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I. INTRODUCTION
The last decade witnessed the emergence and popularization
of the "drug of the 80's"--MDMA. Also known as "Adam,"
"Ecstasy," or "XTC," extensive media coverage recently
highlighted what appears to be a dramatic increase in both
therapeutic and recreational use. A controversy has since ensued
providing very different perspectives on the substance. Some
psychotherapists view MDMA as a therapeutic aid, which, when
combined with psychological treatment, has benefits that outweigh
potential health consequences and see minimal harm associated
with carefully monitored use (Greer, 1985, Grinspoon, 1985,
Lynch, 1985, Wolfson, 1985). Some drug treatment counselors and
drug enforcement officials, on the other hand, see it as a
potentially dangerous substance possessing harmful actions, and
increasingly being abused outside the therapeutic community
(United States Department of Justice, 1985, Sapienza, 1985,
Sapienza, 1986). As pharmacologist Alexander Shulgin describes
it:
MDMA has been thrust upon the public awareness as a
largely unknown drug which to some is a medical miracle
and to others a social devil. ... There have been the
born-again protagonists who say that once you have tried
it you will see the light and will defend it against any
attack, and there have been the staunch antagonists who
say this is nothing but LSD revisited and it will
certainly destroy our youth. There are many voices to
be heard presenting the modest inventory of facts that
are known, but there is no one who will answer questions
in a way that can be heard by both camps. (1985, p. 3)
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
2
While no formal survey has been conducted to determine the
exact extent of MDMA use, nonmedical use appears to be
increasing. Still, MDMA remains largely unknown to much of
American society, including frequent users of other psychoactive
drugs. There are signs, however, that this is changing.
Research has only just begun to address many of the questions and
concerns that have arisen. Consequently, it can be anticipated
that much of the following information will become dated as more
formal studies are completed.1
The uniqueness of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
can be seen in the controversy over the proper terminology used
to describe it (Beck, 1986, Seymour, 1986). As the N-methyl
analogue of MDA, it is related to both mescaline and the
amphetamines. Although often referred to as a hallucinogen, this
association is somewhat erroneous. The effects of MDMA
dramatically differ from those of LSD and other psychedelics,
with a notable lack of the perceptual distortions usually
associated with these substances.
The label, "designer drugs" has often been applied to MDMA.
Designer drugs have been described as "substances wherein the
psychoactive properties of a scheduled drug have been retained,
but the molecular structure has been altered in order to avoid
prosecution under the Controlled Substances Act" (Smith and
Seymour, 1985: 1). Whether MDMA is actually a designer drug is
debatable since it was first synthesized and patented in 1914
____________________
1 Much of the following discussion is excerpted from articles by
Beck (1986) and Beck and Morgan (1986).
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
3
long before the Controlled Substances Act (1970) came into being.
Nevertheless, the media has occasionally confused MDMA with the
other designer drugs (Beck and Morgan, 1986; Seymour, 1986).
Most often these substances are synthetic opiates employed as
heroin substitutes and which, because of their potency, are
considerably more dangerous. Among these are MPTP (capable of
causing Parkinson's disease) and the fentanyl analogues
(responsible for a large number of fatal overdoses).2 Therefore,
it is important for substance abuse professionals to be extremely
cautious in learning about the different designer drugs and the
unique effects of each.
II. ORIGINS AND DISTRIBUTION
In terms of popular use, MDMA is essentially the successor
to MDA, the counterculture "love drug" of the late 1960s and
early 1970s. MDA first appeared on the streets in 1967 and
became known as a drug which produced a sensual, easily managed
psychedelic high (Meyers, Rose, & Smith, 1967/68). After MDA was
placed in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in 1970,
its use seemed to level off and gradually decline. While MDMA
first appeared on the street in the early 1970s, use remained
very limited until the end of the decade. MDMA was a legal
substance until July 1985 when the Drug Enforcement
____________________
2 This reached the point of absurdity in the portrayal of MDMA on
NBC's "Another World," a daytime soap. MDMA appears to have been
confused with "synthetic heroin so potent that addicts prefer it
to the real stuff" (New York Post, June 20, 1985, p. 80). A good
discussion of other problems associated with media coverage of
MDMA and similar compounds is provided by Reidlinger and
Reidlinger (1985).
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
4
Administration (DEA) used its emergency scheduling power to
temporarily place MDMA in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances
Act (Federal Register, May 31, 1985). This schedule is reserved
for those drugs designated as possessing no medical use and
having a high potential for abuse (e.g., heroin, LSD). The DEA's
actions were challenged by some therapists and researchers who
argued that a Schedule I status would severely hinder research
into what they regarded as MDMA's therapeutic potential.
According to most reports (Beck, 1986, Seymour, 1986),
psychotherapists who had been using the drug as part of
therapeutic programs since the mid- to late 1970s found its
benefits to outweigh any potential health risks for patients
under their care.
In response to these challenges, three federal
administrative hearings were held to help determine the final
scheduling of MDMA. Based on testimony from the hearings, the
administrative law judge concurred with the proponent therapists
in recommending that MDMA be placed in Schedule III -- a category
for drugs with accepted medical use and only a low to moderate
abuse potential (Young, 1986). However, the DEA administrator
rejected this recommendation and MDMA was permanently placed in
Schedule I effective November 13, 1986 (Federal Register, October
14, 1986).3
The scheduling process and ensuing reaction by therapists
soon brought MDMA to national attention. Nearly all the major
____________________
3 For a more thorough policy discussion, the reader is referred
to Beck (1986) and Seymour (1986).
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
5
newspapers and magazines devoted features to the substance,
sensationalizing the reputed euphoric and therapeutic qualities
of MDMA (Life, 1985, Newsweek, 1985, Time, 1985). The increase
in publicity was accompanied by an increased street demand.
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) psychopharmacologist
Ronald Siegel (1985:2) stated that street use "escalated from an
estimated 10,000 doses distributed in all of 1976 to 30,000 doses
distributed per month in 1985." The DEA found evidence of use in
a majority of states and estimated that "30,000 dosage units are
distributed each month in one Texas city" (1985:2). These
estimates (made just before MDMA became illegal) must be
considered highly speculative and it is unknown what changes in
use have occurred since then.
III. EPIDEMIOLOGY
Although research examining recreational use patterns of
MDMA has been minimal, the drug appears to be most popular in
urban areas, especially college towns (Beck, 1986, Renfroe,
1986).4 Many users belong to groups who have traditionally been
associated with MDA use. Prominent among these are gays and
college students. Newsweek noted that MDMA "has become popular
over the last two years on college campuses, where it is
____________________
4 Most of the information available regarding street use of MDMA
is based on anecdotal accounts given to the media, therapists,
and substance abuse professionals, as well as preliminary
research conducted by Jerome Beck (1986). Through his capacity
as a drug educator and counselor at the University of Oregon and
in the San Francisco Bay Area, Beck has been able to interview
hundreds of individuals who reportedly used MDMA over the past 10
years.
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
6
considered an aphrodisiac" (Newsweek, 1985, p.96). This
reputation explains why MDMA seems to be increasing in popularity
even among groups such as college fraternities, which are not
traditional psychedelic users (Beck, 1986).
One of the first media accounts of MDMA described it as a
"yuppie psychedelic" whose popularity was spreading rapidly among
educated professionals in their 30s and 40s. The article stated
that "in contrast to the mind-bending hallucinogens of the '60s,
Adam is reported to leave one's faculties fairly clear," (Mandel,
1984, p.A2). The same article quoted a drug abuse program
director as noting that "some of these people haven't touched a
psychedelic for 10 or 15 years, but cocaine is really scaring
folks these days. They are turning elsewhere" (Mandel, 1984,
p.A2). Many individuals describe using MDMA on occasion while
claiming to rarely or never use other more commonly available
illegal drugs or even alcohol (Beck, 1986, Seymour, 1986). As
the author of a recent article titled "Drugless in L.A." stated,
"For veterans of the '60s it is interesting to note that the
major new drug of the '80s, Ecstasy, has been hyped as a drug
that is not really a drug" (Kaye, 1986, p.34).
MDMA's cost has ranged from $50 to $120 a gram, yielding 5
to 15 doses per gram. The price has increased slowly since MDMA
became illegal. The oral route is by far the most common method
of ingestion, although some individuals occasionally inhale the
drug. Intravenous (IV) use seems to be rare. At times a small
quantity of MDMA will be swallowed or inhaled as a "booster"
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
7
after the initial oral dose begins to wear off. A continuous use
of boosters, however, generally leads to great fatigue the next
day.
Although MDMA has been described occasionally as a "party
drug," that is not its most common use pattern. Most individuals
describe taking it with a small intimate group or another person,
usually a close friend, spouse, or lover. A major exception was
certain bars in the Dallas, Texas, area, where tablets were
purchased at the door or counter, and where, according to the
DEA, 30,000 dosage units of MDMA a month were sold by one local
dealer alone, right up until the scheduling ban (United States
Department of Justice, 1985).
IV. PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY
A. Effects
The MDMA dosage range between effectiveness and toxicity is
fairly narrow. It is reported that toxic effects begin to
increase sharply over the 200 mg dose level. Effects generally
appear within 20 to 60 minutes, when the user experiences a
"rush" usually described as mild but euphoric. The "rush" may
last from a few minutes to half an hour or not occur at all,
depending on the user's mental set and the environment, the dose
ingested, and the MDMA's quality. Zinberg (1976) described a
similar pattern with MDA in an early field study. After the
rush, the high levels off to a plateau, usually lasting from two
to three hours, followed by a gradual "coming down" sensation,
ending with a feeling of fatigue. Insomnia, however, may persist
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
8
long after the fatigue stage, depending on the dosage and the
user.
MDMA, although milder and shorter-lasting than MDA, still
exerts amphetamine-like effects on the body, including dilated
pupils, dry mouth and throat, tension in the lower jaw, grinding
of the teeth, and overall stimulation. These effects vary
depending on dose. In addition, MDMA exerts a strong paradoxical
effect of relaxation, which often causes many users to be unaware
of the stimulant side effects (Beck, 1986). Most users cite a
dramatic drop in defense mechanisms and increased empathy towards
others. Combined with the stimulant effect, this generally
produces an increase in intimate communication. Although both
MDA and MDMA have been labeled "aphrodisiacs," users most often
describe a more sensual, rather than sexual, experience.
B. Psychotherapeutic Effects
Research evaluating MDA as a psychotherapeutic tool preceded
that of MDMA. Studies were conducted by Naranjo et al. (1967),
Naranjo (1973), Turek et al. (1974), and Yensen et al. (1976).
The studies described similar outcomes and unanimously supported
the therapeutic potential of MDA. Subjects described an
intensification of feelings, facilitation of self-insight, and
heightened empathy as qualitative characteristics of MDA.
Zinberg (1976) carried out what is still the only published
field study of either MDA or MDMA. He interviewed 23 experienced
MDA users while they were high in their "natural" settings,
either individually or in groups. None of the users reported any
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
9
past negative experiences. Zinberg observed no panic reactions
or hallucinatory episodes.
The most complete study of MDMA's effects published to date
was conducted by Greer (1983) who administered the drug to 29
subjects (none with severe mental disorders) in a therapeutic
setting. Most of the subjects were given an oral dose of 75-150
mg of MDMA. After about two hours, they were offered a second
dose of 50-75 mg. Greer reported that all the subjects
experienced some benefits. Each described feeling closer and
more intimate with the others present, and almost all reported
positive changes in their feelings and attitudes. Moreover, 17
subjects reported some cognitive benefit (e.g., an expanded
mental perspective and insight into personal patterns or
problems). Follow-up questionnaires were given at a median time
of about nine months after the last session, and the majority of
subjects reported positive changes in work, relationships, mood,
and attitude. Half reported decreased use of mood-altering
drugs, often mentioning that these substances seemed less
appealing after experiencing MDMA. According to Greer, "The
ability not only to feel free of conflict--which can be provided
by many drugs of abuse--but to learn how to prevent conflicts in
everyday life seems unique to MDMA as a therapeutic adjunct"
(Greer, 1983, p.12).
It appears that well over one hundred psychiatrists and
other therapists have employed MDMA as a therapeutic adjunct.
Several psychiatrists testified on behalf of MDMA at the federal
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
10
administrative hearings concerning permanent scheduling. Wolfson
(1985) cited optimistic results in the treatment of a few
psychotic patients. He concluded that "MDMA provides a positive
alternative to the dark and negative experiences of people
experiencing psychotic states" (p.9). In general, therapists
attending the hearings believed that a major advantage of MDMA
(less so with MDA) over the traditional psychedelics is that it
produces far less distortion of sensory perception and fewer
unpleasant emotional reactions. The experience is generally seen
as both personal and familiar and seems to differ only in its
degree of intensity from that of everyday experience. This is in
sharp contrast to the effects of most other psychedelics, where
the experience is often perceived as unfamiliar and
transpersonal. As Grinspoon asserted, "MDMA appears to have some
of the advantages of LSD-like drugs without most of the
corresponding disadvantages" (Grinspoon, 1985, p.3).
Although some preliminary research suggested that MDMA has
significant therapeutic potential, the notable absence of well-
controlled, double-blind studies limits conclusions about the
possible efficacy or risks associated with the use of MDMA in
therapy. As Siegel recently noted, "MDMA has been promoted as a
cure for everything from personal depression to alienation to
cocaine addiction. . . . It's got a lot of notoriety, but the
clinical claims made for its efficacy are totally unsupported at
this time" (Siegel, 1985, p.14). Researchers and therapists are
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
11
aware that only formal, well-controlled research will adequately
assess the true therapeutic value of MDMA.
V. RELATED PROBLEMS/HEALTH RISKS
A. Physiological Problems.
Although little is known about the potential toxicity for
humans of MDA, MDMA, or any of the other amphetamine
psychedelics, some research has assessed toxic and lethal doses
in animals (Hardman, Haavik, & Seevers, 1973, Davis, & Borne,
1984). Assuming the results of the data on animals can be
generalized to humans, indications are that a lethal IV dose for
50% (LD-50) of 150-pound individuals would be about 1100 to 1780
mg. The dangers of such extrapolation are well known, but these
figures would seem to indicate that a lethal dose for injected
MDMA may be a little over 10 times the usual 100-150 mg amount.
A recent study suggested a much higher LD-50 for MDMA when
ingested orally. The single-dose oral LD-50 for rats was found
to be approximately 325 mg/kg, with death associated with kidney
and liver damage (Goad 1985). This dose corresponds to over 150
times the human therapeutic level (1.5-2.0 mg/kg).
Street use of MDA has been connected to a number of deaths,
although not clearly, because other drugs were also involved
(Reed, Cravey, & Sedgwick, 1972). Some deaths reported in 1972
and 1973 to be a result of MDA toxicity are now known to have
occurred as a result of ingesting another amphetamine derivative:
PMA (paramethoxyamphetamine) (Inaba, Way, & Blum, 1978). The PMA
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
12
compound, frequently passed off as MDA, often caused a dangerous
rise in blood pressure at effective doses. Fortunately, PMA
appears to have been totally withdrawn from circulation
(Stafford, 1983).
A few deaths have been associated with the use of MDMA, but
its role as a causative factor in these deaths remains uncertain
(Shulgin, 1985). As of April, 1986, 20 emergency room incidents
for MDMA had been listed in the federal government's Drug Abuse
Warning Network (DAWN) (Newmeyer, 1986). Ignorance of the
substance undoubtedly contributes to underreporting. However, the
number of mentions still appears to be rather low when compared
with the suspected extent of use described by Siegel (1985) and
the DEA (Sapienza, 1985).
While associated with relatively few overdoses or deaths,
MDMA's neurotoxic potential is cause for concern. Studies in
rats conducted at the University of Chicago indicate that large
intravenous doses of MDA and MDMA in rats are associated with
suspected degeneration of serotonergic ("chemical messenger")
nerve terminals in certain areas of the brain (Ricaurte, 1986,
Ricaurte, Bryan, Strauss, Seiden, & Schuster, 1985). Also, there
may be some suppression of the immune system. Serotonin is a
neurotransmitter that apparently plays an important role in
regulating sleep, mood, sexual activity, and sensitivity to
stimuli (Schuster, 1986). However, the University of Chicago
researchers acknowledged that "because of the differences in
species, dose, frequency, and route of administration, as well as
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
13
differences in the way in which rats and humans metabolize
amphetamine, it would be premature to extrapolate our findings to
humans" (Ricaurte, et al., 1985, p.988). In addition, our
overall lack of knowledge concerning serotonin makes it difficult
to interpret the significance of these findings. Research is now
being conducted at Stanford and other institutions to determine
the potential significance of this damage, whether it occurs in
humans, and if so, at what dosage level (both orally and
intravenously).
A number of acute and chronic problems have been identified.
for example, MDMA may exert an adverse action on the
immunological response of some individuals. This effect is most
often associated with repeated high dosages, particularly in
individuals who have used the drug over a long period of time.
Long-term users often describe increasingly uncomfortable and
prolonged "burn-out" periods, sometimes lasting two or more days.
Many individuals have also reported an increased susceptibility
to various ailments, particularly sore throats, colds, flus, and
herpes outbreaks (Beck, 1986). These reactions appear to be rare
in novice users and individuals in good physical and mental
health.
Generally, many of the side effects of MDMA are similar to
those of amphetamine and, as Weil (1976) noted with MDA, are very
much dose-related. One of the most common annoying effects is a
tension of the jaw muscles, often progressing to involuntary
grinding of the teeth, an effect noted with MDMA and amphetamine-
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
14
like drugs in general. Nausea and dizziness are occasionally
reported, most often during the initial onset of the high.
Individuals become dehydrated and should be drinking water or
juice throughout the experience. Unfortunately, some choose to
drink alcoholic beverages, which increase dehydration. As with
other stimulants, individuals under the influence of MDMA are
often capable of ingesting large quantities of alcohol with few
discernible effects until a short time later. Thus, overdose of
alcohol likely plays a significant role in the next day's
hangover (Beck, 1986). The potentially toxic interaction between
MDMA and alcohol merits further investigation.
One research project studied the effects of a single
exposure to MDMA among 21 healthy individuals. All these
subjects had used MDMA on previous occasions. Using blood
chemistry, physiological measures, and neurological examinations,
the researchers concluded that:
This experimental situation produced no observed
or reported psychological or physiological
damage, either during the twenty-four hour study
period, or during the three month follow-up
period. From the information presented here one
can say only that MDMA, at the doses tested, has
remarkably consistent and predictable
physiological effects which are transient and
free of clinically apparent major toxicity
(Downing, 1985, p.5-6).
The research design of this experiment was heavily
criticized by an FDA pharmacologist at the administrative
hearings (Tocus, 1985). He agreed with the study's conclusion
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
15
that "there is insufficient evidence to judge accurately either
harm or benefit" (Downing, 1985, p.6).
Based on the limited information available, researchers have
identified the following medical conditions as possible
contraindications to MDMA use: diabetes, diminished liver
function, epilepsy, glaucoma, heart disease, hypertension,
hypoglycemia, hyperthyroidism and pregnancy (Beck, 1986, Seymour,
1986; Greer, 1983).
B. Psychological Problems.
The most frequent use of MDMA usually occurs during the
first months following the initial experience. After first
exposure, some individuals will attempt to continually
reexperience the positive aspects of the drug. However, this
abusive cycle tends to be brief. Within a short time, the
frequent use of MDMA almost invariably produces a strong
dysphoric reaction, which is only exacerbated with continued use.
The increasing number of unpleasant side effects coupled with an
almost total loss of desired effects occurs with greater rapidity
and intensity than they do with other more commonly abused
substances (Beck, 1986; Seymour, 1986; Greer, 1983; Strassman,
1985). However, since the popularity of MDMA is fairly recent,
more time is needed to see how use patterns develop among new
user groups introduced to the drug (e.g., adolescents, i.v.
users).
The strong euphoria associated with MDMA points towards a
high abuse potential. Although Seymour (1986) states that MDMA
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
16
doesn't seem to pack a "euphoric punch" or "rush" comparable to
other drugs, Beck (1986) finds just the opposite to be true.
Among individuals who have tried both MDMA and cocaine, the
majority usually express a strong preference for the longer,
smoother euphoria provided by MDMA. As one individual
interviewed by the NIDA-funded Cocaine Cessation Project
described it:
Cocaine usually gives me an up-and-down jagged
feeling that lasts for only a short time. I
alternately like it and hate it, though for some
reason it has very seductive qualities.
"Ecstasy," on the other hand, is just as the name
implies. It's "state of the art." It puts me in
a place of total bliss for 3 or 4 hours. Whereas
coke often makes me feel jittery, MDMA is very
smooth. I know it has amphetamine in it, but I
feel so relaxed . . . (Murphy, 1986).
Recent studies at Johns Hopkins found that primates will
self-administer MDMA at regular intervals (although not quite as
frequently as cocaine) (Sapienza, 1986). In sharp contrast to
cocaine, however, there appear to be relatively few cases of what
might be considered heavy abuse of MDMA (Beck, 1986; Seymour,
1986; Siegel, 1985; Greer, 1983). In an ongoing study of MDMA
users, Siegel (1985) cited that the most common patterns of use
are "experimental" (ten times or less in lifetime) or "social-
recreational" (one to four times per month). He also said that
"compulsive patterns marked by escalating dose and frequency of
use have not been reported with MDMA users" (Siegel, 1985, p.2-
3).
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
17
Occasional psychological problems have been reported with
MDMA use, but appear to be quite rare. Episodes of
hyperventilation have been noted (Beck, 1986; Seymour, 1986;
Siegel, 1985), but these almost always occur during the onset of
the experience as part of a generalized panic reaction.
Reassurance that the phase is transitory generally lessens this
problem.
In 1985, the Haight Ashbury Free Medical Clinic reported
that each month three to four individuals sought treatment for
problems related to MDA, MDMA, or related drugs (Seymour, 1986).
Some clients present acute symptoms that include anxiety, rapid
pulse, and in advanced cases, paranoia. As Seymour notes: "With
MDMA and the methoxylated amphetamines, as is the case with most
stimulants and psychedelics, the acute toxicity symptoms that are
usually seen in treatment are similar and result from taking too
much of the drug. These dose related symptoms usually dissipate
as the drug wears off, and the patient can be discharged within a
few hours" (1986: 54-55). Seymour also goes on to state that
"More severe reactions to what users believed to be MDMA have
been reported, including prolonged psychotic reactions, but we
haven't seen them" (1986: 55). Treatment is usually symptomatic
and of relatively short duration. From the Haight Ashbury data,
it appears that the highly unpleasant aftereffects associated
with heavy use of MDMA serve to temper the appetite of all but a
few users.
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
18
Some additional psychological problems have recently been
noted in an ongoing study conducted by Mim Landry of the Haight
Ashbury Training and Education Project. A "delayed anxiety
disorder" has been observed in a few individuals. This problem
typically occurs among novice users of MDMA, and the
manifestations "range from a mild anxiety or concentration
difficulties to a full-blown disorder such as a panic attack with
hyperventilation and tachycardia, phobic disorders, parathesias,
or other anxiety states" (Seymour, 1986, p.56). These initial
findings underscore a growing danger of unsuccessful attempts at
"self-therapy" by individuals who run the risk of exacerbating
their emotional problems with unsupervised episodes. Up to this
point, the Haight Ashbury research provides some of the only
significant data on the potential problems associated with MDMA
abuse.
VI. CONCLUSION
Media accounts and substance abuse professionals often
dismiss MDMA as a short-term fad. However, the perceived
therapeutic and/or euphoric effects combined with the ease with
which MDMA is usually experienced can be expected to attract new
users. A danger in this regard is the uncertain potential for
abuse. In addition, there are potentially severe health risks
associated with MDMA and probable contraindications. This is
particularly true with repeated use of high dosages which may
lead to acute or chronic medical and psychological problems.
Unfortunately, our current knowledge regarding nearly every
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
19
aspect of MDMA is extremely limited and based almost exclusively
on anecdotal data. Research is obviously needed to better
determine the potential risks of a substance which is rapidly
establishing itself in our drug culture.
VII. RESOURCES
Dr. Jerome E. Beck
Institute for Scientific Analysis
2410 Lombard St.
San Francisco, CA 94123
(415) 921-4987
Dr. Mim Landry
Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinics
529 Clayton Street
San Francisco, CA 94117
Dr. John Newmeyer
Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinics
529 Clayton Street
San Francisco, CA 94117
(415) 864-6090
Dr. George Ricuarte
Department of Neurology
Stanford University Medical Center
Palo Alto, CA 94305
Dr. Frank Sapienza
Drug Enforcement Administration
1405 Eye Streeet, NW
Washington, D.C. 20537
Dr. Richard Seymour
Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinics
529 Clayton Street
San Francisco, CA 94117
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
20
11-13-1986 MD
Rev. 12/31/86 epd
Rev. 4/6/87 epd, 9/15/87 jh
UCLA Drug Abuse Research Group (M. Douglas Anglin, PhD, Director)
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