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Updates:
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Keywords: [--------], tcp-friendly rate control, congestion control
Network Working Group S. Floyd
Request for Comments: 5348 ICIR
Obsoletes: 3448 M. Handley
Updates: 4342 University College London
J. Padhye
Microsoft
J. Widmer
DoCoMo
September 2008
TCP Friendly Rate Control (TFRC): Protocol Specification
Status of This Memo
This document specifies an Internet standards track protocol for the
Internet community, and requests discussion and suggestions for
improvements. Please refer to the current edition of the "Internet
Official Protocol Standards" (STD 1) for the standardization state
and status of this protocol. Distribution of this memo is unlimited.
Abstract
This document specifies TCP Friendly Rate Control (TFRC). TFRC is a
congestion control mechanism for unicast flows operating in a best-
effort Internet environment. It is reasonably fair when competing
for bandwidth with TCP flows, but has a much lower variation of
throughput over time compared with TCP, making it more suitable for
applications such as streaming media where a relatively smooth
sending rate is of importance.
This document obsoletes RFC 3448 and updates RFC 4342.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ....................................................3
2. Conventions .....................................................4
3. Protocol Mechanism ..............................................4
3.1. TCP Throughput Equation ....................................5
3.2. Packet Contents ............................................7
3.2.1. Data Packets ........................................7
3.2.2. Feedback Packets ....................................8
4. Data Sender Protocol ............................................8
4.1. Measuring the Segment Size .................................9
4.2. Sender Initialization .....................................10
4.3. Sender Behavior When a Feedback Packet Is Received ........10
4.4. Expiration of Nofeedback Timer ............................15
4.5. Reducing Oscillations .....................................17
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 1]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
4.6. Scheduling of Packet Transmissions ........................18
5. Calculation of the Loss Event Rate (p) .........................19
5.1. Detection of Lost or Marked Packets .......................19
5.2. Translation from Loss History to Loss Events ..............20
5.3. The Size of a Loss Interval ...............................22
5.4. Average Loss Interval .....................................22
5.5. History Discounting .......................................24
6. Data Receiver Protocol .........................................26
6.1. Receiver Behavior When a Data Packet Is Received ..........27
6.2. Expiration of Feedback Timer ..............................27
6.3. Receiver Initialization ...................................28
6.3.1. Initializing the Loss History after the
First Loss Event ...................................29
7. Sender-Based Variants ..........................................30
8. Implementation Issues ..........................................31
8.1. Computing the Throughput Equation .........................31
8.2. Sender Behavior When a Feedback Packet Is Received ........32
8.2.1. Determining If an Interval Was a
Data-Limited Interval ..............................32
8.2.2. Maintaining X_recv_set .............................34
8.3. Sending Packets before Their Nominal Send Time ............34
8.4. Calculation of the Average Loss Interval ..................36
8.5. The Optional History Discounting Mechanism ................36
9. Changes from RFC 3448 ..........................................36
9.1. Overview of Changes .......................................36
9.2. Changes in Each Section ...................................37
10. Security Considerations .......................................39
10.1. Security Considerations for TFRC in DCCP .................40
11. Acknowledgments ...............................................40
Appendix A. Terminology ...........................................41
Appendix B. The Initial Value of the Nofeedback Timer .............43
Appendix C. Response to Idle or Data-Limited Periods ..............44
C.1. Long Idle or Data-Limited Periods ........................45
C.2. Short Idle or Data-Limited Periods .......................48
C.3. Moderate Idle or Data-Limited Periods ....................49
C.4. Losses During Data-Limited Periods .......................50
C.5. Other Patterns ...........................................53
C.6. Evaluating TFRC's Response to Idle Periods ...............53
References ........................................................54
Normative References ...........................................54
Informative References .........................................54
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 2]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
1. Introduction
This document specifies TCP Friendly Rate Control (TFRC). TFRC is a
congestion control mechanism designed for unicast flows operating in
an Internet environment and competing with TCP traffic [FHPW00].
Instead of specifying a complete protocol, this document simply
specifies a congestion control mechanism that could be used in a
transport protocol such as DCCP (Datagram Congestion Control
Protocol) [RFC4340], in an application incorporating end-to-end
congestion control at the application level, or in the context of
endpoint congestion management [BRS99]. This document does not
discuss packet formats or reliability. Implementation-related issues
are discussed only briefly, in Section 8.
TFRC is designed to be reasonably fair when competing for bandwidth
with TCP flows, where we call a flow "reasonably fair" if its sending
rate is generally within a factor of two of the sending rate of a TCP
flow under the same conditions. However, TFRC has a much lower
variation of throughput over time compared with TCP, which makes it
more suitable for applications such as telephony or streaming media
where a relatively smooth sending rate is of importance.
The penalty of having smoother throughput than TCP while competing
fairly for bandwidth is that TFRC responds slower than TCP to changes
in available bandwidth. Thus, TFRC should only be used when the
application has a requirement for smooth throughput, in particular,
avoiding TCP's halving of the sending rate in response to a single
packet drop. For applications that simply need to transfer as much
data as possible in as short a time as possible, we recommend using
TCP, or if reliability is not required, using an Additive-Increase,
Multiplicative-Decrease (AIMD) congestion control scheme with similar
parameters to those used by TCP.
TFRC is designed for best performance with applications that use a
fixed segment size, and vary their sending rate in packets per second
in response to congestion. TFRC can also be used, perhaps with less
optimal performance, with applications that do not have a fixed
segment size, but where the segment size varies according to the
needs of the application (e.g., video applications).
Some applications (e.g., some audio applications) require a fixed
interval of time between packets and vary their segment size instead
of their packet rate in response to congestion. The congestion
control mechanism in this document is not designed for those
applications; TFRC-SP (Small-Packet TFRC) is a variant of TFRC for
applications that have a fixed sending rate in packets per second but
either use small packets or vary their packet size in response to
congestion. TFRC-SP is specified in a separate document [RFC4828].
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 3]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
This document specifies TFRC as a receiver-based mechanism, with the
calculation of the congestion control information (i.e., the loss
event rate) in the data receiver rather in the data sender. This is
well-suited to an application where the sender is a large server
handling many concurrent connections, and the receiver has more
memory and CPU cycles available for computation. In addition, a
receiver-based mechanism is more suitable as a building block for
multicast congestion control. However, it is also possible to
implement TFRC in sender-based variants, as allowed in DCCP's
Congestion Control ID 3 (CCID 3) [RFC4342].
This document obsoletes RFC 3448. In the transport protocol DCCP
(Datagram Congestion Control Protocol) [RFC4340], the Congestion
Control ID Profiles CCID-3 [RFC4342] and CCID-4 [CCID-4] both specify
the use of TFRC from RFC 3448. CCID-3 and CCID-4 implementations
SHOULD use this document instead of RFC 3448 for the specification of
TFRC.
The normative specification of TFRC is in Sections 3-6. Section 7
discusses sender-based variants, Section 8 discusses implementation
issues, and Section 9 gives a non-normative overview of differences
with RFC 3448.
2. Conventions
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
document are to be interpreted as described in [RFC2119].
Appendix A gives a list of technical terms used in this document.
3. Protocol Mechanism
For its congestion control mechanism, TFRC directly uses a throughput
equation for the allowed sending rate as a function of the loss event
rate and round-trip time. In order to compete fairly with TCP, TFRC
uses the TCP throughput equation, which roughly describes TCP's
sending rate as a function of the loss event rate, round-trip time,
and segment size. We define a loss event as one or more lost or
marked packets from a window of data, where a marked packet refers to
a congestion indication from Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN)
[RFC3168].
Generally speaking, TFRC's congestion control mechanism works as
follows:
o The receiver measures the loss event rate and feeds this
information back to the sender.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 4]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
o The sender also uses these feedback messages to measure the
round-trip time (RTT).
o The loss event rate and RTT are then fed into TFRC's throughput
equation, and the resulting sending rate is limited to at most
twice the receive rate to give the allowed transmit rate X.
o The sender then adjusts its transmit rate to match the allowed
transmit rate X.
The dynamics of TFRC are sensitive to how the measurements are
performed and applied. We recommend specific mechanisms below to
perform and apply these measurements. Other mechanisms are possible,
but it is important to understand how the interactions between
mechanisms affect the dynamics of TFRC.
3.1. TCP Throughput Equation
Any realistic equation giving TCP throughput as a function of loss
event rate and RTT should be suitable for use in TFRC. However, we
note that the TCP throughput equation used must reflect TCP's
retransmit timeout behavior, as this dominates TCP throughput at
higher loss rates. We also note that the assumptions implicit in the
throughput equation about the loss event rate parameter have to be a
reasonable match to how the loss rate or loss event rate is actually
measured. While this match is not perfect for the throughput
equation and loss rate measurement mechanisms given below, in
practice the assumptions turn out to be close enough.
The throughput equation currently REQUIRED for TFRC is a slightly
simplified version of the throughput equation for Reno TCP from
[PFTK98]. Ideally, we would prefer a throughput equation based on
selective acknowledgment (SACK) TCP, but no one has yet derived the
throughput equation for SACK TCP, and simulations and experiments
suggest that the differences between the two equations would be
relatively minor [FF99] (Appendix B).
The throughput equation for X_Bps, TCP's average sending rate in
bytes per second, is:
s
X_Bps = ----------------------------------------------------------
R*sqrt(2*b*p/3) + (t_RTO * (3*sqrt(3*b*p/8)*p*(1+32*p^2)))
Where:
X_Bps is TCP's average transmit rate in bytes per second. (X_Bps
is the same as X_calc in RFC 3448.)
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 5]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
s is the segment size in bytes (excluding IP and transport
protocol headers).
R is the round-trip time in seconds.
p is the loss event rate, between 0 and 1.0, of the number of loss
events as a fraction of the number of packets transmitted.
t_RTO is the TCP retransmission timeout value in seconds.
b is the maximum number of packets acknowledged by a single TCP
acknowledgement.
Setting the TCP retransmission timeout value t_RTO:
Implementations SHOULD set t_RTO = 4*R. Implementations MAY choose
to implement a more accurate calculation of t_RTO. Implementations
MAY also set t_RTO to max(4*R, one second), to match the recommended
minimum of one second on the RTO [RFC2988].
Setting the parameter b for delayed acknowledgements:
Some current TCP connections use delayed acknowledgements, sending an
acknowledgement for every two data packets received. However, TCP is
also allowed to send an acknowledgement for every data packet. For
the revised TCP congestion control mechanisms, [RFC2581bis] currently
specifies that the delayed acknowledgement algorithm should be used
with TCP. However, [RFC2581bis] recommends increasing the congestion
window during congestion avoidance by one segment per RTT even in the
face of delayed acknowledgements, consistent with a TCP throughput
equation with b = 1. On an experimental basis, [RFC2581bis] allows
for increases of the congestion window during slow-start that are
also consistent with a TCP throughput equation with b = 1. Thus, the
use of b = 1 is consistent with [RFC2581bis]. The use of b = 1 is
RECOMMENDED.
With t_RTO=4*R and b=1, the throughput equation for X_Bps, the TCP
sending rate in bytes per second, can be simplified as:
s
X_Bps = -----------------------------------------------
R * (sqrt(2*p/3) + 12*sqrt(3*p/8)*p*(1+32*p^2))
In the future, updates to this document could specify different TCP
equations to be substituted for this equation. The requirement is
that the throughput equation be a reasonable approximation of the
sending rate of TCP for conformant TCP congestion control.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 6]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
The throughput equation can also be expressed in terms of X_pps, the
sending rate in packets per second, with
X_pps = X_Bps / s .
The parameters s (segment size), p (loss event rate), and R (RTT)
need to be measured or calculated by a TFRC implementation. The
measurement of s is specified in Section 4.1, the measurement of R is
specified in Section 4.3, and the measurement of p is specified in
Section 5. In the rest of this document, data rates are measured in
bytes per second unless otherwise specified.
3.2. Packet Contents
Before specifying the sender and receiver functionality, we describe
the contents of the data packets sent by the sender and feedback
packets sent by the receiver. As TFRC will be used along with a
transport protocol, we do not specify packet formats, as these depend
on the details of the transport protocol used.
3.2.1. Data Packets
Each data packet sent by the data sender contains the following
information:
o A sequence number. This number MUST be incremented by one for
each data packet transmitted. The field must be sufficiently
large that it does not wrap causing two different packets with
the same sequence number to be in the receiver's recent packet
history at the same time.
o A timestamp indicating when the packet is sent. We denote by
ts_i the timestamp of the packet with sequence number i. The
resolution of the timestamp SHOULD typically be measured in
milliseconds.
This timestamp is used by the receiver to determine which losses
belong to the same loss event. The timestamp is also echoed by
the receiver to enable the sender to estimate the round-trip
time, for senders that do not save timestamps of transmitted data
packets.
We note that, as an alternative to a timestamp incremented in
milliseconds, a "timestamp" that increments every quarter of a
round-trip time MAY be used for determining when losses belong to
the same loss event, in the context of a protocol where this is
understood by both sender and receiver and where the sender saves
the timestamps of transmitted data packets.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 7]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
o The sender's current estimate of the round-trip time. The
estimate reported in packet i is denoted by R_i. The round-trip
time estimate is used by the receiver, along with the timestamp,
to determine when multiple losses belong to the same loss event.
The round-trip time estimate is also used by the receiver to
determine the interval to use for calculating the receive rate
and to determine when to send feedback packets.
If the sender sends a coarse-grained "timestamp" that increments
every quarter of a round-trip time, as discussed above, then the
sender is not required to send its current estimate of the round
trip time.
3.2.2. Feedback Packets
Each feedback packet sent by the data receiver contains the following
information:
o The timestamp of the last data packet received. We denote this by
t_recvdata. If the last packet received at the receiver has
sequence number i, then t_recvdata = ts_i. This timestamp is
used by the sender to estimate the round-trip time, and is only
needed if the sender does not save the timestamps of transmitted
data packets.
o The amount of time elapsed between the receipt of the last data
packet at the receiver and the generation of this feedback
report. We denote this by t_delay.
o The rate at which the receiver estimates that data was received
in the previous round-trip time. We denote this by X_recv.
o The receiver's current estimate of the loss event rate p.
4. Data Sender Protocol
The data sender sends a stream of data packets to the data receiver
at a controlled rate. When a feedback packet is received from the
data receiver, the data sender changes its sending rate based on the
information contained in the feedback report. If the sender does not
receive a feedback report for four round-trip times, then the sender
cuts its sending rate in half. This is achieved by means of a timer
called the nofeedback timer.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 8]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
We specify the sender-side protocol in the following steps:
o Measurement of the mean segment size being sent.
o Sender initialization.
o The sender behavior when a feedback packet is received.
o The sender behavior when the nofeedback timer expires.
o Oscillation prevention (optional).
o Scheduling of packet transmission and allowed burstiness.
4.1. Measuring the Segment Size
The TFRC sender uses the segment size, s, in the throughput equation,
in the setting of the maximum receive rate, the setting of the
minimum and initial sending rates, and the setting of the nofeedback
timer. The TFRC receiver MAY use the average segment size, s, in
initializing the loss history after the first loss event. As
specified in Section 6.3.1, if the TFRC receiver does not know the
segment size, s, used by the sender, the TFRC receiver MAY instead
use the arrival rate in packets per second in initializing the loss
history.
The segment size is normally known to an application. This may not
be so in two cases:
1) The segment size naturally varies depending on the data. In this
case, although the segment size varies, that variation is not
coupled to the transmit rate. The TFRC sender can either compute
the average segment size or use the maximum segment size for the
segment size, s.
2) The application needs to change the segment size rather than the
number of segments per second to perform congestion control.
This would normally be the case with packet audio applications
where a fixed interval of time needs to be represented by each
packet. Such applications need to have a completely different
way of measuring parameters.
For the first class of applications where the segment size varies
depending on the data, the sender SHOULD estimate the segment size,
s, as the average segment size over the last four loss intervals.
The sender MAY estimate the average segment size over longer time
intervals, if so desired.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 9]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
The second class of applications are discussed separately in a
separate document on TFRC-SP [RFC4828]. For the remainder of this
section we assume the sender can estimate the segment size and that
congestion control is performed by adjusting the number of packets
sent per second.
4.2. Sender Initialization
The initial values for X (the allowed sending rate in bytes per
second) and tld (the Time Last Doubled during slow-start, in seconds)
are undefined until they are set as described below. If the sender
is ready to send data when it does not yet have a round-trip sample,
the value of X is set to s bytes per second, for segment size s, the
nofeedback timer is set to expire after two seconds, and tld is set
to 0 (or to -1, either one is okay). Upon receiving the first
round-trip time measurement (e.g., after the first feedback packet or
the SYN exchange from the connection setup, or from a previous
connection [RFC2140]), tld is set to the current time, and the
allowed transmit rate, X, is set to the initial_rate, specified as
W_init/R, for W_init based on [RFC3390]:
initial_rate = W_init/R; W_init = min(4*MSS, max(2*MSS, 4380)).
In computing W_init, instead of using Maximum Segment Size (MSS), the
TFRC sender SHOULD use the maximum segment size to be used for the
initial round-trip time of data, if that is known by the TFRC sender
when X is initialized.
For responding to the initial feedback packet, this replaces step (4)
of Section 4.3 below.
Appendix B explains why the initial value of TFRC's nofeedback timer
is set to two seconds, instead of the recommended initial value of
three seconds for TCP's retransmit timer from [RFC2988].
4.3. Sender Behavior When a Feedback Packet Is Received
The sender knows its current allowed sending rate, X, and maintains
an estimate of the current round-trip time R. The sender also
maintains X_recv_set as a small set of recent X_recv values
(typically only two values).
Initialization: X_recv_set is first initialized to contain a single
item, with value Infinity. (As an implementation-specific issue,
X_recv_set MAY be initialized to a large number instead of to
Infinity, e.g., to the largest integer that is easily representable.)
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 10]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
When a feedback packet is received by the sender at time t_now, the
current time in seconds, the following actions MUST be performed.
1) Calculate a new round-trip sample:
R_sample = (t_now - t_recvdata) - t_delay.
As described in Section 3.2.2, t_delay gives the elapsed time at the
receiver.
2) Update the round-trip time estimate:
If no feedback has been received before {
R = R_sample;
} Else {
R = q*R + (1-q)*R_sample;
}
TFRC is not sensitive to the precise value for the filter constant q,
but a default value of 0.9 is RECOMMENDED.
3) Update the timeout interval:
RTO = max(4*R, 2*s/X)
4) Update the allowed sending rate as follows. This procedure uses
the variables t_mbi and recv_limit:
t_mbi: the maximum backoff interval of 64 seconds.
recv_limit: the limit on the sending rate computed from
X_recv_set.
This procedure also uses the procedures Maximize X_recv_set() and
Update X_recv_set(), which are defined below.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 11]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
The procedure for updating the allowed sending rate:
If (the entire interval covered by the feedback packet
was a data-limited interval) {
If (the feedback packet reports a new loss event or an
increase in the loss event rate p) {
Halve entries in X_recv_set;
X_recv = 0.85 * X_recv;
Maximize X_recv_set();
recv_limit = max (X_recv_set);
} Else {
Maximize X_recv_set();
recv_limit = 2 * max (X_recv_set);
}
} Else { // typical behavior
Update X_recv_set();
recv_limit = 2 * max (X_recv_set);
}
If (p > 0) { // congestion avoidance phase
Calculate X_Bps using the TCP throughput equation.
X = max(min(X_Bps, recv_limit), s/t_mbi);
} Else if (t_now - tld >= R) {
// initial slow-start
X = max(min(2*X, recv_limit), initial_rate);
tld = t_now;
}
5) If oscillation reduction is used, calculate the instantaneous
transmit rate, X_inst, following Section 4.5.
6) Reset the nofeedback timer to expire after RTO seconds.
The procedure for maximizing X_recv_set keeps a single value, the
largest value from X_recv_set and the new X_recv.
Maximize X_recv_set():
Add X_recv to X_recv_set;
Delete initial value Infinity from X_recv_set,
if it is still a member.
Set the timestamp of the largest item to the current time;
Delete all other items.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 12]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
The procedure for updating X_recv_set keeps a set of X_recv values
with timestamps from the two most recent round-trip times.
Update X_recv_set():
Add X_recv to X_recv_set;
Delete from X_recv_set values older than
two round-trip times.
Definition of a data-limited interval:
We define a sender as data-limited any time it is not sending as much
as it is allowed to send. We define an interval as a 'data-limited
interval' if the sender was data-limited over the *entire* interval;
Section 8.2.1 discusses implementation issues for a sender in
determining if an interval was a data-limited interval. The term
'data-limited interval' is used in the first "if" condition in step
(4), which prevents a sender from having to reduce its sending rate
as a result of a feedback packet reporting the receive rate from a
data-limited period.
As an example, consider a sender that is sending at its full allowed
rate, except that it is sending packets in pairs, rather than sending
each packet as soon as it can. Such a sender is considered data-
limited part of the time, because it is not always sending packets as
soon as it can. However, consider an interval that covers this
sender's transmission of at least two data packets; such an interval
does not meet the definition of a data-limited interval because the
sender was not data-limited *over the entire interval*.
If the feedback packet reports a receive rate X_recv of zero (i.e.,
the first feedback packet), the sender does not consider that the
entire interval covered by the feedback packet was a data-limited
interval.
X_recv_set and the first feedback packet:
Because X_recv_set is initialized with a single item, with value
Infinity, recv_limit is set to Infinity for the first two round-trip
times of the connection. As a result, the sending rate is not
limited by the receive rate during that period. This avoids the
problem of the sending rate being limited by the value of X_recv from
the first feedback packet.
The interval covered by a feedback packet:
How does the sender determine the period covered by a feedback
packet? This is discussed in more detail in Section 8.2. In
general, the receiver will be sending a feedback packet once per
round-trip time; so typically, the sender will be able to determine
exactly the period covered by the current feedback packet from the
previous feedback packet. However, in cases when the previous
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 13]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
feedback packet was lost, or when the receiver sends a feedback
packet early because it detected a lost or ECN-marked packet, the
sender will have to estimate the interval covered by the feedback
packet. As specified in Section 6.2, each feedback packet sent by
the receiver covers a round-trip time, for the round-trip time
estimate R_m maintained by the receiver R_m seconds before the
feedback packet was sent.
The response to a loss during a data-limited interval:
In TFRC, after the initial slow-start, the sender always updates the
calculated transmit rate, X_Bps, after a feedback packet is received,
and the allowed sending rate, X, is always limited by X_Bps.
However, during a data-limited interval, when the actual sending rate
is usually below X_Bps, the sending rate is still limited by
recv_limit, derived from X_recv_set. If the sender is data-limited,
possibly with a varying sending rate from one round-trip time to the
next, and is experiencing losses, then we decrease the entry in
X_recv_set in order to reduce the allowed sending rate.
The sender can detect a loss event during a data-limited period
either from explicit feedback from the receiver, or from a reported
increase in the loss event rate. When the sender receives a feedback
packet reporting such a loss event in a data-limited interval, the
sender limits the allowed increases in the sending rate during the
data-limited interval.
The initial slow-start phase:
Note that when p=0, the sender has not yet learned of any loss
events, and the sender is in the initial slow-start phase. In this
initial slow-start phase, the sender can approximately double the
sending rate each round-trip time until a loss occurs. The
initial_rate term in step (4) gives a minimum allowed sending rate
during slow-start of the initial allowed sending rate.
We note that if the sender is data-limited during slow-start, or if
the connection is limited by the path bandwidth, then the sender is
not necessarily able to double its sending rate each round-trip time;
the sender's sending rate is limited to at most twice the past
receive rate, or at most initial_rate, whichever is larger. This is
similar to TCP's behavior, where the sending rate is limited by the
rate of incoming acknowledgement packets as well as by the congestion
window. Thus, in TCP's slow-start, for the most aggressive case of
the TCP receiver acknowledging every data packet, the TCP sender's
sending rate is limited to at most twice the rate of these incoming
acknowledgment packets.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 14]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
The minimum allowed sending rate:
The term s/t_mbi ensures that when p > 0, the sender is allowed to
send at least one packet every 64 seconds.
4.4. Expiration of Nofeedback Timer
This section specifies the sender's response to a nofeedback timer.
The nofeedback timer could expire because of an idle period or
because of data or feedback packets dropped in the network.
This section uses the variable recover_rate. If the TFRC sender has
been idle ever since the nofeedback timer was set, the allowed
sending rate is not reduced below the recover_rate. For this
document, the recover_rate is set to the initial_rate (specified in
Section 4.2). Future updates to this specification may explore other
possible values for the recover_rate.
If the nofeedback timer expires, the sender MUST perform the
following actions:
1) Cut the allowed sending rate in half.
If the nofeedback timer expires when the sender has had at least
one RTT measurement, the allowed sending rate is reduced by
modifying X_recv_set as described in the pseudocode below
(including item (2)). In the general case, the sending rate is
limited to at most twice X_recv. Modifying X_recv_set limits the
sending rate, but still allows the sender to slow-start, doubling
its sending rate each RTT, if feedback messages resume reporting
no losses.
If the sender has been idle since this nofeedback timer was set
and X_recv is less than the recover_rate, then the allowed sending
rate is not halved, and X_recv_set is not changed. This ensures
that the allowed sending rate is not reduced to less than half the
recover_rate as a result of an idle period.
In the general case, the allowed sending rate is halved in
response to the expiration of the nofeedback timer. The details,
in the pseudocode below, depend on whether the sender is in slow-
start, is in congestion avoidance limited by X_recv, or is in
congestion avoidance limited by the throughput equation.
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X_recv = max (X_recv_set);
If (sender does not have an RTT sample,
has not received any feedback from receiver,
and has not been idle ever since the nofeedback timer
was set) {
// We do not have X_Bps or recover_rate yet.
// Halve the allowed sending rate.
X = max(X/2, s/t_mbi);
} Else if (((p>0 && X_recv < recover_rate) or
(p==0 && X < 2 * recover_rate)), and
sender has been idle ever
since nofeedback timer was set) {
// Don't halve the allowed sending rate.
Do nothing;
} Else if (p==0) {
// We do not have X_Bps yet.
// Halve the allowed sending rate.
X = max(X/2, s/t_mbi);
} Else if (X_Bps > 2*X_recv)) {
// 2*X_recv was already limiting the sending rate.
// Halve the allowed sending rate.
Update_Limits(X_recv;)
} Else {
// The sending rate was limited by X_Bps, not by X_recv.
// Halve the allowed sending rate.
Update_Limits(X_Bps/2);
}
The term s/t_mbi limits the backoff to one packet every 64
seconds.
The procedure Update_Limits() uses the variable timer_limit for
the limit on the sending rate computed from the expiration of the
nofeedback timer, as follows:
Update_Limits(timer_limit):
If (timer_limit < s/t_mbi)
timer_limit = s/t_mbi;
Replace X_recv_set contents with the single item
timer_limit/2;
Recalculate X as in step (4) of Section 4.3;
2) Restart the nofeedback timer to expire after max(4*R, 2*s/X)
seconds.
If the sender has been data-limited but not idle since the nofeedback
timer was set, it is possible that the nofeedback timer expired
because data or feedback packets were dropped in the network. In
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this case, the nofeedback timer is the backup mechanism for the
sender to detect these losses, similar to the retransmit timer in
TCP.
Note that when the sender stops sending data for a period of time,
the receiver will stop sending feedback. When the sender's
nofeedback timer expires, the sender could use the procedure above to
limit the sending rate. If the sender subsequently starts to send
again, X_recv_set will be used to limit the transmit rate, and slow-
start behavior will occur until the transmit rate reaches X_Bps.
The TFRC sender's reduction of the allowed sending rate after the
nofeedback timer expires is similar to TCP's reduction of the
congestion window, cwnd, after each RTO seconds of an idle period,
for TCP with Congestion Window Validation [RFC2861].
4.5. Reducing Oscillations
To reduce oscillations in queueing delay and sending rate in
environments with a low degree of statistical multiplexing at the
congested link, it is RECOMMENDED that the sender reduce the transmit
rate as the queueing delay (and hence RTT) increases. To do this,
the sender maintains R_sqmean, a long-term estimate of the square
root of the RTT, and modifies its sending rate depending on how the
square root of R_sample, the most recent sample of the RTT, differs
from the long-term estimate. The long-term estimate R_sqmean is set
as follows:
If no feedback has been received before {
R_sqmean = sqrt(R_sample);
} Else {
R_sqmean = q2*R_sqmean + (1-q2)*sqrt(R_sample);
}
Thus, R_sqmean gives the exponentially weighted moving average of the
square root of the RTT samples. The constant q2 should be set
similarly to q, the constant used in the round-trip time estimate R.
A value of 0.9 as the default for q2 is RECOMMENDED.
When sqrt(R_sample) is greater than R_sqmean, then the current
round-trip time is greater than the long-term average, implying that
queueing delay is probably increasing. In this case, the transmit
rate is decreased to minimize oscillations in queueing delay.
The sender obtains the base allowed transmit rate, X, as described in
step (4) of Section 4.3 above. It then calculates a modified
instantaneous transmit rate X_inst, as follows:
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X_inst = X * R_sqmean / sqrt(R_sample);
If (X_inst < s/t_mbi)
X_inst = s/t_mbi;
Because we are using square roots, there is generally only a moderate
difference between the instantaneous transmit rate X_inst and the
allowed transmit rate X. For example, in a somewhat extreme case
when the current RTT sample R_sample is twice as large as the long-
term average, then sqrt(R_sample) will be roughly 1.44 times
R_sqmean, and the allowed transmit rate will be reduced by a factor
of roughly 0.7.
We note that this modification for reducing oscillatory behavior is
not always needed, especially if the degree of statistical
multiplexing in the network is high. We also note that the
modification for reducing oscillatory behavior could cause problems
for connections where the round-trip time is not strongly correlated
with the queueing delay (e.g., in some wireless links, over paths
with frequent routing changes, etc.). However, this modification
SHOULD be implemented because it makes TFRC behave better in some
environments with a low level of statistical multiplexing. The
performance of this modification is illustrated in Section 3.1.3 of
[FHPW00]. If it is not implemented, implementations SHOULD use a
very low value of the weight q for the average round-trip time.
4.6. Scheduling of Packet Transmissions
As TFRC is rate-based, and as operating systems typically cannot
schedule events precisely, it is necessary to be opportunistic about
sending data packets so that the correct average rate is maintained
despite the coarse-grain or irregular scheduling of the operating
system. To help maintain the correct average sending rate, the TFRC
sender MAY send some packets before their nominal send time.
In addition, the scheduling of packet transmissions controls the
allowed burstiness of senders after an idle or data-limited period.
The TFRC sender MAY accumulate sending 'credits' for past unused send
times; this allows the TFRC sender to send a burst of data after an
idle or data-limited period. To compare with TCP, TCP may send up to
a round-trip time's worth of packets in a single burst, but never
more. As examples, packet bursts can be sent by TCP when an ACK
arrives acknowledging a window of data, or when a data-limited sender
suddenly has a window of data to send after a delay of nearly a
round-trip time.
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To limit burstiness, a TFRC implementation MUST prevent bursts of
arbitrary size. This limit MUST be less than or equal to one round-
trip time's worth of packets. A TFRC implementation MAY limit bursts
to less than a round-trip time's worth of packets. In addition, a
TFRC implementation MAY use rate-based pacing to smooth bursts.
As an implementation-specific example, a sending loop could calculate
the correct inter-packet interval, t_ipi, as follows:
t_ipi = s/X_inst;
Let t_now be the current time and i be a natural number, i = 0, 1,
..., with t_i the nominal send time for the i-th packet. Then, the
nominal send time t_(i+1) would derive recursively as:
t_0 = t_now,
t_(i+1) = t_i + t_ipi.
For TFRC senders allowed to accumulate sending credits for unused
send time over the last T seconds, the sender would be allowed to use
unused nominal send times t_j for t_j < now - T, for T set to the
round-trip time.
5. Calculation of the Loss Event Rate (p)
Obtaining an accurate and stable measurement of the loss event rate
is of primary importance for TFRC. Loss rate measurement is
performed at the receiver, based on the detection of lost or marked
packets from the sequence numbers of arriving packets. We describe
this process before describing the rest of the receiver protocol. If
the receiver has not yet detected a lost or marked packet, then the
receiver does not calculate the loss event rate, but reports a loss
event rate of zero.
5.1. Detection of Lost or Marked Packets
TFRC assumes that all packets contain a sequence number that is
incremented by one for each packet that is sent. For the purposes of
this specification, it is REQUIRED that if a lost packet is
retransmitted, the retransmission is given a new sequence number that
is the latest in the transmission sequence, and not the same sequence
number as the packet that was lost. If a transport protocol has the
requirement that it must retransmit with the original sequence
number, then the transport protocol designer must figure out how to
distinguish delayed from retransmitted packets and how to detect lost
retransmissions.
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The receiver maintains a data structure that keeps track of which
packets have arrived and which are missing. For the purposes of this
specification, we assume that the data structure consists of a list
of packets that have arrived along with the receiver timestamp when
each packet was received. In practice, this data structure will
normally be stored in a more compact representation, but this is
implementation-specific.
The loss of a packet is detected by the arrival of at least NDUPACK
packets with a higher sequence number than the lost packet, for
NDUPACK set to 3. The requirement for NDUPACK subsequent packets is
the same as with TCP, and is to make TFRC more robust in the presence
of reordering. In contrast to TCP, if a packet arrives late (after
NDUPACK subsequent packets arrived) in TFRC, the late packet can fill
the hole in TFRC's reception record, and the receiver can recalculate
the loss event rate. Future versions of TFRC might make the
requirement for NDUPACK subsequent packets adaptive based on
experienced packet reordering, but such a mechanism is not part of
the current specification.
For an ECN-capable connection, a marked packet is detected as a
congestion event as soon as it arrives, without having to wait for
the arrival of subsequent packets.
If an ECN-marked packet is preceded by a possibly-lost packet, then
the first detected congestion event begins with the lost packet. For
example, if the receiver receives a data packet with sequence number
n-1, followed by an unmarked data packet with sequence number n+1,
and a marked data packet with sequence number n+2, then the receiver
detects a congestion event when it receives the marked packet n+2.
The first congestion event detected begins with the lost packet n.
The guidelines in Section 5.2 below are used to determine whether the
lost and marked packets belong to the same loss event or to separate
loss events.
5.2. Translation from Loss History to Loss Events
TFRC requires that the loss fraction be robust to several consecutive
packets lost or marked in the same loss event. This is similar to
TCP, which (typically) only performs one halving of the congestion
window during any single RTT. Thus, the receiver needs to map the
packet loss history into a loss event record, where a loss event is
one or more packets lost or marked in an RTT. To perform this
mapping, the receiver needs to know the RTT to use, and this is
supplied periodically by the sender, typically as control information
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piggy-backed onto a data packet. TFRC is not sensitive to how the
RTT measurement sent to the receiver is made, but it is RECOMMENDED
to use the sender's calculated RTT, R, (see Section 4.3) for this
purpose.
To determine whether a lost or marked packet should start a new loss
event or be counted as part of an existing loss event, we need to
compare the sequence numbers and timestamps of the packets that
arrived at the receiver. For a marked packet, S_new, its reception
time, T_new, can be noted directly. For a lost packet, we can
interpolate to infer the nominal "arrival time". Assume:
S_loss is the sequence number of a lost packet.
S_before is the sequence number of the last packet to arrive,
before any packet arrivals with a sequence number above S_loss,
with a sequence number below S_loss.
S_after is the sequence number of the first packet to arrive after
S_before with a sequence number above S_loss.
S_max is the largest sequence number.
Therefore, S_before < S_loss < S_after <= S_max.
T_loss is the nominal estimated arrival time for the lost packet.
T_before is the reception time of S_before.
T_after is the reception time of S_after.
Note that T_before < T_after.
For a lost packet, S_loss, we can interpolate its nominal "arrival
time" at the receiver from the arrival times of S_before and S_after.
Thus:
T_loss = T_before + ( (T_after - T_before)
* (S_loss - S_before)/(S_after - S_before) );
To address sequence number wrapping, let S_MAX = 2^b, where b is the
bit-length of sequence numbers in a given implementation. In this
case, we can interpolate the arrival time T_loss as follows:
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T_loss = T_before + (T_after - T_before)
* Dist(S_loss, S_before)/Dist(S_after, S_before)
where
Dist(S_A, S_B) = (S_A + S_MAX - S_B) % S_MAX
If the lost packet S_old was determined to have started the previous
loss event, and we have just determined that S_new has been lost,
then we interpolate the nominal arrival times of S_old and S_new,
called T_old and T_new, respectively.
If T_old + R >= T_new, then S_new is part of the existing loss event.
Otherwise, S_new is the first packet in a new loss event.
5.3. The Size of a Loss Interval
After the detection of the first loss event, the receiver divides the
sequence space into loss intervals. If a loss interval, A, is
determined to have started with packet sequence number S_A and the
next loss interval, B, started with packet sequence number S_B, then
the number of packets in loss interval A is given by (S_B - S_A).
Thus, loss interval A contains all of the packets transmitted by the
sender starting with the first packet transmitted in loss interval A
and ending with but not including the first packet transmitted in
loss interval B.
The current loss interval I_0 is defined as the loss interval
containing the most recent loss event. If that loss event started
with packet sequence number S_A, and S_C is the highest received
sequence number so far, then the size of I_0 is S_C - S_A + 1. As an
example, if the current loss interval consists of a single ECN-
marked packet, then S_A == S_C, and the size of the loss interval is
one.
5.4. Average Loss Interval
To calculate the loss event rate, p, we first calculate the average
loss interval. This is done using a filter that weights the n most
recent loss event intervals in such a way that the measured loss
event rate changes smoothly. If the receiver has not yet seen a lost
or marked packet, then the receiver does not calculate the average
loss interval.
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Weights w_0 to w_(n-1) are calculated as:
If (i < n/2) {
w_i = 1;
} Else {
w_i = 2 * (n-i)/(n+2);
}
Thus, if n=8, the values of w_0 to w_7 are:
1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2
The value n for the number of loss intervals used in calculating the
loss event rate determines TFRC's speed in responding to changes in
the level of congestion. It is RECOMMENDED to set the value n to 8.
TFRC SHOULD NOT use values of n greater than 8 for traffic that might
compete in the global Internet with TCP. At the very least, safe
operation with values of n greater than 8 would require a slight
change to TFRC's mechanisms to include a more severe response to two
or more round-trip times with heavy packet loss.
When calculating the average loss interval, we need to decide whether
to include the current loss interval. We only include the current
loss interval if it is sufficiently large to increase the average
loss interval.
Let the most recent loss intervals be I_0 to I_k, where I_0 is the
current loss interval. If there have been at least n loss intervals,
then k is set to n; otherwise, k is the maximum number of loss
intervals seen so far. We calculate the average loss interval I_mean
as follows:
I_tot0 = 0;
I_tot1 = 0;
W_tot = 0;
for (i = 0 to k-1) {
I_tot0 = I_tot0 + (I_i * w_i);
W_tot = W_tot + w_i;
}
for (i = 1 to k) {
I_tot1 = I_tot1 + (I_i * w_(i-1));
}
I_tot = max(I_tot0, I_tot1);
I_mean = I_tot/W_tot;
The loss event rate, p is simply:
p = 1 / I_mean;
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5.5. History Discounting
As described in Section 5.4, when there have been at least n loss
intervals, the most recent loss interval is only assigned 1/(0.75*n)
of the total weight in calculating the average loss interval,
regardless of the size of the most recent loss interval. This
section describes an OPTIONAL history discounting mechanism,
discussed further in [FHPW00a] and [W00], that allows the TFRC
receiver to adjust the weights, concentrating more of the relative
weight on the most recent loss interval, when the most recent loss
interval is more than twice as large as the computed average loss
interval.
To carry out history discounting, we associate a discount factor,
DF_i, with each loss interval, L_i, for i > 0, where each discount
factor is a floating point number. The discount array maintains the
cumulative history of discounting for each loss interval. At the
beginning, the values of DF_i in the discount array are initialized
to 1:
for (i = 0 to n) {
DF_i = 1;
}
History discounting also uses a general discount factor, DF, also a
floating point number, that is also initialized to 1. First, we show
how the discount factors are used in calculating the average loss
interval, and then we describe, later in this section, how the
discount factors are modified over time.
As described in Section 5.4, the average loss interval is calculated
using the n previous loss intervals I_1, ..., I_n and the current
loss interval I_0. The computation of the average loss interval
using the discount factors is a simple modification of the procedure
in Section 5.4, as follows:
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I_tot0 = I_0 * w_0;
I_tot1 = 0;
W_tot0 = w_0;
W_tot1 = 0;
for (i = 1 to n-1) {
I_tot0 = I_tot0 + (I_i * w_i * DF_i * DF);
W_tot0 = W_tot0 + w_i * DF_i * DF;
}
for (i = 1 to n) {
I_tot1 = I_tot1 + (I_i * w_(i-1) * DF_i);
W_tot1 = W_tot1 + w_(i-1) * DF_i;
}
p = min(W_tot0/I_tot0, W_tot1/I_tot1);
The general discounting factor, DF, is updated on every packet
arrival as follows. First, the receiver computes the weighted
average I_mean of the loss intervals I_1, ..., I_n:
I_tot = 0;
W_tot = 0;
for (i = 1 to n) {
W_tot = W_tot + w_(i-1) * DF_i;
I_tot = I_tot + (I_i * w_(i-1) * DF_i);
}
I_mean = I_tot / W_tot;
This weighted average I_mean is compared to I_0, the size of current
loss interval. If I_0 is greater than twice I_mean, then the new
loss interval is considerably larger than the old ones, and the
general discount factor, DF, is updated to decrease the relative
weight on the older intervals, as follows:
if (I_0 > 2 * I_mean) {
DF = 2 * I_mean/I_0;
if (DF < THRESHOLD) {
DF = THRESHOLD;
}
} else {
DF = 1;
}
A nonzero value for THRESHOLD ensures that older loss intervals from
an earlier time of high congestion are not discounted entirely. We
recommend a THRESHOLD of 0.25. Note that with each new packet
arrival, I_0 will increase further, and the discount factor DF will
be updated.
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When a new loss event occurs, the current interval shifts from I_0 to
I_1, loss interval I_i shifts to interval I_(i+1), and the loss
interval I_n is forgotten. The previous discount factor DF has to be
incorporated into the discount array. Because DF_i carries the
discount factor associated with loss interval I_i, the DF_i array has
to be shifted as well. This is done as follows:
for (i = 1 to n) {
DF_i = DF * DF_i;
}
for (i = n-1 to 0 step -1) {
DF_(i+1) = DF_i;
}
I_0 = 1;
DF_0 = 1;
DF = 1;
This completes the description of the optional history discounting
mechanism. We emphasize that this is an OPTIONAL mechanism whose
sole purpose is to allow TFRC to respond somewhat more quickly to the
sudden absence of congestion, as represented by a long current loss
interval.
6. Data Receiver Protocol
The receiver periodically sends feedback messages to the sender.
Feedback packets SHOULD normally be sent at least once per RTT,
unless the sender is sending at a rate of less than one packet per
RTT, in which case a feedback packet SHOULD be sent for every data
packet received. A feedback packet SHOULD also be sent whenever a
new loss event is detected without waiting for the end of an RTT, and
whenever an out-of-order data packet is received that removes a loss
event from the history.
If the sender is transmitting at a high rate (many packets per RTT),
there may be some advantages to sending periodic feedback messages
more than once per RTT as this allows faster response to changing RTT
measurements and more resilience to feedback packet loss.
If the receiver was sending k feedback packets per RTT, for k>1, step
(4) of Section 6.2 would be modified to set the feedback timer to
expire after R_m/k seconds. However, each feedback packet would
still report the receiver rate over the last RTT, not over a fraction
of an RTT. In this document, we do not specify the modifications
that might be required for a receiver sending more than one feedback
packet per RTT. We note that there is little gain from sending a
large number of feedback messages per RTT.
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6.1. Receiver Behavior When a Data Packet Is Received
When a data packet is received, the receiver performs the following
steps:
1) Add the packet to the packet history.
2) Check if done: If the new packet results in the detection of a
new loss event, or if no feedback packet was sent when the
feedback timer last expired, go to step 3. Otherwise, no action
need be performed (unless the optimization in the next paragraph
is used), so exit the procedure.
An OPTIONAL optimization might check to see if the arrival of the
packet caused a hole in the packet history to be filled, and
consequently, two loss intervals were merged into one. If this
is the case, the receiver might also send feedback immediately.
The effects of such an optimization are normally expected to be
small.
3) Calculate p: Let the previous value of p be p_prev. Calculate
the new value of p as described in Section 5.
4) Expire feedback timer: If p > p_prev, cause the feedback timer to
expire and perform the actions described in Section 6.2.
If p <= p_prev and no feedback packet was sent when the feedback
timer last expired, cause the feedback timer to expire and
perform the actions described in Section 6.2. If p <= p_prev and
a feedback packet was sent when the feedback timer last expired,
no action need be performed.
6.2. Expiration of Feedback Timer
When the feedback timer at the receiver expires, the action to be
taken depends on whether data packets have been received since the
last feedback was sent.
For the m-th expiration of the feedback timer, let the maximum
sequence number of a packet at the receiver, so far, be S_m and the
value of the RTT measurement included in packet S_m be R_m. As
described in Section 3.2.1, R_m is the sender's most recent estimate
of the round-trip time, as reported in data packets. If data packets
have been received since the previous feedback was sent, the receiver
performs the following steps:
1) Calculate the average loss event rate using the algorithm
described in Section 5.
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2) Calculate the measured receive rate, X_recv, based on the packets
received within the previous R_(m-1) seconds. This is performed
whether the feedback timer expired at its normal time or expired
early due to a new lost or marked packet (i.e., step (3) in
Section 6.1).
In the typical case, when the receiver is sending only one
feedback packet per round-trip time and the feedback timer did
not expire early due to a new lost packet, then the time interval
since the feedback timer last expired would be R_(m-1) seconds.
We note that when the feedback timer expires early due to a new
lost or marked packet, the time interval since the feedback timer
last expired is likely to be smaller than R_(m-1) seconds.
For ease of implementation, if the time interval since the
feedback timer last expired is not R_(m-1) seconds, the receive
rate MAY be calculated over a longer time interval, the time
interval going back to the most recent feedback timer expiration
that was at least R_(m-1) seconds ago.
3) Prepare and send a feedback packet containing the information
described in Section 3.2.2.
4) Restart the feedback timer to expire after R_m seconds.
Note that rule 2) above gives a minimum value for the measured
receive rate X_recv of one packet per round-trip time. If the sender
is limited to a sending rate of less than one packet per round-trip
time, this will be due to the loss event rate, not from a limit
imposed by the measured receive rate at the receiver.
If no data packets have been received since the last feedback was
sent, then no feedback packet is sent, and the feedback timer is
restarted to expire after R_m seconds.
6.3. Receiver Initialization
The receiver is initialized by the first data packet that arrives at
the receiver. Let the sequence number of this packet be i.
When the first packet is received:
o Set p = 0.
o Set X_recv = 0.
o Prepare and send a feedback packet.
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o Set the feedback timer to expire after R_i seconds.
If the first data packet does not contain an estimate R_i of the
round-trip time, then the receiver sends a feedback packet for every
arriving data packet until a data packet arrives containing an
estimate of the round-trip time.
If the sender is using a coarse-grained timestamp that increments
every quarter of a round-trip time, then a feedback timer is not
needed, and the following procedure from RFC 4342 is used to
determine when to send feedback messages.
o Whenever the receiver sends a feedback message, the receiver sets
a local variable last_counter to the greatest received value of
the window counter since the last feedback message was sent, if
any data packets have been received since the last feedback
message was sent.
o If the receiver receives a data packet with a window counter
value greater than or equal to last_counter + 4, then the
receiver sends a new feedback packet. ("Greater" and "greatest"
are measured in circular window counter space.)
6.3.1. Initializing the Loss History after the First Loss Event
This section describes the procedure that MUST be used for
initializing the loss history after the first loss event.
The number of packets until the first loss cannot be used to compute
the allowed sending rate directly, as the sending rate changes
rapidly during this time. TFRC assumes that the correct data rate
after the first loss is half of the maximum sending rate before the
loss occurred. TFRC approximates this target rate, X_target, by the
maximum value of X_recv so far. (For slow-start, for a particular
round-trip time, the sender's sending rate is generally twice the
receiver's receive rate for data sent over the previous round-trip
time.)
After the first loss, instead of initializing the first loss interval
to the number of packets sent until the first loss, the TFRC receiver
calculates the loss interval that would be required to produce the
data rate X_target, and uses this synthetic loss interval to seed the
loss history mechanism.
TFRC does this by finding some value, p, for which the throughput
equation in Section 3.1 gives a sending rate within 5% of X_target,
given the round-trip time R, and the first loss interval is then set
to 1/p. If the receiver knows the segment size, s, used by the
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 29]
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sender, then the receiver MAY use the throughput equation for X;
otherwise, the receiver MAY measure the receive rate in packets per
second instead of bytes per second for this purpose, and use the
throughput equation for X_pps. (The 5% tolerance is introduced
simply because the throughput equation is difficult to invert, and we
want to reduce the costs of calculating p numerically.)
Special care is needed for initializing the first loss interval when
the first data packet is lost or marked. When the first data packet
is lost in TCP, the TCP sender retransmits the packet after the
retransmit timer expires. If TCP's first data packet is ECN-marked,
the TCP sender resets the retransmit timer, and sends a new data
packet only when the retransmit timer expires [RFC3168] (Section
6.1.2). For TFRC, if the first data packet is lost or ECN-marked,
then the first loss interval consists of the null interval with no
data packets. In this case, the loss interval length for this (null)
loss interval SHOULD be set to give a similar sending rate to that of
TCP, as specified in the paragraph below.
When the first TFRC loss interval is null, meaning that the first
data packet is lost or ECN-marked, in order to follow the behavior of
TCP, TFRC wants the allowed sending rate to be 1 packet every two
round-trip times, or equivalently, 0.5 packets per RTT. Thus, the
TFRC receiver calculates the loss interval that would be required to
produce the target rate X_target of 0.5/R packets per second, for the
round-trip time R, and uses this synthetic loss interval for the
first loss interval. The TFRC receiver uses 0.5/R packets per second
as the minimum value for X_target when initializing the first loss
interval.
We note that even though the TFRC receiver reports a synthetic loss
interval after the first loss event, the TFRC receiver still reports
the measured receive rate X_recv, as specified in Section 6.2 above.
7. Sender-Based Variants
In a sender-based variant of TFRC, the receiver uses reliable
delivery to send information about packet losses to the sender, and
the sender computes the packet loss rate and the acceptable transmit
rate.
The main advantage of a sender-based variant of TFRC is that the
sender does not have to trust the receiver's calculation of the
packet loss rate. However, with the requirement of reliable delivery
of loss information from the receiver to the sender, a sender-based
TFRC would have much tighter constraints on the transport protocol in
which it is embedded.
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In contrast, the receiver-based variant of TFRC specified in this
document is robust to the loss of feedback packets, and therefore
does not require the reliable delivery of feedback packets. It is
also better suited for applications where it is desirable to offload
work from the server to the client as much as possible.
RFC 4340 and RFC 4342 together specify DCCP's CCID 3, which can be
used as a sender-based variant of TFRC. In CCID 3, each feedback
packet from the receiver contains a Loss Intervals option, reporting
the lengths of the most recent loss intervals. Feedback packets may
also include the Ack Vector option, allowing the sender to determine
exactly which packets were dropped or marked and to check the
information reported in the Loss Intervals options. The Ack Vector
option can also include ECN Nonce Echoes, allowing the sender to
verify the receiver's report of having received an unmarked data
packet. The Ack Vector option allows the sender to see for itself
which data packets were lost or ECN-marked, to determine loss
intervals, and to calculate the loss event rate. Section 9 of RFC
4342 discusses issues in the sender verifying information reported by
the receiver.
8. Implementation Issues
This document has specified the TFRC congestion control mechanism,
for use by applications and transport protocols. This section
mentions briefly some of the implementation issues.
8.1. Computing the Throughput Equation
For t_RTO = 4*R and b = 1, the throughput equation in Section 3.1 can
be expressed as follows:
s
X_Bps = --------
R * f(p)
for
f(p) = sqrt(2*p/3) + (12*sqrt(3*p/8) * p * (1+32*p^2)).
A table lookup could be used for the function f(p).
Many of the multiplications (e.g., q and 1-q for the round-trip time
average, a factor of 4 for the timeout interval) are or could be by
powers of two, and therefore could be implemented as simple shift
operations.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 31]
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8.2. Sender Behavior When a Feedback Packet Is Received
This section discusses implementation issues for sender behavior when
a feedback packet is received, from Section 4.3.
8.2.1. Determining If an Interval Was a Data-Limited Interval
When a feedback packet is received, the sender has to determine if
the entire interval covered by that feedback packet was a data-
limited period. This section discusses one possible implementation
for the sender to determine if the interval covered by a feedback
packet was a data-limited period.
If the feedback packets all report the timestamp of the last data
packet received, then let t_new be the timestamp reported by this
feedback packet. Because all feedback packets cover an interval of
at least a round-trip time, it is sufficient for the sender to
determine if there was any time in the period (t_old, t_new] when the
sender was not data-limited, for R the sender's estimate of the
round-trip time, and for t_old set to t_new - R. (This procedure
estimates the interval covered by the feedback packet, rather than
computing it exactly. This seems fine to us.)
The pseudocode for determining if the sender was data-limited over
the entire interval covered in a feedback packet is given below. The
variables NotLimited1 and NotLimited2 both represent times when the
sender was *not* data-limited.
Initialization:
NotLimited1 = NotLimited2 = t_new = t_next = 0;
t_now = current time;
After sending a segment:
If (sender has sent all it is allowed to send) {
// Sender is not data-limited at this instant.
If NotLimited1 <= t_new
// Goal: NotLimited1 > t_new.
NotLimited1 = t_now;
Else if (NotLimited2 <= t_next)
// Goal: NotLimited2 > t_next.
NotLimited2 = t_now;
}
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 32]
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When a feedback packet is received, is this interval data-limited:
t_new = timestamp reported in feedback packet.
t_old = t_new - R. // local variable
t_next = t_now;
If ((t_old < NotLimited1 <= t_new) or
(t_old < NotLimited2 <= t_new))
This was not a data-limited interval;
Else
This was a data-limited interval.
If (NotLimited1 <= t_new && NotLimited2 > t_new)
NotLimited1 = NotLimited2;
Transmission times refer to transmission of a segment or segments to
the layer below.
Between feedback packets, (t_old, t_new] gives the transmission time
interval estimated to be covered by the most recent feedback packet,
and t_next gives a time at least a round-trip time greater than
t_new. The next feedback packet can be expected to cover roughly the
interval (t_new, t_next] (unless the receiver sends the feedback
packet early because it is reporting a new loss event). The goal is
for NotLimited1 to save a non-data-limited time in (t_new, t_next],
if there was one, and for NotLimited2 to save a non-data-limited time
after t_next.
When a feedback packet was received, if either NotLimited1 or
NotLimited2 is in the time interval covered by the feedback packet,
then the interval is not a data-limited interval; the sender was not
data-limited at least once during that time interval. If neither
NotLimited1 nor NotLimited2 is in the time interval covered by a
feedback packet, then the sender is assumed to have been data-limited
over that time interval.
We note that this procedure is a heuristic, and in some cases the
sender might not determine correctly if the sender was data-limited
over the entire interval covered by the feedback packet. This
heuristic does not address the possible complications of reordering.
That seems acceptable to us. In order to improve its accuracy in
identifying if the entire interval covered by a feedback packet was a
data-limited interval, the sender could save more NotLimited times.
In some implementations of TFRC, the sender sends coarse-grained
timestamps that increment every quarter of a round-trip time, and the
feedback packet reports the greatest valid sequence number received
so far instead of reporting the timestamp of the last packet
received. In this case, the sender can maintain per-packet state to
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determine t_new (the time that the acknowledged packet was sent), or
the sender can estimate t_new from its estimate of the round-trip
time and the elapsed time t_delay reported by the feedback packet.
8.2.2. Maintaining X_recv_set
To reduce the complexity of maintaining X_recv_set, it is sufficient
to limit X_recv_set to at most N=3 elements. In this case, the
procedure Update X_recv_set() would be modified as follows:
Update X_recv_set():
Add X_recv to X_recv_set;
Delete from X_recv_set values older than
two round-trip times.
Keep only the most recent N values.
Maintaining at most *two* elements in X_recv_set would be sufficient
for the sender to save an old value of X_recv from before a data-
limited period, and to allow the sender not to be limited by the
first feedback packet after an idle period (reporting a receive rate
of one packet per round-trip time). However, it is *possible* that
maintaining at most two elements in X_recv_set would not give quite
as good performance as maintaining at most three elements.
Maintaining three elements in X_recv_set would allow X_recv_set to
contain X_recv values from two successive feedback packets, plus a
more recent X_recv value from a loss event.
8.3. Sending Packets before Their Nominal Send Time
This section discusses one possible scheduling mechanism for a sender
in an operating system with a coarse-grained timing granularity (from
Section 4.6).
Let t_gran be the scheduling timer granularity of the operating
system. Let t_ipi be the inter-packet interval, as specified in
Section 4.6. If the operating system has a coarse timer granularity
or otherwise cannot support short t_ipi intervals, then either the
TFRC sender will be restricted to a sending rate of at most 1 packet
every t_gran seconds, or the TFRC sender must be allowed to send
short bursts of packets. In addition to allowing the sender to
accumulate sending credits for past unused send times, it can be
useful to allow the sender to send a packet before its scheduled send
time, as described in the section below.
A parameter, t_delta, may be used to allow a packet to be sent before
its nominal send time. Consider an application that becomes idle and
requests re-scheduling for time t_i = t_(i-1) + t_ipi, for t_(i-1)
the send time for the previous packet. When the application is
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rescheduled, it checks the current time, t_now. If
(t_now > t_i - t_delta), then packet i is sent. When the nominal
send time, t_i, of the next packet is calculated, it may already be
the case that t_now > t_i - t_delta. In such a case, the packet
would be sent immediately.
In order to send at most one packet before its nominal send time, and
never to send a packet more than a round-trip time before its nominal
send time, the parameter t_delta would be set as follows:
t_delta = min(t_ipi, t_gran, rtt)/2;
(The scheduling granularity t_gran is 10 ms on some older Unix
systems.)
As an example, consider a TFRC flow with an allowed sending rate X of
10 packets per round-trip time (PPR), a round-trip time of 100 ms, a
system with a scheduling granularity t_gran of 10 ms, and the ability
to accumulate unused sending credits for a round-trip time. In this
case, t_ipi is 1 ms. The TFRC sender would be allowed to send
packets 0.5 ms before their nominal sending time, and would be
allowed to save unused sending credits for 100 ms. The scheduling
granularity of 10 ms would not significantly affect the performance
of the connection.
As a different example, consider a TFRC flow with a scheduling
granularity greater than the round-trip time, for example, with a
round-trip time of 0.1 ms and a system with a scheduling granularity
of 1 ms, and with the ability to accumulate unused sending credits
for a round-trip time. The TFRC sender would be allowed to save
unused sending credits for 0.1 ms. If the scheduling granularity
*did not* affect the sender's response to an incoming feedback
packet, then the TFRC sender would be able to send an RTT of data (as
determined by the allowed sending rate) each RTT, in response to
incoming feedback packets. In this case, the coarse scheduling
granularity would not significantly reduce the sending rate, but the
sending rate would be bursty, with a round-trip time of data sent in
response to each feedback packet.
However, performance would be different, in this case, if the
operating system scheduling granularity affected the sender's
response to feedback packets as well as the general scheduling of the
sender. In this case, the sender's performance would be severely
limited by the scheduling granularity being greater than the round-
trip time, with the sender able to send an RTT of data, at the
allowed sending rate, at most once every 1 ms. This restriction of
the sending rate is an unavoidable consequence of allowing burstiness
of at most a round-trip time of data.
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8.4. Calculation of the Average Loss Interval
The calculation of the average loss interval in Section 5.4 involves
multiplications by the weights w_0 to w_(n-1), which for n=8 are:
1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2.
With a minor loss of smoothness, it would be possible to use weights
that were powers of two or sums of powers of two, e.g.,
1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 0.75, 0.5, 0.25, 0.25.
8.5. The Optional History Discounting Mechanism
The optional history discounting mechanism described in Section 5.5
is used in the calculation of the average loss rate. The history
discounting mechanism is invoked only when there has been an
unusually long interval with no packet losses. For a more efficient
operation, the discount factor, DF_i, could be restricted to be a
power of two.
9. Changes from RFC 3448
9.1. Overview of Changes
This section summarizes the changes from RFC 3448. At a high level,
the main change is to add mechanisms to address the case of a data-
limited sender. This document also explicitly allows the TFRC sender
to accumulate up to a round-trip time of unused send credits, and as
a result to send a burst of packets if data arrives from the
application in a burst after a data-limited period. This issue was
not explicitly addressed in RFC 3448.
This document changes RFC 3448 to incorporate TCP's higher initial
sending rates from RFC 3390. This document also changes RFC 3448 to
allow RFC 4342's use of a coarse-grained timestamp on data packets
instead of a more fine-grained timestamp.
Other changes address corner cases involving slow-start, the response
when the first data packet is dropped, and the like. This document
also incorporates the items in the RFC 3448 Errata.
This section is non-normative; the normative text is in the cited
sections.
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9.2. Changes in Each Section
Section 4.1, estimating the average segment size: Section 4.1 was
modified to give a specific algorithm that could be used for
estimating the average segment size.
Section 4.2, update to the initial sending rate: In RFC 3448, the
initial sending rate was two packets per round-trip time. In this
document, the initial sending rate can be as high as four packets per
round-trip time, following RFC 3390. The initial sending rate was
changed to be in terms of the segment size s, not in terms of the
MSS.
Section 4.2 now says that tld, the Time Last Doubled during slow-
start, can be initialized to either 0 or to -1. Section 4.2 was also
clarified to say that RTT measurements do not only come from feedback
packets; they could also come from other places, such as the SYN
exchange.
Section 4.3, response to feedback packets: Section 4.3 was modified
to change the way that the receive rate is used in limiting the
sender's allowed sending rate, by using the set of receive rate
values of the last two round-trip times, and initializing the set of
receive rate values by a large value.
The larger initial sending rate in Section 4.2 is of little use if
the receiver sends a feedback packet after the first packet is
received, and the sender, in response, reduces the allowed sending
rate to at most two packets per RTT, which would be twice the receive
rate. Because of the change in the sender's processing of the
receive rate, the sender now does not reduce the allowed sending rate
to twice the reported receive rate in response to the first feedback
packet.
During a data-limited period, the sender saves the receive rate
reported from just before the data-limited period, if it is larger
than the receive rate during the data-limited period. The sender
also reduces the saved values in X_recv_set in response to a loss
during a data-limited period. Appendix C discusses this response
further.
Section 4.4, response to an idle period: Following Section 5.1 from
[RFC4342], this document specifies that when the sending rate is
reduced after an idle period that covers the period since the
nofeedback timer was set, the allowed sending rate is not reduced
below the initial sending rate. (In Section 4.4, the variable
recover_rate is set to the initial sending rate.)
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 37]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
Section 4.4, correction from [RFC3448Err]. RFC 3448 had
contradictory text about whether the sender halved its sending rate
after *two* round-trip times without receiving a feedback report, or
after *four* round-trip times. This document clarifies that the
sender halves its sending rate after four round-trip times without
receiving a feedback report [RFC3448Err].
Section 4.4, clarification for slow-start: Section 4.4 was clarified
to specify that on the expiration of the nofeedback timer, if p = 0,
X_Bps cannot be used, because the sender does not yet have a value
for X_Bps. Section 4.4 was also clarified to check the case when the
sender does not yet have an RTT sample, but has sent a packet since
the nofeedback timer was set.
Section 4.6: credits for unused send time:
Section 4.6 has been clarified to say that the TFRC sender gets to
accumulate up to an RTT of credits for unused send time. Section 4.6
was also rewritten to clarify what is specification and what is
implementation.
Section 5.4, clarification: Section 5.4 was modified to clarify the
receiver's calculation of the average loss interval when the receiver
has not yet seen n loss intervals.
Section 5.5, correction: Section 5.5 was corrected to say that the
loss interval I_0 includes all transmitted packets, including lost
and marked packets (as defined in Section 5.3 in the general
definition of loss intervals).
Section 5.5, correction from [RFC3448Err]: A line in Section 5.5 was
changed from
for (i = 1 to n) { DF_i = 1; }
to
for (i = 0 to n) { DF_i = 1; }
[RFC3448Err].
Section 5.5, history discounting: THRESHOLD, the lower bound on the
history discounting parameter DF, has been changed from 0.5 to 0.25,
to allow more history discounting when the current interval is long.
Section 6, multiple feedback packets: Section 6 now contains more
discussion of procedures if the receiver sends multiple feedback
packets each round-trip time.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 38]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
Section 6.3, initialization of the feedback timer: Section 6.3 now
specifies the receiver's initialization of the feedback timer if the
first data packet received does not have an estimate of the round-
trip time.
Section 6.3, a coarse-grained timestamp: Section 6.3 was modified to
incorporate, as an option, a coarse-grained timestamp from the sender
that increments every quarter of a round-trip time, instead of a more
fine-grained timestamp. This follows RFC 4342.
Section 6.3.1, after the first loss event: Section 6.3.1 now says
that for initializing the loss history after the first loss event,
the receiver uses the maximum receive rate so far, instead of the
receive rate in the last round-trip time.
Section 6.3.1, if the first data packet is dropped: Section 6.3.1 now
contains a specification for initializing the loss history if the
first data packet sent is lost or ECN-marked.
Section 7, sender-based variants: Section 7's discussion of sender-
based variants has been expanded, with reference to RFC 4342.
10. Security Considerations
TFRC is not a transport protocol in its own right, but a congestion
control mechanism that is intended to be used in conjunction with a
transport protocol. Therefore, security primarily needs to be
considered in the context of a specific transport protocol and its
authentication mechanisms.
Congestion control mechanisms can potentially be exploited to create
denial of service. This may occur through spoofed feedback. Thus,
any transport protocol that uses TFRC should take care to ensure that
feedback is only accepted from the receiver of the data. The precise
mechanism to achieve this will however depend on the transport
protocol itself.
In addition, congestion control mechanisms may potentially be
manipulated by a greedy receiver that wishes to receive more than its
fair share of network bandwidth. A receiver might do this by
claiming to have received packets that, in fact, were lost due to
congestion. Possible defenses against such a receiver would normally
include some form of nonce that the receiver must feed back to the
sender to prove receipt. However, the details of such a nonce would
depend on the transport protocol, and in particular on whether the
transport protocol is reliable or unreliable.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 39]
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We expect that protocols incorporating ECN with TFRC will also want
to incorporate feedback from the receiver to the sender using the ECN
nonce [RFC3540]. The ECN nonce is a modification to ECN that
protects the sender from the accidental or malicious concealment of
marked packets. Again, the details of such a nonce would depend on
the transport protocol, and are not addressed in this document.
10.1. Security Considerations for TFRC in DCCP
TFRC is currently used in Congestion Control ID 3 (CCID 3) [RFC4342]
of the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) [RFC4340]. The
Security Considerations section of RFC 4340 [RFC4340] (Section 18)
discusses some of the security issues of DCCP, including sequence
number validity checks to protect against hijacked connections.
Section 18 of RFC 4340 also discusses mechanisms in DCCP to limit the
potential impact of denial-of-service attacks.
RFC 4342 specifies the use of TFRC in CCID 3. RFC 4342 includes
extensive discussions of the mechanisms the sender can use to verify
the information sent by the receiver. When ECN is used with CCID 3,
the receiver returns ECN Nonce information to the sender, to allow
the sender to verify information sent by the receiver. When ECN is
not used, Section 9 of RFC 4342 discusses how the sender could still
use various techniques that might catch the receiver in an error in
reporting congestion. However, as stated in RFC 4342, this is not as
robust or non-intrusive as the verification provided by the ECN
Nonce.
11. Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge feedback and discussions on equation-
based congestion control with a wide range of people, including
members of the Reliable Multicast Research Group, the Reliable
Multicast Transport Working Group, and the End-to-End Research Group.
We would like to thank Dado Colussi, Gorry Fairhurst, Ladan Gharai,
Wim Heirman, Eddie Kohler, Ken Lofgren, Mike Luby, Ian McDonald,
Vladimir Moltchanov, Colin Perkins, Michele R., Gerrit Renker, Arjuna
Sathiaseelan, Vladica Stanisic, Randall Stewart, Eduardo Urzaiz,
Shushan Wen, and Wendy Lee (lhh@zsu.edu.cn) for feedback on earlier
versions of this document, and to thank Mark Allman for his extensive
feedback from using [RFC3448] to produce a working implementation.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 40]
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Appendix A. Terminology
This document uses the following terms. Timer variables (e.g.,
t_now, tld) are assumed to be in seconds, with a timer resolution of
at least a millisecond.
data-limited interval:
An interval where the sender is data-limited (not sending as much
as it is allowed to send) over the entire interval (Section 4.3).
DF: Discount factor for a loss interval (Section 5.5).
initial_rate:
Allowed initial sending rate.
last_counter:
Greatest received value of the window counter (Section 6.3).
n: Number of loss intervals.
NDUPACK:
Number of dupacks for inferring loss (constant) (Section 5.1).
nofeedback timer:
Sender-side timer (Section 4).
p: Estimated Loss Event Rate.
p_prev:
Previous value of p (Section 6.1).
q: Filter constant for RTT (constant) (Section 4.3).
q2: Filter constant for long-term RTT (constant) (Section 4.6).
R: Estimated path round-trip time.
R_m:
A specific estimate of the path round-trip time (Sections 4.3, 6).
R_sample:
Measured path RTT (Section 4.3).
R_sqmean:
Long-term estimate of the square root of the RTT (Section 4.6).
recover_rate:
Allowed rate for resuming after an idle period (Section 4.4).
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 41]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
recv_limit;
Limit on sending rate computed from X_recv_set (Section 4.3).
s: Nominal packet size in bytes.
S: Sequence number.
t_delay:
Reported time delay between receipt of the last packet at the
receiver and the generation of the feedback packet (Section
3.2.2).
t_delta:
Parameter for flexibility in send time (Section 8.3).
t_gran:
Scheduling timer granularity of the operating system (constant)
(Section 8.3).
t_ipi:
Inter-packet interval for sending packets (Section 4.6).
t_mbi:
Maximum RTO value of TCP (constant) (Section 4.3).
t_recvdata:
Timestamp of the last data packet received (Section 3.2.2).
timer_limit:
Limit on the sending rate from the expiration of the nofeedback
timer (Section 4.4).
tld:
Time Last Doubled (Section 4.2).
t_now:
Current time (Section 4.3).
t_RTO:
Estimated RTO of TCP (Section 4.3).
X: Allowed transmit rate, as limited by the receive rate.
X_Bps:
Calculated sending rate in bytes per second (Section 3.1).
X_pps:
Calculated sending rate in packets per second (Section 3.1).
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X_inst:
Instantaneous allowed transmit rate (Section 4.6).
X_recv:
Estimated receive rate at the receiver (Section 3.2.2).
X_recv_set:
A small set of recent X_recv values (Section 4.3).
X_target:
The target sending rate after the first loss event (Section
6.3.1).
W_init:
TCP initial window (constant) (Section 4.2).
Appendix B. The Initial Value of the Nofeedback Timer
Why is the initial value of TFRC's nofeedback timer set to two
seconds, instead of the recommended initial value of three seconds
for TCP's retransmit timer, from [RFC2988]? There is not any
particular reason why TFRC's nofeedback timer should have the same
initial value as TCP's retransmit timer. TCP's retransmit timer is
used not only to reduce the sending rate in response to congestion,
but also to retransmit a packet that is assumed to have been dropped
in the network. In contrast, TFRC's nofeedback timer is only used to
reduce the allowed sending rate, not to trigger the sending of a new
packet. As a result, there is no danger to the network for the
initial value of TFRC's nofeedback timer to be smaller than the
recommended initial value for TCP's retransmit timer.
Further, when the nofeedback timer has not yet expired, TFRC has a
more slowly responding congestion control mechanism than TCP, and
TFRC's use of the receive rate for limiting the sending rate is
somewhat less precise than TCP's use of windows and ack-clocking, so
the nofeedback timer is a particularly important safety mechanism for
TFRC. For all of these reasons, it is perfectly reasonable for
TFRC's nofeedback timer to have a smaller initial value than that of
TCP's retransmit timer.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 43]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
Appendix C. Response to Idle or Data-Limited Periods
Future work could explore alternate responses to using the receive
rate during a data-limited period, and to responding to a loss event
during a data-limited period.
In particular, an Experimental RFC [RFC2861] specifies Congestion
Window Validation (CWV) for TCP. For this discussion, we use the
term "Standard TCP" to refer to the TCP congestion control mechanisms
in [RFC2581] and [RFC2581bis]. [RFC2861] specifies a different
response to idle or data-limited periods than those of Standard TCP.
With CWV, the TCP sender halves the congestion window after each RTO
during an idle period, down to the initial window. Similarly, with
CWV the TCP sender halves the congestion window half-way down to the
flight size after each RTO during a data-limited period.
This document already specifies a TFRC response to idle periods that
is similar to that of TCP with Congestion Window Validation.
However, this document does not specify a TFRC response to data-
limited periods similar to that of CWV. Adding such a mechanism to
TFRC would require a one-line change to step (4) of Section 4.3. In
particular, the sender's response to a feedback packet could be
changed from:
If (the entire interval covered by the feedback packet
was a data-limited interval) {
If (the feedback packet reports a new loss event or an
increase in the loss event rate p) {
Halve entries in X_recv_set;
X_recv = 0.85 * X_recv;
Maximize X_recv_set();
recv_limit = max (X_recv_set);
} Else {
Maximize X_recv_set();
recv_limit = 2 * max (X_recv_set);
}
}
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 44]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
to:
If (the entire interval covered by the feedback packet
was a data-limited interval) {
Multiply old entries in X_recv_set by 0.85;
If (the feedback packet reports a new loss event or an
increase in the loss event rate p) {
Multiply new value X_recv by 0.85.
}
Maximize X_recv_set();
recv_limit = 2 * max (X_recv_set);
}
In particular, if the receive rate from before a data-limited period
is saved in X_recv_set, then the change in step (4) above would
multiply that receive rate by 0.85 each time that a feedback packet
is received and the above code is executed. As a result, after four
successive round-trip times of data-limited intervals, the receive
rate from before the data-limited period would be reduced by 0.85^4 =
0.52. Thus, this one-line change to step (4) of Section 4.3 would
result in the allowed sending rate being halved for each four
roundtrip times in which the sender was data-limited. Because of the
nature of X_recv_set, this mechanism would never reduce the allowed
sending rate below twice the most recent receive rate.
We note that in the suggested code above, with CWV-style behavior in
response to data-limited intervals, we keep
recv_limit = 2 * max (X_recv_set);
instead of using
recv_limit = max (X_recv_set);
following loss events in data-limited intervals. This relaxed
response to a loss event is allowed because the CWV-style behavior
itself limits rapid fluctuations in the sending rate during data-
limited periods.
C.1. Long Idle or Data-Limited Periods
Table 1 summarizes the response of Standard TCP [RFC2581], TCP with
Congestion Window Validation [RFC2861], Standard TFRC [RFC3448], and
Revised TFRC (this document) in response to long idle or data-limited
periods. For the purposes of this section, we define a long period
as a period of at least an RTO.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 45]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
Protocol Long idle periods Long data-limited periods
-------------- -------------------- ----------------------
Standard TCP: Window -> initial. Window increases for
each cwnd of data.
TCP with CWV: Halve window Reduce window half way
(not below initial cwnd). to used window.
Standard TFRC: Halve rate Rate limited to
(not below 2 pkts/rtt). twice receive rate.
One RTT after sending pkt,
rate is limited by X_recv.
Revised TFRC: Halve rate Rate limited to twice
(not below initial rate). max (current X_recv,
receive rate before
data-limited period).
Table 1: Response to Long Idle or Data-Limited Periods
Standard TCP after long idle periods: For Standard TCP, [RFC2581]
specifies that TCP SHOULD set the congestion window to no more than
the initial window after an idle period of at least an RTO. (To be
precise, RFC 2581 specifies that the TCP sender should set cwnd to
the initial window if the sender has not sent data in an interval
exceeding the retransmission timeout.)
Standard TCP after long data-limited periods: Standard TCP [RFC2581]
does not reduce TCP's congestion window after a data-limited period,
when the congestion window is not fully used. Standard TCP in
[RFC2581] uses the FlightSize, the amount of outstanding data in the
network, only in setting the slow-start threshold after a retransmit
timeout. Standard TCP is not limited by TCP's ack-clocking mechanism
during a data-limited period.
Standard TCP's lax response to a data-limited period is quite
different from its stringent response to an idle period.
TCP with Congestion Window Validation (CWV) after long idle periods:
As an experimental alternative, [RFC2861] specifies a more moderate
response to an idle period than that of Standard TCP, where during an
idle period the TCP sender halves cwnd after each RTO, down to the
initial cwnd.
TCP with Congestion Window Validation after long data-limited
periods: As an experimental alternative, [RFC2861] specifies a more
stringent response to a data-limited period than that of Standard
TCP, where after each RTO seconds of a data-limited period, the
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 46]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
congestion window is reduced half way down to the window that is
actually used.
The response of TCP with CWV to an idle period is similar to its
response to a data-limited period. TCP with CWV is less restrictive
than Standard TCP in response to an idle period, and more restrictive
than Standard TCP in response to a data-limited period.
Standard TFRC after long idle periods: For Standard TFRC, [RFC3448]
specifies that the allowed sending rate is halved after each RTO
seconds of an idle period. The allowed sending rate is not reduced
below two packets per RTT after idle periods. After an idle period,
the first feedback packet received reports a receive rate of one
packet per round-trip time, and this receive rate is used to limit
the sending rate. Standard TFRC effectively slow-starts up from this
allowed sending rate.
Standard TFRC after long data-limited periods: [RFC3448] does not
distinguish between data-limited and non-data-limited periods. As a
consequence, the allowed sending rate is limited to at most twice the
receive rate during and after a data-limited period. This is a very
restrictive response, more restrictive than that of either Standard
TCP or of TCP with CWV.
Revised TFRC after long idle periods: For Revised TFRC, this document
specifies that the allowed sending rate is halved after each RTO
seconds of an idle period. The allowed sending rate is not reduced
below the initial sending rate as the result of an idle period. The
first feedback packet received after the idle period reports a
receive rate of one packet per round-trip time. However, the Revised
TFRC sender does not use this receive rate for limiting the sending
rate. Thus, Revised TFRC differs from Standard TFRC in the lower
limit used in the reduction of the sending rate, and in the better
response to the first feedback packet received after the idle period.
Revised TFRC after long data-limited periods: For Revised TFRC, this
document distinguishes between data-limited and non-data-limited
periods. As specified in Section 4.3, during a data-limited period
Revised TFRC remembers the receive rate before the data-limited
period began, and does not reduce the allowed sending rate below
twice that receive rate. This is somewhat similar to the response of
Standard TCP, and is quite different from the very restrictive
response of Standard TFRC to a data-limited period. However, the
response of Revised TFRC is not as conservative as the response of
TCP with Congestion Window Validation, where the congestion window is
gradually reduced down to the window actually used during a data-
limited period.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 47]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
We note that for current TCP implementations, the congestion window
is generally not increased during a data-limited period (when the
current congestion window is not being fully used) [MAF05] (Section
5.7). We note that there is no mechanism comparable to this in
Revised TFRC.
Recovery after idle or data-limited periods: When TCP reduces the
congestion window after an idle or data-utilized period, TCP can set
the slow-start threshold, ssthresh, to allow the TCP sender to slow-
start back up towards its old sending rate when the idle or data-
limited period is over. However, in TFRC, even when the TFRC
sender's sending rate is restricted by twice the previous receive
rate, this results in the sender being able to double the sending
rate from one round-trip time to the next, if permitted by the
throughput equation. Thus, TFRC does not need a mechanism such as
TCP's setting of ssthresh to allow a slow-start after an idle or
data-limited period.
For future work, one avenue to explore would be the addition of
Congestion Window Validation mechanisms for TFRC's response to data-
limited periods. Currently, following Standard TCP, during data-
limited periods Revised TFRC does not limit its allowed sending rate
as a function of the receive rate.
C.2. Short Idle or Data-Limited Periods
Table 2 summarizes the response of Standard TCP [RFC2581], TCP with
Congestion Window Validation [RFC2861], Standard TFRC [RFC3448], and
Revised TFRC (this document) in response to short idle or data-
limited periods. For the purposes of this section, we define a short
period as a period of less than an RTT.
Protocol Short idle periods Short data-limited periods
-------------- -------------------- ----------------------
Standard TCP: Send a burst up to cwnd. Send a burst up to cwnd.
TCP with CWV: Send a burst up to cwnd. Send a burst up to cwnd.
Standard TFRC: ? ?
Revised TFRC: Send a burst Send a burst
(up to an RTT of (up to an RTT of
unused send credits). unused send credits).
Table 2: Response to Short Idle or Data-Limited Periods
Table 2 shows that Revised TFRC has a similar response to that of
Standard TCP and of TCP with CWV to a short idle or data-limited
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 48]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
period. For a short idle or data-limited period, TCP is limited only
by the size of the unused congestion window, and Revised TFRC is
limited only by the number of unused send credits (up to an RTT's
worth). For Standard TFRC, [RFC3448] did not explicitly specify the
behavior with respect to unused send credits.
C.3. Moderate Idle or Data-Limited Periods
Table 3 summarizes the response of Standard TCP [RFC2581], TCP with
Congestion Window Validation [RFC2861], Standard TFRC [RFC3448], and
Revised TFRC (this document) in response to moderate idle or data-
limited periods. For the purposes of this section, we define a
moderate period as a period greater than an RTT, but less than an
RTO.
Protocol Moderate idle periods Moderate data-limited periods
------------- --------------------- -------------------------
Standard TCP: Send a burst up to cwnd. Send a burst up to cwnd.
TCP with CWV: Send a burst up to cwnd. Send a burst up to cwnd.
Standard TFRC: ? Limited by X_recv.
Revised TFRC: Send a burst Send a burst
(up to an RTT of (up to an RTT of
unused send credits). unused send credits).
Table 3: Response to Moderate Idle or Data-Limited Periods
Table 3 shows that Revised TFRC has a similar response to that of
Standard TCP and of TCP with CWV to a moderate idle or data-limited
period. For a moderate idle or data-limited period, TCP is limited
only by the size of the unused congestion window. For a moderate
idle period, Revised TFRC is limited only by the number of unused
send credits (up to an RTT's worth). For a moderate data-limited
period, Standard TFRC would be limited by X_recv from the most recent
feedback packet. In contrast, Revised TFRC is not limited by the
receive rate from data-limited periods that cover an entire feedback
period of a round-trip time. For Standard TFRC, [RFC3448] did not
explicitly specify the behavior with respect to unused send credits.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 49]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
C.4. Losses During Data-Limited Periods
This section discusses the response to a loss during a data-limited
period.
Protocol Response to a loss during a data-limited period
------------- -----------------------------------------------
Standard TCP: Set ssthresh, cwnd to FlightSize/2.
TCP with CWV: Same as Standard TCP.
Standard TFRC: Calculate X_Bps, send at most 2*X_recv.
Revised TFRC: Calculate X_Bps, send at most recv_limit.
In addition, modify X_recv_set.
Table 4: Response to a Loss during a Data-Limited Period
In TCP [RFC2581], the response to a loss during a data-limited period
is the same as the response to a loss at any other time in TCP. This
response is to set the congestion window to half of the FlightSize,
where the FlightSize is the actual amount of unacknowledged data.
Thus, after a loss during a data-limited period, the TCP sender must
halve its allowed sending rate, as it normally does in response to a
loss.
In Standard TFRC, the response to a loss during a data-limited period
is also the same as the response to a loss at any other time in
Standard TFRC. The sending rate is limited by X_Bps, from the
throughput equation, and the sending rate is also limited by twice
X_recv, the most recent receive rate. As a result, after a loss in a
data-limited period, the sender can at most double its sending rate
to twice X_recv, even if the throughput equation X_Bps would allow a
sending rate much higher than that.
In Revised TFRC, there have been changes to the use of the receive
rate X_recv during data-limited intervals; the sender is limited to
sending at most recv_limit, where the sender can remember the receive
rate X_recv from just before the data-limited period. This allows
the sender to more than double its sending rate during data-limited
periods, up to the receive rate from before the data-limited period
(if allowed by the throughput equation as given in X_Bps). This is
similar to Standard TCP's practice of not reducing the window during
data-limited periods (in the absence of loss).
As with Standard TFRC, during a data-limited period the Revised TFRC
sender is sending less than is allowed by the throughput equation
X_Bps. After the loss event, the sender still might not want to be
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 50]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
sending as much as allowed by the recalculated value of X_Bps that
takes into account the new loss event. Revised TFRC adds an
additional mechanism to gradually limit the sender's sending rate
after losses during data-limited periods. Unlike TCP's response of
setting cwnd to half the FlightSize, this additional mechanism in
Revised TFRC uses TFRC's practice of using slowly-responding changes
for both increases and decreases in the allowed sending rate.
This is done in Revised TFRC (in step (4) of Section 4.3) by
decreasing the entry in X_recv_set after a loss in a data-limited
interval, and by allowing the sender to send at most max
(X_recv_set), instead of at most twice max (X_recv_set), in the
immediate round-trip time following the reported loss. Thus, the
'price' for allowing the sender to send more than twice the most
immediately reported value of X_recv during a data-limited interval
is the introduction of an additional mechanism to reduce this allowed
sending rate following losses in data-limited periods.
In TFRC's response to a loss in a data-limited interval, we have
considered the following examples.
Example 1, Losses *after* a Data-Limited Period: This example shows
that losses after a data-limited period has ended are addressed by
the throughput equation X_Bps.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Stage 1: Not data-limited.
Sending 100 packets per round-trip time (PPR).
Stage 2: Data-limited, sending 10 PPR.
Stage 3: Not data-limited.
Sending 100 PPR again, as allowed by X_Bps.
A packet loss in the first RTT of Stage 3.
X_Bps is updated,
Response of Revised TFRC: a slight reduction in the allowed sending
rate, depending on the number of packets since the last loss event.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 5: Example 1, Losses after a Data-Limited Period
For example 1, when there is a packet loss in the first RTT of Stage
3, this will be reflected in a modified value of X_Bps, and future
loss events would result in future reductions of the throughput
equation X_Bps. In particular, following TFRC's standard use of the
throughput equation [FHPW00] (Section A.2), the allowed TFRC sending
rate would be halved after something like five successive round-trip
times with loss.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 51]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
Example 2, a Mildly Data-Limited Sender: This example considers
losses in a data-limited period when, during the data-limited period,
the sender is sending *almost* as much as it is allowed to send.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Stage 1: Not data-limited. Sending 100 PPR.
Stage 2: Data-limited, sending 99 PPR.
A packet loss in Stage 2.
Response of Revised TFRC: a slight reduction in the allowed sending
rate, down to 85 PPR or less, depending on the number of packets
since the last loss event.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 6: Example 2, a Mildly Data-Limited Sender
Consider a Revised TFRC connection where the sender has been sending
a hundred PPR and then enters a data-limited period of sending only
99 PPR because of data limitations from the application. (That is,
at every instance of time during the data-limited period, the sender
could have sent one more packet.) If there are losses in the data-
limited period, the allowed sending rate is reduced to min(X_Bps,
recv_limit), where both the throughput equation X_Bps and the limit
recv_limit force a slight reduction in the allowed sending rate.
Example 3, a Single Packet Loss during a Data-Limited Period. This
example considers the loss of a single packet during a data-limited
period, after the sender has not sent a packet for two RTTs.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Stage 1: Not data-limited. Sending 100 PPR.
Stage 2: Data-limited, sending 10 PPR.
Stage 3: Data-limited, sending no data for two RTTs.
Stage 4: Data-limited, sending one packet, which is ECN-marked.
Response of Revised TFRC: a reduction in the allowed sending
rate, down to 50 PPR or less. For each loss event during
the data-limited period, the 'remembered' X_recv from before
the data-limited period is effectively halved.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 7: Example 3, a Single Packet Loss
Consider a Revised TFRC connection where the sender has been sending
a hundred PPR, and then enters a data-limited period of sending only
ten PPR, and then does not send any packets for two RTTs, and then
sends a single packet, which is ECN-marked. In this case, with
Revised TFRC, for each loss event during the data-limited period, the
sender halves its 'remembered' X_recv from before the data-limited
period
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 52]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
Example 4, Losses after Increasing the Sending Rate during a Data-
Limited Period. This example considers losses when the sender
significantly increases its sending rate during a data-limited
period.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Stage 1: Not data-limited. Sending 100 PPR.
Stage 2: Data-limited, sending 1 PPR.
Stage 3: Data-limited, sending 20 PPR.
Several packets are lost in each RTT of Stage 3.
During Stage 3, the sender would *like* to send 20 PPR.
Response of Revised TFRC: For each loss event during
the data-limited period, the 'remembered' X_recv from before
the data-limited period is effectively halved, and the most
recent X_recv is reduced by 0.85.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 8: Example 4, Losses after Increasing the Sending Rate
Consider a Revised TFRC connection where the sender has been sending
a hundred PPR, and then enters a data-limited period of sending only
one PPR, and then, while still data-limited, increases its sending
rate to twenty PPR, where it experiences a number of successive loss
events.
In this case, with Revised TFRC, for each loss event during the
data-limited period, the sender halves its 'remembered' X_recv from
before the data-limited period, and the most recent X_recv is reduced
by 0.85.
C.5. Other Patterns
Other possible patterns to consider in evaluating Revised TFRC would
be to compare the behavior of TCP, Standard TFRC, and Revised TFRC
for connections with alternating busy and idle periods, alternating
idle and data-limited periods, or with idle or data-limited periods
during slow-start.
C.6. Evaluating TFRC's Response to Idle Periods
In this section we focus on evaluating Revised TFRC's response to
idle or data-limited periods.
One drawback to Standard TFRC's strict response to idle or data-
limited periods is that it could be seen as encouraging applications
to pad their sending rate during idle or data-limited periods, by
sending dummy data when there was no other data to send. Because
Revised TFRC has a less strict response to data-limited periods than
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 53]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
that of Standard TFRC, Revised TFRC also could be seen as giving
applications less of an incentive to pad their sending rates during
data-limited periods. Work in progress, such as Faster Restart
[KFS07], can also decrease an application's incentive to pad its
sending rate, by allowing faster start-up after idle periods.
Further research would be useful to understand, in more detail, the
interaction between TCP or TFRC's congestion control mechanisms, and
an application's incentive to pad its sending rate during idle or
data-limited periods.
TCP Congestion Window Validation, described in Appendix C.1 above, is
an Experimental standard specifying that the TCP sender slowly
reduces the congestion window during an idle or data-limited period
[RFC2861]. While TFRC and Revised TFRC's responses to idle periods
are roughly similar to those of TCP with Congestion Window
Validation, Revised TFRC's response to data-limited periods is less
conservative than those of TCP with Congestion Window Validation (and
Standard TFRC's response to data-limited periods was considerably
*more* conservative than those of Congestion Window Validation).
Future work could include modifications to this document so that the
response of Revised TFRC to a data-limited period includes a slow
reduction of the allowed sending rate; Section C specifies a possible
mechanism for this. Such a modification would be particularly
compelling if Congestion Window Validation became a Proposed Standard
in the IETF for TCP.
References
Normative References
[RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997.
[RFC3448] Handley, M., Floyd, S., Padhye, J., and J. Widmer, "TCP
Friendly Rate Control (TFRC): Protocol Specification",
RFC 3448, January 2003.
Informative References
[BRS99] Balakrishnan, H., Rahul, H., and Seshan, S., "An
Integrated Congestion Management Architecture for
Internet Hosts," Proc. ACM SIGCOMM, Cambridge, MA,
September 1999.
[CCID-4] Floyd, S., and E. Kohler, "Profile for DCCP Congestion
Control ID 4: the Small-Packet Variant of TFRC
Congestion Control", Work in Progress, February 2008.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 54]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
[FHPW00] S. Floyd, M. Handley, J. Padhye, and J. Widmer,
"Equation-Based Congestion Control for Unicast
Applications", August 2000, Proc SIGCOMM 2000.
[FHPW00a] S. Floyd, M. Handley, J. Padhye, and J. Widmer,
"Equation-Based Congestion Control for Unicast
Applications: the Extended Version", ICSI tech report
TR-00-03, March 2000.
[FF99] Floyd, S., and K. Fall, Promoting the Use of End-to-End
Congestion Control in the Internet, IEEE/ACM
Transactions on Networking, August 1999.
[KFS07] E. Kohler, S. Floyd, and A. Sathiaseelan, "Faster
Restart for TCP Friendly Rate Control (TFRC)", Work in
Progress, November 2007.
[MAF05] A. Medina, M. Allman, and S. Floyd, "Measuring the
Evolution of Transport Protocols in the Internet", ACM
Computer Communications Review, April 2005.
[PFTK98] Padhye, J. and Firoiu, V. and Towsley, D. and Kurose,
J., "Modeling TCP Throughput: A Simple Model and its
Empirical Validation", Proc ACM SIGCOMM 1998.
[RFC2140] Touch, J., "TCP Control Block Interdependence", RFC
2140, April 1997.
[RFC2581] Allman, M., Paxson, V., and W. Stevens, "TCP Congestion
Control", RFC 2581, April 1999.
[RFC2581bis] Allman, M., Paxson, V., and W. Stevens, "TCP Congestion
Control", Work in Progress, April 2008.
[RFC2861] Handley, M., Padhye, J., and S. Floyd, "TCP Congestion
Window Validation", RFC 2861, June 2000.
[RFC2988] Paxson, V. and M. Allman, "Computing TCP's
Retransmission Timer", RFC 2988, November 2000.
[RFC3168] Ramakrishnan, K., Floyd, S., and D. Black, "The Addition
of Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) to IP", RFC
3168, September 2001.
[RFC3390] Allman, M., Floyd, S., and C. Partridge, "Increasing
TCP's Initial Window", RFC 3390, October 2002.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 55]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
[RFC3448Err] RFC 3448 Errata,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=3448>.
[RFC3540] Spring, N., Wetherall, D., and D. Ely, "Robust Explicit
Congestion Notification (ECN) Signaling with Nonces",
RFC 3540, June 2003.
[RFC4340] Kohler, E., Handley, M., and S. Floyd, "Datagram
Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)", RFC 4340, March
2006.
[RFC4342] Floyd, S., Kohler, E., and J. Padhye, "Profile for
Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) Congestion
Control ID 3: TCP-Friendly Rate Control (TFRC)", RFC
4342, March 2006.
[RFC4828] Floyd, S. and E. Kohler, "TCP Friendly Rate Control
(TFRC): The Small-Packet (SP) Variant", RFC 4828, April
2007.
[W00] Widmer, J., "Equation-Based Congestion Control", Diploma
Thesis, University of Mannheim, February 2000,
<http://www.icir.org/tfrc/>.
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 56]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
Authors' Addresses
Sally Floyd
ICSI
1947 Center St, Suite 600
Berkeley, CA 94708
EMail: floyd@icir.org
Mark Handley,
Department of Computer Science
University College London
Gower Street
London WC1E 6BT
UK
EMail: M.Handley@cs.ucl.ac.uk
Jitendra Padhye
Microsoft Research
EMail: padhye@microsoft.com
Joerg Widmer
DoCoMo Euro-Labs
Landsberger Strasse 312
80687 Munich
Germany
EMail: widmer@acm.org
Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 57]
RFC 5348 TFRC: Protocol Specification September 2008
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Floyd, et al. Standards Track [Page 58]