pilot, did not forget that without a pilot they are likely to

take a wrong course. But so it is with our Christian society. The Church

has lost its control; we move smoothly onward, and we are a long way

from our point of departure. Science, that especial pride of this

nineteenth century, is sometimes alarmed; but that is because of the

absence of a pilot. We are moving onward, but to what goal? We organize

our life without in the least knowing why, or to what end. But we can no

longer be contented to live without knowing why, any more than we can

navigate a boat without knowing the course that we are following.

If men could do nothing of themselves, if they were not responsible for

their condition, they might very reasonably reply to the question, “Why

are you in this situation?”—“We do not know; but here we are, and

submit.” But men are the builders of their own destiny, and more

especially of the destiny of their children; and so when we ask, “Why do

you bring together millions of troops, and why do you make soldiers of

yourselves, and mangle and murder one another? Why have you expended,

and why do you still expend, an enormous sum of human energy in the

construction of useless and unhealthful cities? Why do you organize

ridiculous tribunals, and send people whom you consider as criminals

from France to Cayenne, from Russia to Siberia, from England to

Australia, when you know the hopeless folly of it? Why do you abandon

agriculture, which you love, for work in factories and mills, which you

despise? Why do you bring up your children in a way that will force them

to lead an existence which you find worthless? Why do you do this?” To

all these questions men feel obliged to make some reply.

If this existence were an agreeable one, and men took pleasure in it,

even then men would try to explain why they continued to live under such

conditions. But all these things are terribly difficult; they are

endured with murmuring and painful struggles, and men cannot refrain

from reflecting upon the motive which impels them to such a course. They

must cease to maintain the accepted organization of existence, or they

must explain why they give it their support. And so men never have

allowed this question to pass unanswered. We find in all ages some

attempt at a response. The Jew lived as he lived, that is, made war, put

criminals to death, built the Temple, organized his entire existence in

one way and not another, because, as he was convinced, he thereby

followed the laws which God himself had promulgated. We may say the same

of the Hindu, the Chinaman, the Roman, and the Mohammedan. A similar

response was given by the Christian a century ago, and is given by the

great mass of Christians now.

A century ago, and among the ignorant now, the nominal Christian makes

this reply: “Compulsory military service, wars, tribunals, and the death

penalty, all exist in obedience to the law of God transmitted to us by

the Church. This is a fallen world. All the evil that exists, exists by

God’s will, as a punishment for the sins of men. For this reason we can

do nothing to palliate evil. We can only save our own souls by faith, by

the sacraments, by prayers, and by submission to the will of God as

transmitted by the Church. The Church teaches us that all Christians

should unhesitatingly obey their rulers, who are the Lord’s anointed,

and obey also persons placed in authority by rulers; that they ought to

defend their property and that of others by force, wage war, inflict the

death penalty, and in all things submit to the authorities, who command

by the will of God.”

Whatever we may think of the reasonableness of these explanations, they

once sufficed for a believing Christian, as similar explanations

satisfied a Jew or a Mohammedan, and men were not obliged to renounce

all reason for living according to a law which they recognized as

divine. But in this time only the most ignorant people have faith in any

such explanations, and the number of these diminishes every day and

every hour. It is impossible to check this tendency. Men irresistibly

follow those who lead the way, and sooner or later must pass over the

same ground as the advance guard. The advance guard is now in a critical

position; those who compose it organize life to suit themselves, prepare

the same conditions for those who are to follow, and absolutely have not

the slightest idea of why they do so. No civilized man in the vanguard

of progress is able to give any reply now to the direct questions, “Why

do you lead the life that you do lead? Why do you establish the

conditions that you do establish?” I have propounded these questions to

hundreds of people, and never have got from them a direct reply. Instead

of a direct reply to the direct question, I have received in return a

response to a question that I had not asked.

When we ask a Catholic, or Protestant, or Orthodox believer why he leads

an existence contrary to the doctrine of Jesus, instead of making a

direct response he begins to speak of the melancholy state of scepticism

characteristic of this generation, of evil-minded persons who spread

doubt broadcast among the masses, of the importance of the future of the

existing Church. But he will not tell you why he does not act in

conformity to the commands of the religion that he professes. Instead of

speaking of his own condition, he will talk to you about the condition

of humanity in general, and of that of the Church, as if his own life

were not of the slightest significance, and his sole preoccupations were

the salvation of humanity, and of what he calls the Church.

A philosopher of whatever school he may be, whether an idealist or a

spiritualist, a pessimist or a positivist, if we ask of him why he lives

as he lives, that is to say, in disaccord with his philosophical

doctrine, will begin at once to talk about the progress of humanity and

about the historical law of this progress which he has discovered, and

in virtue of which humanity gravitates toward righteousness. But he

never will make any direct reply to the question why he himself, on his

own account, does not live in harmony with what he recognizes as the

dictates of reason. It would seem as if the philosopher were as

preoccupied as the believer, not with his personal life, but with

observing the effect of general laws upon the development of humanity.

The “average” man (that is, one of the immense majority of civilized

people who are half sceptics and half believers, and who all, without

exception, deplore existence, condemn its organization, and predict

universal destruction),—the average man, when we ask him why he

continues to lead a life that he condemns, without making any effort

towards its amelioration, makes no direct reply, but begins at once to

talk about things in general, about justice, about the State, about

commerce, about civilization. If he be a member of the police or a

prosecuting attorney, he asks, “And what would become of the State, if

I, to ameliorate my existence, were to cease to serve it?” “What would

become of commerce?” is his demand if he be a merchant; “What of

civilization, if I cease to work for it, and seek only to better my own

condition?” will be the objection of another. His response always will

be in this form, as if the duty of his life were not to seek the good

conformable to his nature, but to serve the State, or commerce, or

civilization.

The average man replies in just the same manner as does the believer or

the philosopher. Instead of making the question a personal one, he

glides at once to generalities. This subterfuge is employed simply

because the believer and the philosopher, and the average man have no

positive doctrine concerning existence, and cannot, therefore, reply to

the personal question, “What of your own life?” They are disgusted and

humiliated at not possessing the slightest trace of a doctrine with

regard to life, for no one can live in peace without some understanding

of what life really means. But nowadays only Christians cling to a

fantastic and worn-out creed as an explanation of why life is as it is,

and is not otherwise. Only Christians give the name of religion to a

system which is not of the least use to any one. Only among Christians

is life separated from any or all doctrine, and left without any

definition whatever. Moreover, science, like tradition, has formulated

from the fortuitous and abnormal condition of humanity a general law.

Learned men, such as Tiele and Spencer, treat religion as a serious

matter, understanding by religion the metaphysical doctrine of the

universal principle, without suspecting that they have lost sight of

religion as a whole by confining their attention entirely to one of its

phases.

From all this we get very extraordinary results. We see learned and

intelligent men artlessly believing that they are emancipated from all

religion simply because they reject the metaphysical explanation of the

universal principle which satisfied a former generation. It does not

occur to them that men cannot live without some theory of existence;

that every human being lives according to some principle, and that this

principle by which he governs his life is his religion. The people of

whom we have been speaking are persuaded that they have reasonable

convictions, but that they have no religion. Nevertheless, however

serious their asseverations, they have a religion from the moment that

they undertake to govern their actions by reason, for a reasonable act

is determined by some sort of faith. Now their faith is in what they are

told to do. The faith of those who deny religion is in a religion of

obedience to the will of the ruling majority; in a word, submission to

established authority.

We may live a purely animal life according to the doctrine of the world,

without recognizing any controlling motive more binding than the rules

of established authority. But he who lives this way cannot affirm that

he lives a reasonable life. Before affirming that we live a reasonable

life, we must determine what is the doctrine of the life which we regard

as reasonable. Alas! wretched men that we are, we possess not the

semblance of any such doctrine, and more than that, we have lost all

perception of the necessity for a reasonable doctrine of life.

Ask the believers or sceptics of this age, what doctrine of life they

follow. They will be obliged to confess that they follow but one

doctrine, the doctrine based upon laws formulated by the judiciary or by

legislative assemblies, and enforced by the police—the favorite doctrine

of most Europeans. They know that this doctrine does not come from on

high, or from prophets, or from sages; they are continually finding

fault with the laws drawn up by the judiciary or formulated by

legislative assemblies, but nevertheless they submit to the police

charged with their enforcement. They submit without murmuring to the

most terrible exactions. The clerks employed by the judiciary or the

legislative assemblies decree by statute that every young man must be

ready to take up arms, to kill others, and to die himself, and that all

parents who have adult sons must favor obedience to this law which was

drawn up yesterday by a mercenary official, and may be revoked

to-morrow.

We have lost sight of the idea that a law may be in itself reasonable,

and binding upon every one in spirit as well as in letter. The Hebrews

possessed a law which regulated life, not by forced obedience to its

requirements, but by appealing to the conscience of each individual; and

the existence of this law is considered as an exceptional attribute of

the Hebrew people. That the Hebrews should have been willing to obey

only what they recognized by spiritual perception as the incontestable

truth direct from God is considered a remarkable national trait. But it

appears that the natural and normal state of civilized men is to obey

what to their own knowledge is decreed by despicable officials and

enforced by the co-operation of armed police.

The distinctive trait of civilized man is to obey what the majority of

men regard as iniquitous, contrary to conscience. I seek in vain in

civilized society as it exists to-day for any clearly formulated moral

bases of life. There are none. No perception of their necessity exists.

On the contrary, we find the extraordinary conviction that they are

superfluous; that religion is nothing more than a few words about God

and a future life, and a few ceremonies very useful for the salvation of

the soul according to some, and good for nothing according to others;

but that life happens of itself and has no need of any fundamental rule,

and that we have only to do what we are told to do.

The two substantial sources of faith, the doctrine that governs life,

and the explanation of the meaning of life, are regarded as of very

unequal value. The first is considered as of very little importance, and

as having no relation to faith whatever; the second, as the explanation

of a bygone state of existence, or as made up of speculations concerning

the historical development of life, is considered as of great

significance. As to all that constitutes the life of man expressed in

action, the members of our modern society depend willingly for guidance

upon people who, like themselves, know not why they direct their fellows

to live in one way and not in another. This disposition holds good

whether the question at issue is to decide whether to kill or not to

kill, to judge or not to judge, to bring up children in this way or in

that. And men look upon an existence like this as reasonable, and have

no feeling of shame!

The explanations of the Church which pass for faith, and the true faith

of our generation, which is in obedience to social laws and the laws of

the State, have reached a stage of sharp antagonism. The majority of

civilized people have nothing to regulate life but faith in the police.

This condition would be unbearable if it were universal. Fortunately

there is a remnant, made up of the noblest minds of the age, who are not

contented with this religion, but have an entirely different faith with

regard to what the life of man ought to be. These men are looked upon as

the most malevolent, the most dangerous, and generally as the most

unbelieving of all human beings, and yet they are the only men of our

time believing in the Gospel doctrine, if not as a whole, at least in

part. These people, as a general thing, know little of the doctrine of

Jesus; they do not understand it, and, like their adversaries, they

refuse to accept the leading principle of the religion of Jesus, which

is to resist not evil; often they have nothing but a hatred for the name

of Jesus; but their whole faith with regard to what life ought to be is

unconsciously based upon the humane and eternal truths comprised in the

Christian doctrine. This remnant, in spite of calumny and persecution,

are the only ones who do not tamely submit to the orders of the first

comer. Consequently they are the only ones in these days who live a

reasonable and not an animal life, the only ones who have faith.

The connecting link between the world and the Church, although carefully

cherished by the Church, becomes more and more attenuated. To-day it is

little more than a hindrance. The union between the Church and the world

has no longer any justification. The mysterious process of maturation is

going on before our eyes. The connecting bond will soon be severed, and

the vital social organism will begin to exercise its functions as a

wholly independent existence. The doctrine of the Church, with its

dogmas, its councils, and its hierarchy, is manifestly united to the

doctrine of Jesus. The connecting link is as perceptible as the cord

which binds the newly-born child to its mother; but as the umbilical

cord and the placenta become after parturition useless pieces of flesh,

which are carefully buried out of regard for what they once nourished,

so the Church has become a useless organism, to be preserved, if at all,

in some museum of curiosities out of regard for what it has once been.

As soon as respiration and circulation are established, the former

source of nutrition becomes a hindrance to life. Vain and foolish would

it be to attempt to retain the bond, and to force the child that has

come into the light of day to receive its nourishment by a pre-natal

process. But the deliverance of the child from the maternal tie does not

ensure life. The life of the newly born depends upon another bond of

union which is established between it and its mother that its

nourishment may be maintained.

And so it must be with our Christian world of to-day. The doctrine of

Jesus has brought the world into the light. The Church, one of the

organs of the doctrine of Jesus, has fulfilled its mission and is now

useless. The world cannot be bound to the Church; but the deliverance of

the world from the Church will not ensure life. Life will begin when the

world perceives its own weakness and the necessity for a different

source of strength. The Christian world feels this necessity: it

proclaims its helplessness, it feels the impossibility of depending upon

its former means of nourishment, the inadequacy of any other form of

nourishment except that of the doctrine by which it was brought forth.

This modern European world of ours, apparently so sure of itself, so

bold, so decided, and within so preyed upon by terror and despair, is

exactly in the situation of a newly born animal: it writhes, it cries

aloud, it is perplexed, it knows not what to do; it feels that its

former source of nourishment is withdrawn, but it knows not where to

seek for another. A newly born lamb shakes its head, opens its eyes and

looks about, and leaps, and bounds, and would make us think by its

apparently intelligent movements that it already has mastered the secret

of living; but of this the poor little creature knows nothing. The

impetuosity and energy it displays were drawn from its mother through a

medium of transmission that has just been broken, nevermore to be

renewed. The situation of the new comer is one of delight, and at the

same time is full of peril. It is animated by youth and strength, but it

is lost if it cannot avail itself of the nourishment only to be had from

its mother.

And so it is with our European world. What complex activities, what

energy, what intelligence, does it apparently possess! It would seem as

if all its deeds were governed by reason. With what enthusiasm, what

vigor, what youthfulness do the denizens of this modern world manifest

their abounding vitality! The arts and sciences, the various industries,

political and administrative details, all are full of life. But this

life is due to inspiration received through the connecting link that

binds it to its source. The Church, by transmitting the truth of the

doctrine of Jesus, has communicated life to the world. Upon this

nourishment the world has grown and developed. But the Church has had

its day and is now superfluous.

The world is possessed of a living organism; the means by which it

formerly received its nourishment has withered away, and it has not yet

found another; and it seeks everywhere, everywhere but at the true

source of life. It still possesses the animation derived from

nourishment already received, and it does not yet understand that its

future nourishment is only to be had from one source, and by its own

efforts. The world must now understand that the period of gestation is

ended, and that a new process of conscious nutrition must henceforth

maintain its life. The truth of the doctrine of Jesus, once

unconsciously absorbed by humanity through the organism of the Church,

must now be consciously recognized; for in the truth of this doctrine

humanity has always obtained its vital force. Men must lift up the torch

of truth, which has so long remained concealed, and carry it before

them, guiding their actions by its light.

The doctrine of Jesus, as a religion that governs the actions of men and

explains to them the meaning of life, is now before the world just as it

was eighteen hundred years ago. Formerly the world had the explanations

of the Church which, in concealing the doctrine, seemed in itself to

offer a satisfactory interpretation of life; but now the time is come

when the Church has lost its usefulness, and the world, having no other

means for sustaining its true existence, can only feel its helplessness

and go for aid directly to the doctrine of Jesus.

Now, Jesus first taught men to believe in the light, and that the light

is within themselves. Jesus taught men to lift on high the light of

reason. He taught them to live, guiding their actions by this light, and

to do nothing contrary to reason. It is unreasonable, it is foolish, to

go out to kill Turks or Germans; it is unreasonable to make use of the

labor of others that you and yours may be clothed in the height of

fashion and maintain that mortal source of ennui, a salon; it is

unreasonable to take people already corrupted by idleness and depravity

and shut them up within prison walls, and thereby devote them to an

existence of absolute idleness and deprivation; it is unreasonable to

live in the pestilential air of cities when a purer atmosphere is within

your reach; it is unreasonable to base the education of your children on

the grammatical laws of dead languages;—all this is unreasonable, and

yet it is to-day the life of the European world, which lives a life of

no meaning; which acts, but acts without a purpose, having no confidence

in reason, and existing in opposition to its decrees.

The doctrine of Jesus is the light. The light shines forth, and the

darkness cannot conceal it. Men cannot deny it, men cannot refuse to

accept its guidance. They must depend on the doctrine of Jesus, which

penetrates among all the errors with which the life of men is

surrounded. Like the insensible ether filling universal space,

enveloping all created things, so the doctrine of Jesus is inevitable

for every man in whatever situation he may be found. Men cannot refuse

to recognize the doctrine of Jesus; they may deny the metaphysical

explanation of life which it gives (we may deny everything), but the

doctrine of Jesus alone offers rules for the conduct of life without

which humanity has never lived, and never will be able to live; without

which no human being has lived or can live, if he would live as man

should live,—a reasonable life. The power of the doctrine of Jesus is

not in its explanation of the meaning of life, but in the rules that it

gives for the conduct of life. The metaphysical doctrine of Jesus is not

new; it is that eternal doctrine of humanity inscribed in all the hearts

of men, and preached by all the prophets of all the ages. The power of

the doctrine of Jesus is in the application of this metaphysical

doctrine to life.

The metaphysical basis of the ancient doctrine of the Hebrews, which

enjoined love to God and men, is identical with the metaphysical basis

of the doctrine of Jesus. But the application of this doctrine to life,

as expounded by Moses, was very different from the teachings of Jesus.

The Hebrews, in applying the Mosaic law to life, were obliged to fulfil

six hundred and thirteen commandments, many of which were absurd and

cruel, and yet all were based upon the authority of the Scriptures. The

doctrine of life, as given by Jesus upon the same metaphysical basis, is

expressed in five reasonable and beneficent commandments, having an

obvious and justifiable meaning, and embracing within their restrictions

the whole of human life. A Jew, a disciple of Confucius, a Buddhist, or

a Mohammedan, who sincerely doubts the truth of his own religion, cannot

refuse to accept the doctrine of Jesus; much less, then, can this

doctrine be rejected by the Christian world of to-day, which is now

living without any moral law. The doctrine of Jesus cannot interfere in

any way with the manner in which men of to-day regard the world; it is,

to begin with, in harmony with their metaphysics, but it gives them what

they have not now, what is indispensable to their existence, and what

they all seek,—it offers them a way of life; not an unknown way, but a

way already explored and familiar to all.

Let us suppose that you are a sincere Christian, it matters not of what

confession. You believe in the creation of the world, in the Trinity, in

the fall and redemption of man, in the sacraments, in prayer, in the

Church. The doctrine of Jesus is not opposed to your dogmatic belief,

and is absolutely in harmony with your theory of the origin of the

universe; and it offers you something that you do not possess. While you

retain your present religion you feel that your own life and the life of

the world is full of evil that you know not how to remedy. The doctrine

of Jesus (which should be binding upon you since it is the doctrine of

your own God) offers you simple and practical rules which will surely

deliver you, you and your fellows, from the evils with which you are

tormented.

Believe, if you will, in paradise, in hell, in the pope, in the Church,

in the sacraments, in the redemption; pray according to the dictates of

your faith, attend upon your devotions, sing your hymns,—but all this

will not prevent you from practising the five commandments given by

Jesus for your welfare: Be not angry; Do not commit adultery; Take no

oaths; Resist not evil; Do not make war. It may happen that you will

break one of these rules; you will perhaps yield to temptation, and

violate one of them, just as you violate the rules of your present

religion, or the articles of the civil code, or the laws of custom. In

the same way you may, perhaps, in moments of temptation, fail of

observing all the commandments of Jesus. But, in that case, do not

calmly sit down as you do now, and so organize your existence as to

render it a task of extreme difficulty not to be angry, not to commit

adultery, not to take oaths, not to resist evil, not to make war;

organize rather an existence which shall render the doing of all these

things as difficult as the non-performance of them is now laborious. You

cannot refuse to recognize the validity of these rules, for they are the

commandments of the God whom you pretend to worship.

Let us suppose that you are an unbeliever, a philosopher, it matters not

of what special school. You affirm that the progress of the world is in

accordance with a law that you have discovered. The doctrine of Jesus

does not oppose your views; it is in harmony with the law that you have

discovered. But, aside from this law, in pursuance of which the world

will in the course of a thousand years reach a state of felicity, there

is still your own personal life to be considered. This life you can use

by living in conformity to reason, or you can waste it by living in

opposition to reason, and you have now for its guidance no rule

whatever, except the decrees drawn up by men whom you do not esteem, and

enforced by the police. The doctrine of Jesus offers you rules which are

assuredly in accord with your law of “altruism,” which is nothing but a

feeble paraphrase of this same doctrine of Jesus.

Let us suppose that you are an average man, half sceptic, half believer,

one who has no time to analyze the meaning of human life, and one

therefore who has no determinate theory of existence. You live as lives

the rest of the world about you. The doctrine of Jesus is not at all

contrary to your condition. You are incapable of reason, of verifying

the truths of the doctrines that are taught you; it is easier for you to

do as others do. But however modest may be your estimate of your powers

of reason, you know that you have within you a judge that sometimes

approves your acts and sometimes condemns them. However modest your

social position, there are occasions when you are bound to reflect and

ask yourself, “Shall I follow the example of the rest of the world, or

shall I act in accordance with my own judgment?” It is precisely on

these occasions when you are called upon to solve some problem with

regard to the conduct of life, that the commandments of Jesus appeal to

you in all their efficiency. The commandments of Jesus will surely

respond to your inquiry, because they apply to your whole existence. The

response will be in accord with your reason and your conscience. If you

are nearer to faith than to unbelief, you will, in following these

commandments, act in harmony with the will of God. If you are nearer to

scepticism than to belief, you will, in following the doctrine of Jesus,

govern your actions by the laws of reason, for the commandments of Jesus

make manifest their own meaning, and their own justification.

“Now is the judgment of this world: now shall the prince of this world

be cast out.” (John xii. 31.)

“These things have I spoken unto you, that in me ye may have peace. In

the world ye have tribulation: but be of good cheer; I have overcome the

world.” (John xvi. 33.)

The world, that is, the evil in the world, is overcome. If evil still

exists in the world, it exists only through the influence of inertia; it

no longer contains the principle of vitality. For those who have faith

in the commandments of Jesus, it does not exist at all. It is vanquished

by an awakened conscience, by the elevation of the son of man. A train

that has been put in motion continues to move in the direction in which

it was started; but the time comes when the intelligent effort of a

controlling hand is made manifest, and the movement is reversed.

“Ye are of God, and have overcome them because greater is he that is

within you than he that is in the world.” (1 John v. 4.)

The faith that triumphs over the doctrines of the world is faith in the

doctrine of Jesus.

CHAPTER XII.

I believe in the doctrine of Jesus, and this is my religion:—

I believe that nothing but the fulfilment of the doctrine of Jesus can

give true happiness to men. I believe that the fulfilment of this

doctrine is possible, easy, and pleasant. I believe that although none

other follows this doctrine, and I alone am left to practise it, I

cannot refuse to obey it, if I would save my life from the certainty of

eternal loss; just as a man in a burning house if he find a door of

safety, must go out, so I must avail myself of the way to salvation. I

believe that my life according to the doctrine of the world has been a

torment, and that a life according to the doctrine of Jesus can alone

give me in this world the happiness for which I was destined by the

Father of Life. I believe that this doctrine is essential to the welfare

of humanity, will save me from the certainty of eternal loss, and will

give me in this world the greatest possible sum of happiness. Believing

thus, I am obliged to practise its commandments.

“The law was given by Moses; grace and truth came by Jesus Christ.”

(John i. 17.)

The doctrine of Jesus is a doctrine of grace and truth. Once I knew not

grace and knew not truth. Mistaking evil for good, I fell into evil, and

I doubted the righteousness of my tendency toward good. I understand and

believe now that the good toward which I was attracted is the will of

the Father, the essence of life.

Jesus has told us to live in pursuit of the good, and to beware of

snares and temptations (σκάνδαλον) which, by enticing us with the

semblance of good, draw us away from true goodness, and lead us into

evil. He has taught us that our welfare is to be sought in fellowship

with all men; that evil is a violation of fellowship with the son of

man, and that we must not deprive ourselves of the welfare to be had by

obedience to his doctrine.

Jesus has demonstrated that fellowship with the son of man, the love of

men for one another, is not merely an ideal after which men are to

strive; he has shown us that this love and this fellowship are natural

attributes of men in their normal condition, the condition into which

children are born, the condition in which all men would live if they

were not drawn aside by error, illusions, and temptations.

In his commandments, Jesus has enumerated clearly and unmistakably the

temptations that interfere with this natural condition of love and

fellowship and render it a prey to evil. The commandments of Jesus offer

the remedies by which I must save myself from the temptations that have

deprived me of happiness; and so I am forced to believe that these

commandments are true. Happiness was within my grasp and I destroyed it.

In his commandments Jesus has shown me the temptations that lead to the

destruction of happiness. I can no longer work for the destruction of my

happiness, and in this determination, and in this alone, is the

substance of my religion.

Jesus has shown me that the first temptation destructive of happiness is

enmity toward men, anger against them. I cannot refuse to believe this,

and so I cannot willingly remain at enmity with others. I cannot, as I

could once, foster anger, be proud of it, fan into a flame, justify it,

regarding myself as an intelligent and superior man and others as

useless and foolish people. Now, when I give up to anger, I can only

realize that I alone am guilty, and seek to make peace with those who

have aught against me.

But this is not all. While I now see that anger is an abnormal,

pernicious, and morbid state, I also perceive the temptation that led me

into it. The temptation was in separating myself from my fellows,

recognizing only a few of them as my equals, and regarding all the

others as persons of no account (rekim) or as uncultivated animals

(fools). I see now that this wilful separation from other men, this

judgment of raca or fool passed upon others, was the principal source of

my disagreements. In looking over my past life I saw that I had rarely

permitted my anger to rise against those whom I considered as my equals,

whom I seldom abused. But the least disagreeable action on the part of

one whom I considered an inferior inflamed my anger and led me to

abusive words or actions, and the more superior I felt myself to be, the

less careful I was of my temper; sometimes the mere supposition that a

man was of a lower social position than myself was enough to provoke me

to an outrageous manner.

I understand now that he alone is above others who is humble with others

and makes himself the servant of all. I understand now why those that

are great in the sight of men are an abomination to God, who has

declared woe upon the rich and mighty and invoked blessedness upon the

poor and humble. Now I understand this truth, I have faith in it, and

this faith has transformed my perception of what is right and important,

and what is wrong and despicable. Everything that once seemed to me

right and important, such as honors, glory, civilization, wealth, the

complications and refinements of existence, luxury, rich food, fine

clothing, etiquette, have become for me wrong and despicable. Everything

that formerly seemed to me wrong and despicable, such as rusticity,

obscurity, poverty, austerity, simplicity of surroundings, of food, of

clothing, of manners, all have now become right and important to me. And

so although I may at times give myself up to anger and abuse another, I

cannot deliberately yield to wrath and so deprive myself of the true

source of happiness,—fellowship and love; for it is possible that a man

should lay a snare for his own feet and so be lost. Now, I can no longer

give my support to anything that lifts me above or separates me from

others. I cannot, as I once did, recognize in myself or others titles or

ranks or qualities aside from the title and quality of manhood. I can no

longer seek for fame and glory; I can no longer cultivate a system of

instruction which separates me from men. I cannot in my surroundings, my

food, my clothing, my manners, strive for what not only separates me

from others but renders me a reproach to the majority of mankind.

Jesus showed me another temptation destructive of happiness, that is,

debauchery, the desire to possess another woman than her to whom I am

united. I can no longer, as I did once, consider my sensuality as a

sublime trait of human nature. I can no longer justify it by my love for

the beautiful, or my amorousness, or the faults of my companion. At the

first inclination toward debauchery I cannot fail to recognize that I am

in a morbid and abnormal state, and to seek to rid myself of the

besetting sin.

Knowing that debauchery is an evil, I also know its cause, and can thus

evade it. I know now that the principal cause of this temptation is not

the necessity for the sexual relation, but the abandonment of wives by

their husbands, and of husbands by their wives. I know now that a man

who forsakes a woman, or a woman who forsakes a man, when the two have

once been united, is guilty of the divorce which Jesus forbade, because

men and women abandoned by their first companions are the original cause

of all the debauchery in the world.

In seeking to discover the influences that led to debauchery, I found

one to be a barbarous physical and intellectual education that developed

the erotic passion which the world endeavors to justify by the most

subtile arguments. But the principal influence I found to be the

abandonment of the woman to whom I had first been united, and the

situation of the abandoned women around me. The principal source of

temptation was not in carnal desires, but in the fact that those desires

were not satisfied in the men and women by whom I was surrounded. I now

understand the words of Jesus when he says:—

“He which made them from the beginning, made them male and female.... So

that they are no more twain, but one flesh. What, therefore, God hath

joined together, let not man put asunder.” (Matt. xix. 4–6.)

I understand now that monogamy is the natural law of humanity, which

cannot with impunity be violated. I now understand perfectly the words

declaring that the man or woman who separates from a companion to seek

another, forces the forsaken one to resort to debauchery, and thus

introduces into the world an evil that returns upon those who cause it.

This I believe; and the faith I now have has transformed my opinions

with regard to the right and important, and the wrong and despicable,

things of life. What once seemed to me the most delightful existence in

the world, an existence made up of dainty, æsthetic pleasures and

passions, is now revolting to me. And a life of simplicity and

indigence, which moderates the sexual desires, now seems to me good. The

human institution of marriage, which gives a nominal sanction to the

union of man and woman, I regard as of less grave importance than that

the union, when accomplished, should be regarded as the will of God, and

never be broken.

Now, when in moments of weakness I yield to the promptings of desire, I

know the snare that would deliver me into evil, and so I cannot

deliberately plan my method of existence as formerly I was accustomed to

do. I no longer habitually cherish physical sloth and luxury, which

excite to excessive sensuality. I can no longer pursue amusements which

are oil to the fire of amorous sensuality,—the reading of romances and

the most of poetry, listening to music, attendance at theatres and

balls,—amusements that once seemed to me elevated and refining, but

which I now see to be injurious. I can no longer abandon the woman with

whom I have been united, for I know that by forsaking her, I set a snare

for myself, for her, and for others. I can no longer encourage the gross

and idle existence of others. I can no longer encourage or take part in

licentious pastimes, romantic literature, plays, operas, balls, which

are so many snares for myself and for others. I cannot favor the

celibacy of persons fitted for the marriage relation. I cannot encourage

the separation of wives from their husbands. I cannot make any

distinction between unions that are called by the name of marriage, and

those that are denied this name. I am obliged to consider as sacred and

absolute the sole and unique union by which man is once for all

indissolubly bound to the first woman with whom he has been united.

Jesus has shown me that the third temptation destructive to true

happiness is the oath. I am obliged to believe his words; consequently,

I cannot, as I once did, bind myself by oath to serve any one for any

purpose, and I can no longer, as I did formerly, justify myself for

having taken an oath because “it would harm no one,” because everybody

did the same, because it is necessary for the State, because the

consequences might be bad for me or for some one else if I refuse to

submit to this exaction. I know now that it is an evil for myself and

for others, and I cannot conform to it.

Nor is this all. I now know the snare that led me into evil, and I can

no longer act as an accomplice. I know that the snare is in the use of

God’s name to sanction an imposture, and that the imposture consists in

promising in advance to obey the commands of one man, or of many men,

while I ought to obey the commands of God alone. I know now that evils

the most terrible of all in their result—war, imprisonments, capital

punishment—exist only because of the oath, in virtue of which men make

themselves instruments of evil, and believe that they free themselves

from all responsibility. As I think now of the many evils that have

impelled me to hostility and hatred, I see that they all originated with

the the oath, the engagement to submit to the will of others. I

understand now the meaning of the words:—

“But let your speech be, Yea, yea; nay, nay; and whatsoever is more than

these is of evil.” (Matt. v. 37.)

Understanding this, I am convinced that the oath is destructive of my

true welfare and of that of others, and this belief changes my estimate

of right and wrong, of the important and despicable. What once seemed to

me right and important,—the promise of fidelity to the government

supported by the oath, the exacting of oaths from others, and all acts

contrary to conscience, done because of the oath, now seem to me wrong

and despicable. Therefore I can no longer evade the commandment of Jesus

forbidding the oath, I can no longer bind myself by oath to any one, I

cannot exact an oath from another, I cannot encourage men to take an

oath, or to cause others to take an oath; nor can I regard the oath as

necessary, important, or even inoffensive.

Jesus has shown me that the fourth temptation destructive to my

happiness is the resort to violence for the resistance of evil. I am

obliged to believe that this is an evil for myself and for others;

consequently, I cannot, as I did once, deliberately resort to violence,

and seek to justify my action with the pretext that it is indispensable

for the defence of my person and property, or of the persons and

property of others. I can no longer yield to the first impulse to resort

to violence; I am obliged to renounce it, and to abstain from it

altogether.

But this is not all. I understand now the snare that caused me to fall

into this evil. I know now that the snare consisted in the erroneous

belief that my life could be made secure by violence, by the defence of

my person and property against the encroachments of others. I know now

that a great portion of the evils that afflict mankind are due to

this,—that men, instead of giving their work for others, deprive

themselves completely of the privilege of work, and forcibly appropriate

the labor of their fellows. Every one regards a resort to violence as

the best possible security for life and for property, and I now see that

a great portion of the evil that I did myself, and saw others do,

resulted from this practice. I understood now the meaning of the words:—

“Not to be ministered unto, but to minister.” “The laborer is worthy of

his food.”

I believe now that my true welfare, and that of others, is possible only

when I labor not for myself, but for another, and that I must not refuse

to labor for another, but to give with joy that of which he has need.

This faith has changed my estimate of what is right and important, and

wrong and despicable. What once seemed to me right and important—riches,

proprietary rights, the point of honor, the maintenance of personal

dignity and personal privileges—have now become to me wrong and

despicable. Labor for others, poverty, humility, the renunciation of

property and of personal privileges, have become in my eyes right and

important.

When, now, in a moment of forgetfulness, I yield to the impulse to

resort to violence, for the defence of my person or property, or of the

persons or property of others, I can no longer deliberately make use of

this snare for my own destruction and the destruction of others. I can

no longer acquire property. I can no longer resort to force in any form

for my own defence or the defence of another. I can no longer co-operate

with any power whose object is the defence of men and their property by

violence. I can no longer act in a judicial capacity, or clothe myself

with any authority, or take part in the exercise of any jurisdiction

whatever. I can no longer encourage others in the support of tribunals,

or in the exercise of authoritative administration.

Jesus has shown me that the fifth temptation that deprives me of

well-being, is the distinction that we make between compatriots and

foreigners. I must believe this; consequently, if, in a moment of

forgetfulness, I have a feeling of hostility toward a man of another

nationality, I am obliged, in moments of reflection, to regard this

feeling as wrong. I can no longer, as I did formerly, justify my

hostility by the superiority of my own people over others, or by the

ignorance, the cruelty, or the barbarism of another race. I can no

longer refrain from striving to be even more friendly with a foreigner

than with one of my own countrymen.

I know now that the distinction I once made between my own people and

those of other countries is destructive of my welfare; but, more than

this, I now know the snare that led me into this evil, and I can no

longer, as I did once, walk deliberately and calmly into this snare. I

know now that this snare consists in the erroneous belief that my

welfare is dependent only upon the welfare of my countrymen, and not

upon the welfare of all mankind. I know now that my fellowship with

others cannot be shut off by a frontier, or by a government decree which

decides that I belong to some particular political organization. I know

now that all men are everywhere brothers and equals. When I think now of

all the evil that I have done, that I have endured, and that I have seen

about me, arising from national enmities, I see clearly that it is all

due to that gross imposture called patriotism,—love for one’s native

land. When I think now of my education, I see how these hateful feelings

were grafted into my mind. I understand now the meaning of the words:—

“Love your enemies, and pray for them that persecute you; that ye may be

sons of your Father that is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on

the evil and the good, and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust.”

I understand now that true welfare is possible for me only on condition

that I recognize my fellowship with the whole world. I believe this, and

the belief has changed my estimate of what is right and wrong, important

and despicable. What once seemed to me right and important—love of

country, love for those of my own race, for the organization called the

State, services rendered at the expense of the welfare of other men,

military exploits—now seem to me detestable and pitiable. What once

seemed to me shameful and wrong—renunciation of nationality, and the

cultivation of cosmopolitanism—now seem to me right and important. When,

now, in a moment of forgetfulness, I sustain a Russian in preference to

a foreigner, and desire the success of Russia or of the Russian people,

I can no longer in lucid moments allow myself to be controlled by

illusions so destructive to my welfare and the welfare of others. I can

no longer recognize states or peoples; I can no longer take part in any

difference between peoples or states, or any discussion between them

either verbal or written, much less in any service in behalf of any

particular state. I can no longer co-operate with measures maintained by

divisions between states,—the collection of custom duties, taxes, the

manufacture of arms and projectiles, or any act favoring armaments,

military service, and, for a stronger reason, wars,—neither can I

encourage others to take any part in them.

I understand in what my true welfare consists, I have faith in that, and

consequently I cannot do what would inevitably be destructive of that

welfare. I not only have faith that I ought to live thus, but I have

faith that if I live thus, and only thus, my life will attain its only

possible meaning, and be reasonable, pleasant, and indestructible by

death. I believe that my reasonable life, the light I bear with me, was

given to me only that it might shine before men, not in words only, but

in good deeds, that men may thereby glorify the Father. I believe that

my life and my consciousness of truth is the talent confided to me for a

good purpose, and that this talent fulfils its mission only when it is

of use to others. I believe that I am a Ninevite with regard to other

Jonahs from whom I have learned and shall learn of the truth; but that I

am a Jonah in regard to other Ninevites to whom I am bound to transmit

the truth. I believe that the only meaning of my life is to be attained

by living in accordance with the light that is within me, and that I

must allow this light to shine forth to be seen of all men. This faith

gives me renewed strength to fulfil the doctrine of Jesus, and to

overcome the obstacles which still arise in my pathway. All that once

caused me to doubt the possibility of practising the doctrine of Jesus,

everything that once turned me aside, the possibility of privations, and

of suffering, and death, inflicted by those who know not the doctrine of

Jesus, now confirm its truth and draw me into its service. Jesus said,

“When you have lifted up the son of man, then shall you know that I am

he,”—then shall you be drawn into my service,—and I feel that I am

irresistibly drawn to him by the influence of his doctrine. “The truth,”

he says again, “The truth shall make you free,” and I know that I am in

perfect liberty.

I once thought that if a foreign invasion occurred, or even if

evil-minded persons attacked me, and I did not defend myself, I should

be robbed and beaten and tortured and killed with those whom I felt

bound to protect, and this possibility troubled me. But this that once

troubled me now seems desirable and in conformity with the truth. I know

now that the foreign enemy and the malefactors or brigands are all men

like myself; that, like myself, they love good and hate evil; that they

live as I live, on the borders of death; and that, with me, they seek

for salvation, and will find it in the doctrine of Jesus. The evil that

they do to me will be evil to them, and so can be nothing but good for

me. But if truth is unknown to them, and they do evil thinking that they

do good, I, who know the truth, am bound to reveal it to them, and this

I can do only by refusing to participate in evil, and thereby confessing

the truth by my example.

“But hither come the enemy,—Germans, Turks, savages; if you do not make

war on them, they will exterminate you!” They will do nothing of the

sort. If there were a society of Christian men that did evil to none and

gave of their labor for the good of others, such a society would have no

enemies to kill or to torture them. The foreigners would take only what

the members of this society voluntarily gave, making no distinction

between Russians, or Turks, or Germans. But when Christians live in the

midst of a non-Christian society which defends itself by force of arm,

and calls upon the Christians to join in waging war, then the Christians

have an opportunity for revealing the truth to them who know it not. A

Christian knowing the truth bears witness of the truth before others,

and this testimony can be made manifest only by example. He must

renounce war and do good to all men, whether they are foreigners or

compatriots.

“But there are wicked men among compatriots; they will attack a

Christian, and if the latter do not defend himself, will pillage and

massacre him and his family.” No; they will not do so. If all the

members of this family are Christians, and consequently hold their lives

only for the service of others, no man will be found insane enough to

deprive such people of the necessaries of life or to kill them. The

famous Maclay lived among the most bloodthirsty of savages; they did not

kill him, they reverenced him and followed his teachings, simply because

he did not fear them, exacted nothing from them, and treated them always

with kindness.

“But what if a Christian lives in a non-Christian family, accustomed to

defend itself and its property by a resort to violence, and is called

upon to take part in measures of defence?” This solicitation is simply

an appeal to the Christian to fulfil the decrees of truth. A Christian

knows the truth only that he may show it to others, more especially to

his neighbors and to those who are bound to him by ties of blood and

friendship, and a Christian can show the truth only by refusing to join

in the errors of others, by taking part neither with aggressors or

defenders, but by abandoning all that he has to those who will take it

from him, thus showing by his acts that he has need of nothing save the

fulfilment of the will of God, and that he fears nothing except

disobedience to that will.

“But how, if the government will not permit a member of the society over

which it has sway, to refuse to recognize the fundamental principles of

governmental order or to decline to fulfil the duties of a citizen? The

government exacts from a Christian the oath, jury service, military

service, and his refusal to conform to these demands may be punished by

exile, imprisonment, and even by death.” Then, once more, the exactions

of those in authority are only an appeal to the Christian to manifest

the truth that is in him. The exactions of those in authority are to a

Christian the exactions of those who do not know the truth.

Consequently, a Christian who knows the truth must bear witness of the

truth to those who know it not. Exile and imprisonment and death afford

to the Christian the possibility of bearing witness of the truth, not in

words, but in acts. Violence, war, brigandage, executions, are not

accomplished through the forces of unconscious nature; they are

accomplished by men who are blinded, and do not know the truth.

Consequently, the more evil these men do to Christians, the further they

are from the truth, the more unhappy they are, and the more necessary it

is that they should have knowledge of the truth. Now a Christian cannot

make known his knowledge of truth except by abstaining from the errors

that lead men into evil; he must render good for evil. This is the

life-work of a Christian, and if it is accomplished, death cannot harm

him, for the meaning of his life can never be destroyed.

Men are united by error into a compact mass. The prevailing power of

evil is the cohesive force that binds them together. The reasonable

activity of humanity is to destroy the cohesive power of evil.

Revolutions are attempts to shatter the power of evil by violence. Men

think that by hammering upon the mass they will be able to break it in

fragments, but they only make it more dense and impermeable than it was

before. External violence is of no avail. The disruptive movement must

come from within when molecule releases its hold upon molecule and the

whole mass falls into disintegration. Error is the force that binds men

together; truth alone can set them free. Now truth is truth only when it

is in action, and then only can it be transmitted from man to man. Only

truth in action, by introducing light into the conscience of each

individual, can dissolve the homogeneity of error, and detach men one by

one from its bonds.

This work has been going on for eighteen hundred years. It began when

the commandments of Jesus were first given to humanity, and it will not

cease till, as Jesus said, “all things be accomplished” (Matt. v. 18).

The Church that sought to detach men from error and to weld them

together again by the solemn affirmation that it alone was the truth,

has long since fallen to decay. But the Church composed of men united,

not by promises or sacraments, but by deeds of truth and love, has

always lived and will live forever. Now, as eighteen hundred years ago,

this Church is made up not of those who say “Lord, Lord,” and bring

forth iniquity, but of those who hear the words of truth and reveal them

in their lives. The members of this Church know that life is to them a

blessing as long as they maintain fraternity with others and dwell in

the fellowship of the son of man; and that the blessing will be lost

only to those who do not obey the commandments of Jesus. And so the

members of this Church practise the commandments of Jesus and thereby

teach them to others. Whether this Church be in numbers little or great,

it is, nevertheless, the Church that shall never perish, the Church that

shall finally unite within its bonds the hearts of all mankind.

“Fear not, little flock; for it is your Father’s good purpose to give

you the kingdom.”

APPENDIX.

When Count Tolstoi speaks of the Church and its dogmas, he refers

especially, of course, to the Orthodox Greek Church, the national church

of Russia. The following summary of the teachings of the Orthodox Greek

Church is taken from Prof. T. M. Lindsay’s article in the Encyclopædia

Brittanica, ninth edition, volume xi. p. 158. Variations from the Roman

Catholic doctrine are indicated by small capitals, and variations from

Protestant doctrine by italics. [Tr.]

“Christianity is a divine revelation, communicated to mankind through

Christ; its saving truths are to be learned from the Bible and

tradition, the former having been written, and the latter maintained

uncorrupted through the influence of the Holy Spirit; the interpretation

of the Bible belongs to the Church, which is taught by the Holy Spirit,

but every believer may read the Scriptures.

“According to the Christian revelation, God is a trinity, that is, the

divine essence exists in three persons, perfectly equal in nature and

dignity, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; the Holy Ghost

proceeds from the Father only. Besides the triune God, there is no other

object of divine worship, but homage (ὑπερδουλία) may be paid to the

Virgin Mary, and reverence (δουλία) to the saints and to their pictures

and relics.

“Man is born with a corrupt bias, which was not his at creation; the

first man, when created, possessed IMMORTALITY, PERFECT WISDOM, AND A

WILL REGULATED BY REASON. Through the first sin, Adam and his posterity

lost IMMORTALITY, AND HIS WILL RECEIVED A BIAS TOWARDS EVIL. In this

natural state, man, who, even before he actually sins, is a sinner

before God by original or inherited sin, commits manifold actual

transgressions; but he is not absolutely without power of will towards

good, and is not always doing evil.

“Christ, the Son of God, became man in two natures, which internally and

inseparably united make One Person, and, according to the eternal

purpose of God, has obtained for man reconciliation with God and eternal

life, inasmuch as he, by his vicarious death has made satisfaction to

God for the world’s sins; and this satisfaction was PERFECTLY

COMMENSURATE WITH THE SINS OF THE WORLD. Man is made partaker of

reconciliation in spiritual regeneration, which he attains to, being led

and kept by the Holy Ghost. This divine help is offered to all men

without distinction, and may be rejected. In order to attain to

salvation, man is justified, and, when so justified, can do no more than

the commands of God. He may fall from this state of grace through mortal

sin.

“Regeneration is offered by the word of God and in the sacraments,

which, under visible signs, communicate God’s invisible grace to

Christians when administered cum intentione. There are seven mysteries

or sacraments. Baptism entirely destroys original sin. In the Eucharist,

the true body and blood of Christ are substantially present, and the

elements are changed into the substance of Christ, whose body and blood

are corporeally partaken of by communicants. All Christians should

receive the bread and the WINE. The Eucharist is also an expiatory

sacrifice. The new birth when lost may be restored through repentance,

which is not merely (1) sincere sorrow, but also (2) confession of each

individual sin to the priest, and (3) the discharge of penances imposed

by the priest for the removal of the temporal punishment, which may have

been imposed by God and the Church. Penance, accompanied by the judicial

absolution of the priest, makes a true sacrament.

“The Church of Christ is the fellowship of all those who accept and

profess all the articles of faith transmitted by the apostles, and

approved by General Synods Without this visible Church there is no

salvation. It is under the abiding influence of the Holy Ghost, and

therefore cannot err in matters of faith. Specially appointed persons

are necessary in the service of the Church, and they form a threefold

order, distinct jure divino from other Christians, of Bishops, Priests,

and Deacons. The four Patriarchs of equal dignity have the HIGHEST RANK

AMONG THE BISHOPS, AND THE BISHOPS united in a General Council represent

the Church and infallibly decide, under the guidance of the Holy Ghost,

all matters of faith and ecclesiastical life. All ministers of Christ

must be regularly called and appointed to their office, and are

consecrated by the sacrament of orders. Bishops must be unmarried, and

PRIESTS AND DEACONS MUST NOT CONTRACT A SECOND MARRIAGE. To all priests

in common belongs, besides the preaching of the word, the administration

of the SIX SACRAMENTS,—BAPTISM, CONFIRMATION, PENANCE, EUCHARIST,

MATRIMONY, UNCTION OF THE SICK. The bishops alone can administer the

sacrament of orders.

“Ecclesiastical ceremonies are part of the divine service; most of them

have apostolic origin; and those connected with the sacrament must not

be omitted by priests under pain of mortal sin.”

FOOTNOTES:

Epictetus says: “From God have descended the seeds not only to my father

and grandfather, but to all beings which are generated on the earth and

are produced, and particularly to rational beings; for these only are by

their nature formed to have communion with God, being by means of reason

conjoined with him.” (Discourses, chap. ix.)

Confucius says: “The law of the great learning consists in developing

and re-establishing the luminous principle of reason which we have

received from on high.” This sentence is repeated many times, and

constitutes the basis of Confucius’ doctrine.

[1] Histoire de la littérature contemporaine en Russie.

[2] Contra Celsum, book VIII. chap. LXXIII.

[3] Isaiah lxi. 1, 2.

[4] Heb. ii. 2. Literally, “Faith is the support of the hoped for, the

conviction of the unseen.”

[5] In all the translations authorized by the Church, we find here a

perhaps intentional error. The words ἐν ὑμῖν, in you, are invariably

rendered with you.

[6] Count Tolstoi’s rendering.

[7] More than this, as if to do away with all doubt about the law to

which he referred, Jesus cites immediately, in connection with this

passage, the most decisive instance of the negation of the law of Moses

by the eternal law, the law of which not the smallest jot is to fail:

“Whosoever putteth away his wife, and marrieth another, committeth

adultery.” (Luke xvi. 18.) That is, according to the written law divorce

is permissible; according to the eternal law it is forbidden.

[8] Matt. v. 21–48, especially 38

[9] Deut. xxiv. 1.

[10] Levit. xix. 12; Deut. xxiii. 21, 34.

[11] This citation is taken from the Commentaries on the Gospel, by the

Archbishop Michael, a work based upon the writings of the Fathers of the

Church.

[12] See Levit. xix. 17, 18.

[13] Contra Celsum, book VIII. chap. LXXIII.

[14] Isaiah lxi. 1, 2.

[15] Heb. ii. 2. Literally, “Faith is the support of the hoped for, the

conviction of the unseen.”

[16] In all the translations authorized by the Church, we find here a

perhaps intentional error. The words ἐν ὑμῖν, in you, are invariably

rendered with you.

[17] Marcus Aurelius says: “Reverence that which is best in the

universe; and this is that which makes use of all things and directs all

things. And in like manner also reverence that which is best in thyself;

and this is of the same kind as that. For in thyself, also, that which

makes use of everything else, is this, and thy life is directed by

this.” (Meditations v. 21.)

[18] The words of verse 25 are incorrectly translated; the word ἡλικίαν

means age, age of life: consequently the whole phrase should be

rendered: can add one hour to his life.

[19] Exod. iii. 6.

[20] John xi. 19–22; Matt. xii. 40; Luke xi. 30; Matt. xvi. 21; Mark

viii. 31; Luke ix. 22; Matt. xvii. 23; Mark ix. 31; Matt. xx. 19; Mark

x. 34; Luke xviii. 33; Matt. xxvi. 32; Mark xiv. 25.

[21] A city in Russia become famous by a recent catastrophe.

[22] The epistle of James was for a long time rejected by the Church,

and when accepted, was subjected to various alterations: certain words

are omitted, others are transposed, or translated in an arbitrary way. I

have restored the defective passages after the text authorized by

Tischendorf.

[23] Here, as in other passages, δόξα has been incorrectly translated

“honor”; δόξα, from the verb δοκέω, means “manner of seeing, judgment,

doctrine.”

[24] Jesus is led into the desert to be tempted of error. Error suggests

to Jesus that he is not the Son of God if he cannot make stones into

bread. Jesus replies that he lives, not by bread alone, but by the word

of God. Then Error says that if he lives by the word or spirit of God,

the flesh may be destroyed, but the spirit will not perish. Jesus’ reply

is that life in the flesh is the will of God; to destroy the flesh is to

act contrary to the will of God, to tempt God. Error then suggests that

if this be true, he should, like the rest of the world, place himself at

the service of the flesh, and the flesh will give him satisfaction.

Jesus’ reply is that he can serve God only because the true life is

spiritual, and has been placed in the flesh by the will of God. Jesus

then leaves the desert and returns to the world. (Matt. iv. 1–11; Luke

iv. 1–13.)

[25] The justification of this existence made by parents is very

curious. “I need nothing for myself,” the father says; “this way of

living is very distasteful to me; but, because of affection for my

children, I endure its burdens.” In plain terms his argument would be:

“I know by experience that my way of living is a source of unhappiness,

consequently I am training my children to the same unhappy method of

existence. For love of them, I bring them into a city permeated with

physical and moral miasma; I give them into the care of strangers, who

regard the education of the young as a lucrative enterprise; I surround

my children with physical, moral, and intellectual corruption.” And this

reasoning must serve as a justification of the absurd existence led by

the parents themselves.

[26] See Appendix.

[27] This book has been in use in all the schools and churches of Russia

since 1839.—Tr.