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-=-=-=-=-=-=-

















                   UNIX Bourne Shell Programming






















                    Developed by:

                         User Liaison Section, D-7131
                         Denver Office
   
                    [Name and number removed at author's
                     request]

                    Revision Date:  February 7, 1991


I.  INTRODUCTION..............................................  v
     A.  Audience.............................................  v
     B.  Course Objectives....................................  v
     C.  Course Handout Conventions........................... vi

1.  BOURNESHELL OVERVIEW......................................  1
     1.1  What is the BourneShell?............................  2
     1.2  Making a Bourne Shell Script Executable.............  3
     1.3  Tracing Mechanisms..................................  6
     Workshop 1...............................................  9

2.  USER, SHELL, AND READ-ONLY SHELL VARIABLES................ 11
     2.1  User Variables...................................... 11
     2.2  Shell Variables..................................... 14
          2.2.1  HOME......................................... 14
          2.2.2  IFS.......................................... 15
          2.2.3  MAIL......................................... 15
          2.2.4  MAILPATH..................................... 15
          2.2.5  MAILCHECK.................................... 16
          2.2.6  PATH......................................... 16
          2.2.7  PS1.......................................... 17
          2.2.8  PS2.......................................... 17
     2.3  Read-Only User Variables............................ 18
     2.4  Read-Only Shell Variables........................... 19
          2.4.1  Name of the Calling Program.................. 19
          2.4.2  Arguments.................................... 19
          2.4.3  Shift........................................ 21
          2.4.4  Set.......................................... 22
          2.4.5  expr......................................... 23
     Workshop 2............................................... 27

3.  POSITIONAL PARAMETERS..................................... 33
     3.1  Reading Input Into a Shell Variable................. 34
     3.2  Command Substitution................................ 36
     3.3  Comments in BourneShell Scripts..................... 38
     3.4  BourneShell Environment - Exporting Variables....... 39
     Workshop 3............................................... 41

4.  CONTROL CONSTRUCTS:....................................... 45
     4.1  Types of Tests Used with Control Constructs:........ 46
     4.2  Test on Numeric Values.............................. 47
     4.3  Test on Character Strings........................... 47
     4.4  Test on File Types.................................. 49
     4.5  if then............................................. 50
     4.6  if then else........................................ 52
     4.7  if then elif........................................ 54
     4.8  for................................................. 55
     4.9  while............................................... 57
     4.10  until.............................................. 58
     4.11  case............................................... 60
     Workshop 4............................................... 63

5. COMPILING PROGRAMS IN UNIX................................. 67
     5.1  "C": Sample Program with a Main and Two Functions
               in One        ................................. 67
     5.2  "C": Compiling a Program............................ 69
     5.3  "C": Renaming the Executable Module................. 71
     5.4  "C": Giving a Name to the Output File............... 72
     5.5  "C": Producing an Assembly Listing.................. 73
     5.6  "C": Main and Two Functions in Three Separate Source
               Files.......................................... 74
     5.7  "C": Compiling but Not Producing an Executable    
           Module............................................. 75
     5.8  FORTRAN: Sample Program a Main and Two Subroutine... 76
     5.9  FORTRAN: Compiling a Program........................ 77
     5.10  FORTRAN: Renaming the Executable Module............ 79
     5.11  FORTRAN: Giving a Name to the Output File.......... 80
     5.12  FORTRAN: Producing an Assembly Listing............. 81
     5.13  FORTRAN: Main and Two Subroutines in Three Separate
                    Source Files.............................. 82
     5.14  FORTRAN: Compiling But Not Producing an Executable
                    Module.................................... 83
     5.15  FORTRAN: Compiling Object Files to Produce an    
                Executable Module............................. 84
     5.16  COBOL: Sample Program with a Main and Two        
                  Subroutines................................. 85
     5.17  COBOL: Compiling a Program......................... 86
     5.18  COBOL: Running a Program........................... 87
     Workshop 5............................................... 89

6.  UNIX TOOLS................................................ 95
     6.1  Processes........................................... 95
     6.2  Executing a Command................................. 95
     6.3  Process Identification.............................. 95
     6.4  grep: A Pattern Matching Filter..................... 98
          6.4.1  More on Regular Expressions.................. 99
          6.4.2  Closure......................................103
          6.4.3  Some Nice grep Options ......................104
          6.4.4  Summary of Regular Expression Characters.....105
     6.5  sed: Edit a File to Standard Output.................106
     6.6  awk: A Pattern Matching Programming Language........110
     6.7  sort: Sort a File...................................114
     6.8  What Other Useful UNIX Tools are Available..........117
     6.9  Archiver and Library Maintainer.....................118
          6.9.1  ar: Creating an Archive File with Object   
                  Modules.....................................119
          6.9.2  ar: Verifying the Contents of the Archive  
                   File.......................................119
          6.9.3  ar: Removing Duplicate Object Files..........120
          6.9.4  ar: Compiling Main and Archive Files.........120
     Workshop 6...............................................121


7.  VAX DCL TO UNIX SHELL SCRIPT CONVERSION...................125
     7.1  Processes...........................................127
     7.2  Pipes...............................................128
     7.3  Input, Output, and Error Redirection................129
     7.4  Command Structure and File Naming Conventions.......131
     7.5  File Management Commands............................133
     7.6  Metacharacters......................................135
     7.7  Wildcards: Are They Really Wild?....................136
     7.8  Summary.............................................137
     Workshop 7...............................................139

8.  ADVANCED FEATURES OF FTP..................................143
     8.1  Initializing FTP on UMAX............................144
     8.2  Multiple File Transfers.............................145
     8.3  Auto Login Feature..................................146
     8.4  Macros..............................................148
     8.5  Filename Translation................................149
     8.6  Aborting Transfers..................................150
     8.7  More Remote Computer Commands.......................151
     Workshop 8...............................................153

9.  OPTIONAL CHAPTER - KORNSHELL PROGRAMMING..................155
     9.1  KornShell Variables.................................155
     9.2  User Defined Variables..............................157
     9.3  Values of Variables Between Child and Parent
          Processes...........................................158
     9.4  ksh: Aliases........................................159
     9.5  ksh: Command Line Editing...........................161
     9.6  ksh: Interactive Command Line Editing...............162
     9.7  ksh: Functions......................................164
     9.8  ksh: The Select Construct...........................166
     9.9  ksh: Tracing and Conditional Execution..............168
     Workshop 9...............................................169

APPENDIX A - sh...............................................173

APPENDIX B - test.............................................189

APPENDIX C - expr.............................................193

APPENDIX D - ftp..............................................195

APPENDIX E - cc...............................................209

APPENDIX F - f77..............................................219

APPENDIX G - lint.............................................231

APPENDIX H - cb...............................................235

APPENDIX I - ar...............................................237

APPENDIX J - time.............................................243

APPENDIX K - ksh..............................................245

INDEX.........................................................279

I.  INTRODUCTION


A.  Audience


This course is for individuals who have completed "UNIX for
Beginning Users" (or equivalent experience) and want to write UNIX
BourneShell script files.  A script file contains a sequence of
UNIX commands which can be executed by entering one command.  It
is assumed that the student already has a good understanding of the
UNIX operating system, be able to use a UNIX editor, and be
familiar with a computer terminal or typewriter keyboard.



B.  Course Objectives


Upon successful completion of this course the student will be able
to:

     1.   Write moderately complex BourneShell scripts.

     2.   Make a BourneShell script executable.

     3.   Demonstrate how to use the following BourneShell
          commands: shift, exit, expr, test, if then, if then else,
          if then elif, for, while, until, and case.

     4.   Use the following BourneShell constructs: tracing
          mechanisms (for debugging), user variables, BourneShell
          variables, read-only variables, positional parameters,
          reading input to a BourneShell script, command
          substitution, comments, and exporting variables.  In
          addition, test on numeric values, test on file type, and
          test on character strings are covered.

     6.   Create a ".profile" script to customize the user
          environment.

     7.   Use advanced features of File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

     8.   Compile source code into object and executable modules.

     9.   Optional: KornShell programming.  This is of primary
          interest to programmers.

     10.  Convert VMS DCL command files to UNIX Shell.
C.  Course Handout Conventions


There are several conventions used in this handout for consistency
and easier interpretation:


     1.   Samples of actual terminal sessions are single-lined
          boxed.


     2.   User entries are shown in bold print and are underlined.

          exit


     3.   All keyboard functions in the text will be bold.  

          (Ret)               Backspace
          Tab                 Ctrl-F6
          Print (Shift-F7)    Go to DOS (1)

          NOTE:     (Ret) indicates the Return or Enter key located
                    above the right Shift key.


     4.   Examples of user entries not showing the computer's
          response are in dotted-lined boxes.                   
           


     5.   Command formats are double-lined boxed.



     6.   Three dots either in vertical or horizontal alignment
          mean continuation or that data is missing from diagram.

                                                                 
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?        Multimax, Nanobus, and UMAX are trademarks of          ?
?        Encore Computer Corporation.                           ?
?                                                               ?
?                                                               ?
?        Annex is a trademark of XYLOGICS, Inc.                 ?
?                                                               ?
?                                                               ?
?        UNIX and Teletype are registered trademarks of         ?
?        AT&T Bell Laboratories                                 ?
?                                                               ?
?                                                               ?
?        Ethernet is a trademark of Xerox Corporation           ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
1.  BOURNESHELL OVERVIEW


The BourneShell is both a command-line interpreter and a high-
level programming language.  When it is acting as a command-line
interpreter, it processes commands as you enter them at the command
prompt.  When you use it as a programming language, it processes
commands that are stored in files known as BourneShell scripts. 
This course will show you how to create and execute BourneShell
scripts.  We will explore BourneShell programming including such
features as variables, control structures, processes, and
executable files.


The BourneShell is one of three shells available on most UNIX
systems.  Bourne is the accepted standard for System V UNIX.  The
other shells are being used more and more.  The other shells are
the CShell and the KornShell.  The CShell is BSD (Berkeley Software
Distribution) UNIX. BSD was developed at the University of
California at Berkeley, California. Most of the features found in
the BourneShell are also found in the other shells; there are
differences, however.  The CShell and KornShell are not standard
on UNIX System V but are generally available.


BourneShell scripts allow you to group command lines together and
execute them by entering a single command at the command line. This
allows complex functions to be completed by any user, and
repetitive functions can be completed easily.  Input and output
can also be redirected from a BourneShell script.
1.1  What is the BourneShell?

BourneShell is a high level programming language and a command line
interpreter. 

The command to invoke the BourneShell is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  sh [-acefhiknrstuvx] [args]                 ?
?                                                               ?
?  (See Appendix A for a complete list of options etc)          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A Shell script is an executable plain file that contains UNIX and
shell commands. To execute the shell script type the name of the
script at the prompt. A simple shell script called shell_ex is
shown in the following example. The output from the execution of
the shell is also shown.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat shell_ex                                                 ?
? echo "This is a very simple shell procedure "                 ?
? echo "created with the basic echo command "                   ?
? echo "and three other very basic commands "                   ?
? echo                                                          ?
? ps                                                            ?
? echo                                                          ? 
? who                                                           ?
? echo                                                          ?
? ls                                                            ?
? $sh shell_ex                                                  ?
? This is a very simple shell procedure                         ?
? created with the very basic echo command                      ?
? and three other very basic commands                           ?
?                                                               ?
? PID    TTY     TIME    COMMAND                                ?
? 10443 rt02120  0:01    sh                                     ?
? 10427 rt02120  0:04    ksh                                    ?
?                                                               ?
? sgavlick  rt021e0   Sep 7   13:26                             ?
? teacher   rt021b0   Sep 7   14:39                             ?
?                                                               ?
? memo                                                          ?
? class_notes                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
1.2  Making a Bourne Shell Script Executable

A BourneShell script is an ordinary file that contains commands
which can be executed in sequence by entering one command at the
BourneShell prompt.  In order for a script to be executed, it must
first be executable.  This is done with the chmod command.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat shell_ex                                                 ?
? echo "This is a very simple shell procedure "                 ?
? echo "created with the basic echo command "                   ?
? echo "and three other very basic commands "                   ?
? echo                                                          ?
? ps                                                            ?
? echo                                                          ?
? who                                                           ?
? echo                                                          ?
? ls                                                            ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

If the ls -l shell_ex command were entered, we would see the
protections assigned to this file.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ls -l shell_ex                                               ?
? -rw-r--r-- 1 teacher class  66 Sep 7 10:24 shell_ex           ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The character in column one is the type of file. 

      -  =  ordinary (plain) disk file

      d  =  directory

      b  =  block special file

      c  =  character special file

      p  =  fifo file ("named pipe") special file

      l  =  symbolic link

          



Notice that the script file in the previous sample session has the
following file protections:

     User   - Read and Write
     Group  - Read
     Other  - Read

No execute permissions have been granted for user, group, or other. 
If we try to execute this script by typing its name, the following
would result.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $shell_ex                                                     ?
? shell_ex: execute permission denied                           ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This error message would indicate that execute permission was
denied.  The BourneShell script could not be executed.  To change
the permissions for the BourneShell script, use the chmod command.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $chmod 755 shell_ex                                           ?
? $ls -l shell_ex                                               ?
? -rwxr-xr-x 1 teacher class  66 Sep 7  10:26 shell_ex          ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


Now that the permissions have been changed to allow user, group,
and others to execute the file, it will execute properly.
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $shell_ex                                                     ?
? This is a very simple shell procedure                         ?
? created with the basic echo command                           ?
? and three other very basic commands                           ?
?                                                               ?
? PID    TTY     TIME    COMMAND                                ?
? 10443 rt02120  0:01    sh                                     ?
? 10427 rt02120  0:04    ksh                                    ?
?                                                               ?
? sgavlick  rt021e0   Sep 7   13:26                             ?
. teacher   rt021b0   Sep 7   14:39                             .
.                                                               .
.                                                               .


The protections will work as you expect.  Execute permission for
the user will allow you (the owner) to run the BourneShell script.
Group permissions allow anyone in your group to execute the script,
and other permission allows anyone on the system to execute the
script.
1.3  Tracing Mechanisms

It is possible to have a trace made of the BourneShell script as
it executes. This is invaluable for debugging purposes. All that
is required is to give an option to the BourneShell.   This is done
by including an option on the call to "sh". The command to do this
is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?     Command Format: sh [-acefhiknrstuvx] [args]               ?
?                                                               ?
?     See Appendix A for a complete list of options etc         ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The option to turn on tracing is -x. For an example, let's trace
the execution of the simple script shell_ex.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?     $cat shell_ex                                             ?
?     echo "This is a very simple shell procedure "             ?
?     echo "created with the basic echo command "               ?
?     echo "and three other very basic commands "               ?
?     echo                                                      ?
?     ps                                                        ?
?     echo                                                      ?
?     who                                                       ?
?     echo                                                      ?
?     ls                                                        ?
?     $                                                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Execute the BourneShell script using the -x option on the call to
the shell. The following sample session shows how to do this and
it shows the results of the trace.
Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?     $sh -x shell_ex                                           ?
?     + echo This is a very simple shell procedure              ?
?     This is a very simple shell procedure                     ?
?     + echo created with the basic echo command                ?
?     created with the basic echo command                       ?
?     + echo and three other very basic commands                ?
?     and three other very basic commands                       ?
?     + echo                                                    ?
?                                                               ?
?     + ps                                                      ?
?     PID    TTY      TIME       COMMAND                        ?
?     10443 rt01120   0:01       sh                             ?
?     10427 rt02120   0:04       ksh                            ?
?     + echo                                                    ?
?                                                               ?
?     + who                                                     ?
?     sgavlick  rt021e0   Sep 7  13:26                          ?
?     teacher   rt02120   Sep 7  14:39                          ?
?     + echo                                                    ?
?                                                               ?
?     + ls                                                      ?
?     memo                                                      ?
?     class_notes                                               ?
?     $                                                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The commands as read from the BourneShell script are indicated by
the plus sign (+). The next line or lines are the results of the
execution of the command. Using this tracing option allows you to
se the execution of each command in the script and see the results
of that execution.
                               NOTES
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Workshop 1

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 1. Each student is to complete the entire
workshop.

DESK EXERCISES 


     1.   The BourneShell can act as a command line

                                                   

          or a high level                          .  




     2.   The BourneShell is one of three shells generally
          available. What are the other two?




     3.   One advantage of using a shell script is

                                                  .



     4.   The command to call the BourneShell is:

          a.   bourne
          b.   ksh
          c.    b
          d.   sh




     5.   Why would you use tracing?






     6.   What UNIX command do you enter to make a BourneShell
          script executable? 


     That's all
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
2.  USER, SHELL, AND READ-ONLY SHELL VARIABLES


The BourneShell has no true numeric variables.  It uses string
variables to represent numbers, as well as text.  String variables
are able to take on the value of a string of characters.  There are
three types of variables in the BourneShell.  They are user
variables, BourneShell variables, and Read-only BourneShell
variables.

You can declare, initialize, read, and modify user variables from
a BourneShell script or from the command line.  The BourneShell
itself declares and initializes shell variables, but you can read
and modify them.  The BourneShell also initializes the read-only
shell variables, and you can read but not modify them.



2.1  User Variables


It is legal to assign any sequence of non-blank characters as the
name of a variable.  The sample session below creates a variable
called person and initializes it with the string Richard.
 
It is important to note that you must NOT precede or follow the
equal sign with a space or TAB character.

Sample Session:
                        
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  $person=Richard                                              ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 

This sample session indicates that person does not represent the 
string Richard.  The string person is echoed as person.  The
BourneShell will only do the substitution of the value of the
variable when the name of the variable is preceded with a dollar
sign ($).  

Sample Sesssion:
                
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  $echo person                                                 ?
?  person                                                       ?
?  $echo $person                                                ?
?  Richard                                                      ?
?  $                                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
If you want to have imbedded spaces in a variable, it is necessary
to quote the string.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  $person='Richard and Kathleen'                               ?
?  $echo $person                                                ?
?  Richard and Kathleen                                         ?
?  $                                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The echo utility copies its arguments to the standard output.  The
command echo $person displays the value of the variable person. 
It will not display $person because the BourneShell doesn't pass
$person as an argument.  The leading dollar sign ($) causes the
BourneShell to substitute the value of the variable and then passes
that value to the utility.  The echo utility then displays the
value of the variable, not its name, never knowing that you called
it with a variable.  The BourneShell passed the same command line
as if you had typed in echo Richard and Kathleen.  The BourneShell
can be prevented from doing this substitution by entering one of
the following:

Sample Sessions:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  $echo $person                                                ?
?  Richard and Kathleen                                         ?
?  $                                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
In this session the contents of the variable person are displayed.
The BourneShell made the substitution because the variable name
person is preceded by a dollar sign ($).

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  $echo \$person                                               ?
?  $person                                                      ?
?  $                                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In the above example the variable person is preceded by a dollar
sign ($) but the dollar sign has a backslash (\) ahead of it. The
backslash has the effect of cancelling the special meaning of the
character following the backslash. In this case, the special
meaning of the dollar sign is ignored and the substitution is not
done.




?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  $echo '$person'                                              ?
?  $person                                                      ?
?  $                                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


The single quote marks (') causes the characters between the marks
to be taken as literal. The shell makes no attempt to interpret the
meanings of these characters. The shell passes these characters on
with no substitution. 

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  $echo "$person"                                              ?
?  Richard and Kathleen                                         ?
?  $                                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The double quote marks do not prevent the shell from making
substitution; and the value of the variable will be displayed by
the utility.
2.2  Shell Variables


The BourneShell declares and initializes variables that determine
such things as your home directory, what directories the shell will
look in when you give commands, how often to look for mail, your
prompt, and many other things.  We will look at several of these
BourneShell variables and their functions.  You can assign new
values to these variables from the command line or from the
execution of the .profile file in your home directory.

2.2.1  HOME

The first BourneShell variable that we will look at is the HOME
variable.  By default, the home directory is the current working
directory after you login.  The system administrator determines
your home directory when you establish an account and places that
information in the /etc/passwd file.  When you login, the
BourneShell gets that pathname and assigns it to the HOME variable.

When you enter a cd command with no argument, the utility takes
the name of the directory from the HOME variable and makes it the
current working directory.  If you change the HOME variable to
another directory pathname, the utility will make the new directory
the current working directory.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $echo $HOME                                                   ?
? /user0/rharding                                               ?
? $cd                                                           ?
? $pwd                                                          ?
? /user0/rharding                                               ?
? $HOME=/user0/rharding/eng                                     ?
? $cd                                                           ?
? $pwd                                                          ?
? /user0/rharding/eng                                           ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This example shows how the value of the HOME variable affects the
cd utility.  The cd command will use the value of the HOME variable
as the pathname for the current working directory.
2.2.2  IFS

This is the internal-field separator BourneShell variable.  You
can always use a space or tab to separate characters on the command
line.  When you assign the IFS variable to another character, you
can also use this character as the field separator.

Example:
.................................................................
. $num_args a:b:c:d                                             .
.................................................................

This example shows only one argument, namely a:b:c:d.
.................................................................
.  $IFS=:                                                       .
.  $num_args a:b:c:d                                            .
.................................................................

This example now shows four different arguments; each being
separated by the new IFS, (:).

2.2.3  MAIL

The MAIL variable contains the name of the file that the mail (and
mailx) utilities use to store your mail.  Usually, the absolute
pathname of this file is /usr/mail/name, where name is your login
name.

Example:
.................................................................
. $MAIL=/usr/mail/rharding                                      .
.................................................................

2.2.4  MAILPATH

This variable contains a list of filenames separated by colons. If
set, the BourneShell will inform you when any of these files are
modified (i.e. when new mail arrives).  Normally, this variable is
not set.
2.2.5  MAILCHECK

This variable specifies how often, in seconds, the BourneShell will
check for new mail.  The default is 600 seconds.  If set to 0, it
will check for new mail each time before it gives you a prompt.

2.2.6  PATH

This BourneShell variable will describe the directories that will
be searched looking for the program that you want to execute.  The
BourneShell looks in several directories for a file that has the
same name as the command that you entered.  The PATH variable
controls this search path. Normally, the first directory searched
is the current working directory.  If the program is not found,
the search continues in the /bin and then the /usr/bin directory. 
Generally, these directories contain executable programs.  If the
program is not found in one of these directories, the BourneShell
reports that the program can't be found (or executed).

The PATH variable lists the pathnames in the order in which the
search will proceed.  The pathnames are separated by a colon (:).
If nothing (null string) precedes the colon, that indicates to
start the search at the current working directory.

Example:
.................................................................
. $PATH=:/user0/rharding/bin:/bin:/usr/bin                      .
. $                                                             .
.................................................................

This PATH variable indicates to start the search for the program
at the current working directory, then look in the directory
/user0/rharding/bin, then /bin, and finally /usr/bin.

If each user has a unique path specified, each user can execute a
different program by giving the same command.  The search for the
program stops when it is satisfied; thus, you can use the same name
for your own programs as the standard UNIX utilities.  To do this,
simply put your program in one of the first directories that the
BourneShell searches.
2.2.7  PS1

This is the BourneShell prompt which lets you know that the shell
is waiting for you to give it a command.  The default BourneShell
prompt is a dollar sign ($).  The shell stores the prompt as a
string variable in PS1.  When you change the value of this
variable, the appearance of the prompt will change.  When you are
working on several different machines, it might be useful to have
the prompt be the name of the machine you are working on.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $pwd                                                          ?
? /user0/rharding                                               ?
? $PS1='domax0: '                                               ?
? domax0:                                                       ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Notice that prompt is now domax0:

2.2.8  PS2

This variable is called the secondary prompt.  If the command is
not completed on one line and must be continued on the next line,
the prompt for that continued line is PS2.  The default is >. This
prompt indicates that the BourneShell is expecting you to finish
the previous command line.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $echo 'demonstration of prompt string                         ?
? >2'                                                           ?
? demonstration of prompt string                                ?
? 2                                                             ?
? $PS2='Continue? '                                             ?
? $echo 'demonstration of                                       ?
? Continue? prompt string 2'                                    ?
? demonstration of                                              ?
? prompt string 2                                               ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Notice how the secondary prompt was changed to "Continue? ".
2.3  Read-Only User Variables

The contents of the user variables and the shell variables can be
modified by the user.  It is possible to assign a new value to
them.  The new value can be assigned from the dollar ($) prompt or
from inside a BourneShell script.  Read-only variables are
different.  The value of read-only variables can not be changed.

The variable must be initialized to some value; and then, by
entering the following command, it can be made read only.


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command format:    readonly variable_name                    ?
?                                                               ?
?  variable_name = name of the variable to be made read only    ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $person=Kathleen                                              ?
? $readonly person                                              ?
? $echo $person                                                 ?
? Kathleen                                                      ?
? $person=Richard                                               ?
? person: is read only                                          ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The readonly command given without any arguments will display a
list of all the read-only variables.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $person=Kathleen                                              ?
? $readonly person                                              ?
? $example=Richard                                              ?
? $readonly example                                             ?
? $readonly                                                     ?
? readonly person                                               ?
? readonly example                                              ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
2.4  Read-Only Shell Variables

The read-only shell variables are similar to the read-only user
variables; except the value of these variables is assigned by the
shell, and the user CANNOT modify them.


2.4.1  Name of the Calling Program

The shell will store the name of the command you used to call a
program in the variable named $0.

It has the number zero because it appears before the first argument
on the command line.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat name_ex                                                  ?
? echo 'The name of the command used'                           ?
? echo 'to execute this script was' $0                          ?
? $name_ex                                                      ?
? The name of the command used                                  ?
? to execute this script was name_ex                            ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

2.4.2  Arguments

The BourneShell will store the first nine command line arguments
in the variables named $1, $2, ..., $9.  These variables appear in
this section because you cannot change them using the equal sign. 
It is possible to modify them using the set command.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat arg_ex                                                   ?
? echo 'The first five command line'                            ?
? echo 'arguments are' $1 $2 $3 $4 $5                           ?
? $arg_ex Richard Kathleen Douglas                              ?
? The first five command line                                   ?
? arguments are Richard Kathleen Douglas                        ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The script arg_ex will display the first five command-line
arguments.  The variables representing $4 and $5 have a null value.

The BourneShell variable $* represents all of the command-line
arguments as shown in the following example.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat display_all                                              ?
? echo $*                                                       ?
? $display_all Richard Kathleen Douglas                         ?
? Richard Kathleen Douglas                                      ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The BourneShell variable $# contains the number of arguments on
the command line.  This is a string variable that represents a
decimal number.  You can use the expr utility to perform
calculations with that number and test to perform logical tests on
it.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat num_args                                                 ?
? echo 'This script was called with'                            ?
? echo $# 'arguments'                                           ?
? $num_args Richard Kathleen Douglas                            ?
? This script was called with                                   ?
? 3 arguments                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
2.4.3  Shift

The shift command promotes each of the command-line arguments. 
The second argument, represented by $2, is now the first argument,
represented by $1.  The third becomes the second and so on until
the last argument becomes the next to last.  You can access only
the first nine command-line arguments (as $1 through $9).  The
shift command gives you access to the tenth, and the first becomes
unavailable.  There is no "unshift" command that will return the
arguments that are no longer available.

Sample Session: 

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat demo_shift                                               ?
? echo 'arg1='$1 '  arg2='$2 '   arg3='$3                       ?
? shift                                                         ?
? echo 'arg1='$1 '  arg2='$2 '   arg3='$3                       ?
? shift                                                         ?
? echo 'arg1='$1 '  arg2='$2 '   arg3='$3                       ?
? shift                                                         ?
? echo 'arg1='$1 '  arg2='$2 '   arg3='$3                       ?
? shift                                                         ?
? $demo_shift Richard Kathleen Douglas                          ?
? arg1=Richard  arg2=Kathleen  arg3=Douglas                     ?
? arg1=Kathleen arg2=Douglas   arg3=                            ?
? arg1=Douglas  arg2=          arg3=                            ?
? demo_shift: cannot shift                                      ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The BourneShell will display an error message when the script
executes a shift command after it has run out of variables.
2.4.4  Set


The Set command will display a list of all the variables that are
set when it has no arguments.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $set                                                          ?
? HOME=/user0/teacher                                           ?
? IFS=                                                          ?
?                                                               ?
? LOGNAME=richard                                               ?
? MAIL=/usr/mail/richard                                        ?
? MAILCHECK=600                                                 ?
? PATH=:/bin:/usr/bin                                           ?
? PS1=$                                                         ?
? PS2=>                                                         ?
? SHELL=/bin/sh                                                 ?
? TERM=vt100                                                    ?
? TZ=MST7MDT                                                    ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

When set is called with arguments, it sets the value of the
command-line arguments ($1-$n) to the arguments.  The example sets
the first three arguments.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat set_ex                                                   ?
? set who really cares                                          ?
? echo $#: $*                                                   ?
? $set_ex                                                       ?
? 3: who really cares                                           ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
2.4.5  expr

The expr command will perform arithmetic in the BourneShell.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?   Command format:  expr expression                            ?
?                                                               ?
?   See Appendix C for a complete list of expressions           ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The arguments are taken as an expression. After the evaluation has
taken place, the result is written to standard output.  The terms
of the expression must be separated by blanks.  Special characters
to the shell must be escaped.  Strings containing blanks or other
special characters must be quoted.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $expr 7 + 8 + 10                                              ?
? 25                                                            ?
? $expr 10 - 8                                                  ?
? 2                                                             ?
? $expr 10 '*' 4                                                ?
? 40                                                            ?
? $expr 135 / 5                                                 ?
? 27                                                            ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

expr will also work with user defined variables as in the following
example:

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat data                                                     ?
? 8                                                             ?
? 15                                                            ?
? 25                                                            ?
? $cat express                                                  ?
? count=0                                                       ?
? tot=0                                                         ?
? for a in `cat data`                                           ?
? do                                                            ?
? tot=`expr $tot + $a`                                          ?
? count=`expr $count + 1`                                       ?
? done                                                          ?
? avg=`expr $tot / $count`                                      ?
? echo "The average is $avg"                                    ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Let's execute the script "express" with tracing on so we can follow
the execution.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $sh -x express                                                ?
? count=0                                                       ?
? tot=0                                                         ?
? + cat data                                                    ?
? + expr 0 + 8                                                  ?
? tot=8                                                         ?
? + expr 0 + 1                                                  ?
? count=1                                                       ?
? + expr 8 + 15                                                 ?
? tot=23                                                        ?
? + expr 1 + 1                                                  ?
? count=2                                                       ?
? + expr 23 + 25                                                ?
? tot=48                                                        ?
? + expr 2 + 1                                                  ?
? count=3                                                       ?
? + expr 48 / 3                                                 ?
? avg=16                                                        ?
? + echo The average is 16                                      ?
? The average is 16                                             ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Workshop 2

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 2. Login to the Multimax using the username
and password given to you by the instructor.  Each student is to
complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES 

     1.   Any series of non-blank characters can be assigned to a
          user variable.

                            True/False



     2.   How can you insert a space into a user variable?





     3.   What utility can be used to display the contents of a
          user variable to standard output?





     4.   The backslash (\) character is used to remove the special
          meaning of some characters.

                            True/False




     5.   What other character can be used to prevent the shell
          from doing the substitution?





     6.   Double quote marks will prevent the shell from making
          the substitution.

                            True/False



                     Continue on the next page
     7.   What do the following shell variables do?


          HOME





          IFS




          MAIL





          MAILPATH





          MAILCHECK





          PATH





          PS1





          PS2






                     Continue on the next page
     8.   What is the command to create a read-only user variable?






     9.   What is the read-only shell variable that represents the
          calling program?






     10.  What do $1,$2,...,$9 represent?






     11.  What BourneShell variable represents all of the command
          line arguments?






     12.  What does the shift command do?






     13.  What is displayed when you enter set with no arguments?













                     Continue on the next page
COMPUTER EXERCISES 


     14.  Login to the Multimax (domax1) using the username and
          password given to you by the instructor.





     15.  Create a subdirectory called sub_dir.





     16.  Modify your .profile to include the following:


          a) Change the home directory to sub_dir

          b) Set the internal-field separator to a comma

          c) Have mail messages saved into mail1.

          d) Set the PATH to look for programs in the following  
             directories:

               $HOME/bin
               /bin
               /usr/bin

          e) Change the prompt to reflect the name of the system

          f) Change the secondary prompt to 'More?'





     17.  Execute the .profile
          Enter $. .profile




     18.  Verify that the changes are correct. If you have extra
           time go to the next page.



                    Extra Mile on the next page
Extra Mile


Change the .profile file so the date/time and a list of all
users that are currently logged in will be displayed on your
monitor screen automatically when you login.
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
3.  POSITIONAL PARAMETERS


A BourneShell script can also read in command-line arguments.  
The first argument is referred to as $1, the second is $2, and so
on.  Command-line arguments are referred to as positional
parameters.

Let's look at an example BourneShell script to see how these are
used.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat neat_shell                                               ?
? echo $1 $2 $3                                                 ?
? echo $0 is the name of the shell script                       ?
? echo "There were $# arguments."                               ?
? echo $*                                                       ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Insure that the BourneShell script is executable by issuing this
command:

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $chmod a+x neat_shell                                      ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Now, if we type the name of the BourneShell script with no
arguments, we get the following results.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $neat_shell                                                   ?
?                                                               ?
? neat_shell is the name of the shell script                    ?
? There were 0 arguments.                                       ?
?                                                               ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In this sample session, there were no arguments given so none were
printed.  $0 is the positional parameter that refers to the name
of the script.  Since there were no arguments given with this
invocation of neat_shell, there were zero arguments listed.      
               
3.1  Reading Input Into a Shell Variable

The BourneShell script can read user input from standard input.  
The read command will read one line from standard input and assign
the line to one or more variables.  The following example shows how
this works.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat read_script                                              ?
? echo "Please enter a string of your choice"                   ?
? read a                                                        ?
? echo $a                                                       ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This simple script will read one line from standard input
(keyboard) and assign it to the variable a.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $read_script                                                  ?
? Please enter a string of your choice                          ?
? Here it is                                                    ?
? Here it is                                                    ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The line read from standard input can also be assigned to several
variables as shown in the following example.


Sample Session:
                                                  
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat reads                                                    ?
? echo "Please enter three strings"                             ?
? read a b c                                                    ?
? echo $a $b $c                                                 ?
? echo $c                                                       ?
? echo $b                                                       ?
? echo $a                                                       ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This time, we will turn on the trace mechanism and follow the
execution of this BourneShell script.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $sh -x reads                                                  ?
? + echo Please enter three strings                             ?
? Please enter three strings                                    ?
? + read a b c                                                  ?
? this is more than three strings                               ?
? + echo this is more than three strings                        ?
? this is more than three strings                               ?
? + echo more than three strings                                ?
? more than three strings                                       ?
? + echo is                                                     ?
? is                                                            ?
? + echo this                                                   ?
? this                                                          ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

It is interesting to note that the spaces separate the values for
the variables a,b, and c.  For example, the variable a was assigned
the string this, the variable b was assigned the string is, and the
remainder of the line was assigned to c (including the spaces).

Sample Session:
                                                  
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat read_ex                                                  ?
? echo  'Enter line: \c'                                        ?
? read line                                                     ?
? echo "The line was: $line"                                    ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
In this example, the \c option will suppress the carriage return.
The single quote marks protect the backslash from being interpreted
by the shell.  Also notice that the double quote marks have no
effect on the substitution of the variable line.                 
            
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $read_ex                                                      ?
? Enter line: All's well that ends well                         ?
? The line was: All's well that ends well                       ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
3.2  Command Substitution

You can execute a command by enclosing it within two grave accent
marks [these are sometimes called backquotes (`)].  The BourneShell
will replace the command and the grave marks with the output from
the command.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat dir                                                      ?
? dir=`pwd`                                                     ?
? echo 'You are using the' $dir 'directory'                     ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
NOTE:     The grave marks lean to the left, and the apostrophes 
          lean to the right.  The grave marks enclose the pwd  
          command.                                              
                                                                 
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $dir                                                          ?
? You are using the /user0/rharding directory                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The important thing to notice here is that the pwd command was
executed; and the output, /user0/rharding, was then assigned to
the variable dir.

It is not necessary to assign the output of a command to a variable
as shown in the previous example.  The command substitution can
occur directly as shown in the next example.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat dir2                                                     ?
? echo 'You are using the' `pwd` 'directory'                    ?
? $dir2                                                         ?
? You are using the /user0/rharding directory                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
One final example will show a practical use of command
substitution.  This BourneShell script will use the date command
to provide the date in a useful format.

The normal output from the date command looks like the following.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $date                                                         ?
? Wed Sep 12 18:02:05 MDT 1990                                  ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Here's a BourneShell script that rearranges the output into a more
useable format.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat dateset                                                  ?
? set `date`                                                    ?
? echo $*                                                       ?
? echo                                                          ?
? echo 'Argument 1:' $1                                         ?
? echo 'Argument 2:' $2                                         ?
? echo 'Argument 3:' $3                                         ?
? echo 'Argument 4:' $4                                         ?
? echo                                                          ?
? echo $2 $3, $6                                                ?
? $dateset                                                      ?
? Wed Sep 12 18:02:05 MDT 1990                                  ?
?                                                               ?
? Argument 1: Wed                                               ?
? Argument 2: Sep                                               ?
? Argument 3: 12                                                ?
? Argument 4: 18:02:05                                          ?
?                                                               ?
? Sep 12, 1990                                                  ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The first command in the BourneShell script dateset uses the grave
accent marks to set the command-line argument variables to the
output of the date command.  The next commands show the first four
of these argument variables.  The final command displays the
arguments in a different order that could be useful in a report or
a letter.
3.3  Comments in BourneShell Scripts


Comments can be inserted into the BourneShell script by beginning
each comment line with the pound symbol (#) or a colon (:).  All
characters after the comment character will be ignored by the
shell.  The only exception to this rule is that the first character
of the first line must not be a pound symbol; if the first
character is a pound sign, the BourneShell tries to execute the
script as if it was written in CShell syntax.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat com_sub                                                  ?
?   #   The first line sets your present working directory      ?
? #     to the variable 'directory'                             ?
? directory=`pwd`                                               ?
? #     The second line sets the date to the variable 'when'    ?
? when=`date`                                                   ?
? :     The third line will echo on the screen                  ?
? echo "You are in $directory on $when"                         ?
? :     You could have said echo :                              ?
? :        "You are in `pwd` on `date`"                         ?
? :     to have a one line program                              ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                               
3.4  BourneShell Environment - Exporting Variables

Within a process, you can declare, initialize, read, and modify
variables.  The variable is local to that process.  When a process
forks a child process, the parent process does not automatically
pass the value of the variable to the child process.

Here is an example of the variables not being exported.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat no_export                                                ?
? car=mercedes       # set the variable                         ?
? echo $0 $car $    # $0 = name of file executed               ?
?                    # $car =value of variable car              ?
?                    # $ = PID number (process id)             ?
? inner              # execute another BourneShell script       ?
? echo $0 $car $    # display same as above                    ?
? $cat inner                                                    ?
? echo $0 $car $    # display variables for this process       ?
? $chmod a+x no_export                                          ?
? $chmod a+x inner                                              ?
? $no_export                                                    ?
? no_export mercedes 4790                                       ?
? inner 4792                                                    ?
? no_export mercedes 4790                                       ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 
When no_export was executed, it, of course, assigned a value of
mercedes to the variable car and printed it out.  The call to inner
created a child process.  Its PID is 4792, while the parent PID is
4790.  Notice, when inner tried to print the value of car, it
printed nothing.  The reason is because the value of car was not
passed by the parent.
Can the value be passed from parent to child process?  Yes, by
using the export command.  Let's look at an example.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat export_it                                                ?
? car=mercedes                                                  ?
? export car                                                    ?
? echo $0 $car $                                               ?
? inner1                                                        ?
? echo $0 $car $                                               ?
? $cat inner1                                                   ?
? echo $0 $car $                                               ?
? car=chevy                                                     ?
? echo $0 $car $                                               ?
? $chmod a+x export_it                                          ?
? $chmod a+x inner1                                             ?
? $export_it                                                    ?
? export_it mercedes 4798                                       ?
? inner1 mercedes 4800                                          ?
? inner1 chevy 4800                                             ?
? export_it mercedes 4798                                       ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In the export_it BourneShell script, the variable car was
initialized to mercedes; and then it was exported.  This means that
the value of car is now available to a child process.  When inner1
prints out the value of car it has the value of mercedes.  This is
as we expect because the value of car was exported from the parent. 
The next line of inner1 changes the value of car to chevy.  This
is shown in the next line of the sample session.  The last line of
the session shows the return to the parent process and the value
is still mercedes.  How is this possible? 

Exporting variables is only valid from the parent to the child
process.  The child process cannot change the parent's variable.
Workshop 3

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 3. Login to the Multimax using the username
and password given to you by the instructor.  Each student is to
complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES 


     1.   What is the positional parameter that represents the name
          of the command?





     2.   What positional parameter stands for the number of
          arguments on the command line?





     3.   What command will read one line from standard input and
          assign the value to a variable?






     4.   What character is used to indicate command substitution?
     





     5.   What are the two characters that indicate comments in
          BourneShell scripts? 










                     Continue on the next page

     6.   Why is it bad practice to put a pound sign (#) in the
          first character position of the first line of a
          BourneShell script?





     7.   Variables set by the parent process are automatically
          known to the child process.

                            True/False




     8.   What command will allow the value of a variable to be
          passed to a child process?






     9.   Can a child process change the value of the parents'
          variable?  Why?





COMPUTER EXERCISES

     10.  Write a BourneShell script called "reverse_it" that has
          three strings as parameters and then display the strings
          in opposite order. Be sure to include appropriate
          comments.

          Hint: positional parameters 


     11.  Write a BourneShell script called "read_it" that does
          the same as question 10 but prompts the user to enter
          each string separately. How would you trace the execution
          of this script. Do it!





                    Continue on the next page.
     12.  Write a BourneShell script that uses the output of the
          "date" command and changes it

          from:

               Wed Sep 12  18:02:05 MDT 1990

          to:

               Sep 12, 1990  18:02:05
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
4.  CONTROL CONSTRUCTS:


The BourneShell control constructs can alter the flow of control
within the script.  The BourneShell provides simple two-way branch
if statements and multiple-branch case statements, plus for, while,
and until statements.


In discussing these control structures, the BourneShell keywords
will be in bold type and the normal type are the user supplied
items to cause the desired effect in command format boxes.
4.1  Types of Tests Used with Control Constructs:


The test utility evaluates expressions and returns a condition
indicating whether or not the expression is true (equal to zero)
or false (not equal to zero).  There are no options with this
utility.  The format for this utility is as follows:
                    
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  test expression                             ?
?                                                               ?
?  expression - composed of constants, variables, and           ?
?               operators                                       ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


Expressions will be looked at in greater detail later with some
examples.  There are a few items that need to be mentioned that
apply to expressions.  Expressions can contain one or more
evaluation criteria that test will evaluate.  A -a that separates
two criteria is a logical AND operator.  In this case, both
criteria must evaluate to true in order for test to return a value
of true.  The -o is the logical OR operator.  When this operator
separates two criteria, one or the other (or both) must be true for
test to return a true condition.

You can negate any criterion by preceding it with an exclamation
mark (!).  Parentheses can be used to group criteria.  If there
are no parentheses, the -a (logical AND operator) takes precedence
over the -o (logical OR operator).  The test utility will evaluate
operators of equal precedence from left to right.

Within the expression itself, you must put special characters, such
as parentheses, in quote marks so the BourneShell will not evaluate
them but will pass them to test.

Since each element (evaluation criterion, string, or variable) in
an expression is a separate argument, each must be separated by a
space.

The test utility will work from the command line but it is more
often used in a script to test input or verify access to a file.

Another way to do the test evaluation is to surround the expression
with left and right brackets. A space character must appear after
the left bracket and before the right bracket.


  test expression    =   [ expression ]



4.2  Test on Numeric Values

Test expressions can be in many different forms. The expressions
can appear as a set of evaluation criteria. The general form for
testing numeric values is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?          int1 op int2                                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This criterion is true if the integer int1 has the specified
algebraic relationship to integer int2.

The valid operators (op) are:

     -eq       equal

     -ne       not equal

     -gt       greater than

     -lt       less than

     -ge       greater than or equal

     -le       less than or equal

4.3  Test on Character Strings

The evaluation criterion for character strings is similar to
numeric comparisons.  The general form is:

     string1 op string2

The operators (op) are:

     string1 = string2        true if string1 and string 2 are
                              equal

     string1 != string2       true if string1 and string2 are not
                              equal

     string1                  true if string1 is not the null
                              string
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ cat test_string                                             ?
? number=1                                                      ?
? numero=0001                                                   ?
? if test $number = $numero                                     ?
? then echo "String vals for $number and $numero are ="         ?
? else echo "String vals for $number and $numero not ="         ?
? fi                                                            ?
? if test $number -eq $numero                                   ?
? then echo "Numeric vals for $number and $numero are ="        ?
? else echo "Numeric vals for $number and $numero not ="        ?
? fi                                                            ?
? $chmod 755 test_string                                        ?
? $sh -x test_string                                            ?
? number=1                                                      ?
? numero=0001                                                   ?
? + test 1 = 0001                                               ?
? + echo String vals for 1 and 0001 not =                       ?
? String vals for 1 and 0001 not =                              ?
? + test 1 -eq 0001                                             ?
? + echo Numeric vals for 1 and 0001 are =                      ?
? Numeric  vals for 1 and 0001 are =                            ?
? $test_string                                                  ?
? String vals for 1 and 0001 not =                              ?
? Numeric vals for 1 and 0001 are =                             ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
4.4  Test on File Types                                       


The test utility can be used to determine information about file
types.  All of the criterion can be found in Appendix B.  A few of
them are listed here:

     -r filename         true if filename exists and is readable

     -w filename         true if filename exists and is writable

     -x filename         true if filename exists and is executable

     -f filename         true if filename exists and it is a plain
                         file

     -d filename         true if filename exists and it is a
                         directory.

     -s filename         true if filename exits and it contains
                         information (has a size greater than 0
                         bytes)


Example:
.................................................................
. $test -d new_dir                                              .
.................................................................

If new_dir is a directory, this criterion will evaluate to true. 
If it does not exist, then it will be false.
4.5  if then

The format for this construct is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  if expression                               ?
?                        then  commands                         ?
?                   fi                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The if statement evaluates the expression and then returns control
based on this status.  The fi statement marks the end of the if,
notice that fi is if spelled backward.

The if statement executes the statements immediately following it
if the expression returns a true status. If the return status is
false, control will transfer to the statement following the fi.
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat check_args                                               ?
? if (test $# = 0)                                              ?
?      then echo 'Please supply at least 1 argument'            ?
?      exit                                                     ?
? fi                                                            ?
? echo 'Program is running'                                     ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This little script will check to insure that you are giving at
least one argument.  If none are given it will display the error
message and exit.  If one or more arguments are given it will
display "Program is running" and run the rest of the script, if
any.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $check_args                                                   ?
? Please supply at least 1 argument                             ?
? $check_args xyz                                               ?
? Program is running                                            ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
4.6  if then else


The format for this construct is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  if expression                               ?
?                        then commands                          ?
?                        else commands                          ?
?                   fi                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The else part of this structure makes the single-branch if
statement into a two-way branch.  If the expression returns a true
status, the commands between the then and the else statement will
be executed.  After these have been executed, control will start
again at the statement after the fi.

If the expression returns false, the commands following the else
statement will be executed.
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat test_string                                              ?
? number=1                                                      ?
? numero=0001                                                   ?
? if test $number = $numero                                     ?
? then echo "String values of $number and $numero are equal"    ?
? else echo "String values of $number and $numero not equal"    ?
? fi                                                            ?
? if test $number -eq $numero                                   ?
? then echo "Numeric values of $number and $numero are equal"   ?
? else echo "Numeric values of $number and $numero not equal"   ?
? fi                                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 

Let's follow the execution of this script with tracing.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $sh -x test_string                                            ?
? number=1                                                      ?
? numero=0001                                                   ?
? + test 1 = 0001                                               ?
? + echo String values of 1 and 0001 are not equal              ?
? String values of 1 and 0001 are not equal                     ?
? + test 1 -eq 0001                                             ?
? + echo Numeric values of 1 and 0001 are equal                 ?
? Numeric values of 1 and 0001 are equal                        ?
? $chmod a+x test_string                                        ?
? $test_string                                                  ?
? String values of 1 and 0001 are not equal                     ?
? Numeric values of 1 and 0001 are equal                        ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 4.7  if then elif


The format for this construct is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  if expression                               ?
?                        then commands                          ?
?                     elif expression                           ?
?                            then commands                      ?
?                            else commands                      ?
?                   fi                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The elif construct combines the else and if statements and allows
you to construct a nested set of if then else structures.
4.8  for


The format for this construct is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  for loop-index in argument-list             ?
?                        do                                     ?
?                        commands                               ?
?                        done                                   ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This structure will assign the value of the first item in the
argument list to the loop index and executes the commands between
the do and done statements.  The do and done statements indicate
the beginning and end of the for loop.

After the structure passes control to the done statement, it
assigns the value of the second item in the argument list to the
loop index and repeats the commands.  The structure will repeat
the commands between the do and done statements once for each
argument in the argument list.  When the argument list has been
exhausted, control passes to the statement following the done.
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat find_henry1                                              ?
? for x in project1 project2 project3                           ?
? do                                                            ?
? grep henry $x                                                 ?
? done                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sample Session:
 
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $head project?                                                ?
? ==> project1 <==                                              ?
? henry                                                         ?
? joe                                                           ?
? mike                                                          ?
? sue                                                           ?
?                                                               ?
? ==> project2 <==                                              ?
? joe                                                           ?
? mike                                                          ?
? sue                                                           ?
?                                                               ?
? ==> project3 <==                                              ?
? joe                                                           ?
? mike                                                          ?
? sue                                                           ?
? henry                                                         ?
?                                                               ?
? ==> project4 <==                                              ?
? joe                                                           ?
? mike                                                          ?
?                                                               ?
? $find_henry                                                   ?
? henry                                                         ?
? henry                                                         ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


Each file in the argument list was searched for the string, henry.
When a match was found, the string was printed.
4.9  while


The format for this construct is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  while expression                            ?
?                        do                                     ?
?                        commands                               ?
?                        done                                   ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
As long as the expression returns a true exit status, the structure
continues to execute the commands between the do and the done
statement.  Before each loop through the commands, the structure
executes the expression.  When the exit status of the expression
is false (non-zero), control is passed to the statement following
the done statement.

The commands to be executed must change the expression test or an
infinite loop can result.
4.10  until


The format for this construct is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  until expression                            ?
?                        do                                     ?
?                        commands                               ?
?                        done                                   ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The until and while structures are very similar.  The only
difference is that the test is at the top of the loop.  The until
structure will continue to loop until the expression returns true
or a nonerror condition.  The while loop will continue as long as
a true or nonerror condition is returned.

The commands to be executed must change the expression test or an
infinite loop can result.
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat until_ex                                                 ?
? secretname='jenny'                                            ?
? name='noname'                                                 ?
? echo 'Try to guess the secret name!'                          ?
? echo                                                          ?
? until (test "$name" = "$secretname")                          ?
?     do                                                        ?
?     echo 'Your guess:  \c'                                    ?
?     read name                                                 ?
?     done                                                      ?
? echo 'You did it!'                                            ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The until loop will continue until name is equal to the secret
name.


Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $chmod a+x until_ex                                           ?
? $until_ex                                                     ?
? Try to guess the secret name!                                 ?
?                                                               ?
? Your guess: gaylan                                            ?
? Your guess: art                                               ?
? Your guess: richard                                           ?
? Your guess: jenny                                             ?
? You did it!                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
4.11  case


The format for this construct is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  case test-string in                         ?
?                        pattern-1 ) commands-1 ;;              ?
?                        pattern-2 ) commands-2 ;;              ?
?                        pattern-3 ) commands-3 ;;              ?
?                        .                                      ?
?                        .                                      ?
?                        .                                      ?
?                        *)          commands   ;;              ?
?                   esac                                        ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The case structure allows a multiple-branch decision mechanism.
The path that is taken depends on a match between the test-string
and one of the patterns.
Sample Session:
                                                  
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat case_ex                                                  ?
? echo 'Enter A, B, or C: \c'                                   ?
? read letter                                                   ?
? case $letter in                                               ?
?    A) echo 'You entered A' ;;                                 ?
?    B) echo 'You entered B' ;;                                 ?
?    C) echo 'You entered C' ;;                                 ?
?    *) echo 'You did not enter A, B, or C' ;;                  ?
? esac                                                          ?
? $chmod a+x case_ex                                            ?
? $case_ex                                                      ?
? Enter A, B, or C: B                                           ?
? You entered B                                                 ?
? $case_ex                                                      ?
? Enter A, B, or C: b                                           ?
? You did not enter A, B, or C                                  ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This example uses the value of a character that the user entered
as the test string.  The value is represented by the variable
letter.  If letter has the value of A, the structure will execute
the command following A.  If letter has a value of B or C, then
the appropriate commands will be executed.  The asterisk indicates
any string of characters; and it, therefore, functions as a
catchall for a no-match condition.  The lowercase b in the second
sample session is an example of a no match condition.
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Workshop 4

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 4. Login to the Multimax using the username
and password given to you by the instructor.  Each student is to
complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES 


     1.   Which utility will evaluate an expression and then return
          a condition indicating whether or not the expression is
          true (equal to zero) or false (not equal to zero)?





     2.   What are the operators for character string comparisons?











                     Continue on the next page
COMPUTER EXERCISES 


     3.   Use the "if then" construct to write a BourneShell script
          that will check for at least two parameters being present
          on the command line. Output an appropriate error message.








     4.   Write a BourneShell script using the "if then else"
          construct that will check for equality of two strings
          that are supplied as parameters to the script. Output a
          message stating if the strings are equal or not equal.







     5.   Write a BourneShell script using the "if then elif"
          construct that will check two numbers, input as
          parameters, and tell if the first parameter is greater
          than, equal to, or less than the second number. Output
          appropriate error messages.






     6.   Write a BourneShell script using the "for" construct that
          has a loop index called "fruit" and an argument list as
          follows: apples oranges bananas pears. Echo the name of
          each argument to the monitor screen and when the last
          argument is listed output an appropriate message.










                     Continue on the next page

     7.   Write a BourneShell script using the "while" construct
          that will add all the numbers between 0 and 9 and display
          the result. The sum of the digits 0 through 9 is 45.









      8.  Write a BourneShell script using the "until" construct
          similar to the example in the manual except compare
          numbers instead of strings.










      9.  Write a BourneShell script using the "case" statement
          that will ask you to enter the day of the week and then
          echo that day to the monitor screen. Be sure to include
          an appropriate message if you enter in a string other
          than a valid day of the week.




EXTRA MILE


     10.  Write a BourneShell script called "dir_num" that will
          test all of the files in the current directory and print
          all the files that prove to be a directory.
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5. COMPILING PROGRAMS IN UNIX

This chapter will examine compiling source code programs in three
high level languages "C", FORTRAN, and COBOL. The second part of
the chapter will look at the archive and library maintainer. The
archive allows you to create a library of object modules. These
files are used by the link editor.

5.1  "C": Sample Program with a Main and Two Functions in One    
      File

Based on the command line options, cc compiles, assembles, and load
C language source code programs.  It can also assemble and load
assembly language source programs or merely load object programs.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  cc [options] file-list                      ?
?                                                               ?
?  (See Appendix E for a complete list of options)              ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

When using the cc utility, the following conventions are observed:

     1.   A filename with the extension of .c indicates a C
          language source program.

     2.   A filename with an extension of .s indicates an assembly
          language source program.

     3.   A filename with an extension of .o indicates an object
          program.


The cc utility will take its input from the file or files you
specify on the command line.  Unless you use the -o option, it will
store the executable program in a file called a.out.
Sample C Language Source Code Program:
                           
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat hello.c                                                  ?
? main ()                                                       ?
? {                                                             ?
?      printf ("Hello from main!\n\n");                         ?
?      printf ("Calling function1!\n\n");                       ?
?      funct1();                                                ?
?      printf ("\t Back from function1!\n\n");                  ?
?      printf ("Calling function2!\n\n");                       ?
?      funct2();                                                ?
?      printf ("\t Back from funct2!\n\n");                     ?
?      printf ("That's all!\n\n");                              ?
? }                                                             ?
? funct1()                                                      ?
? {                                                             ?
?      printf ("\t\t Hello from function1!\n\n);                ?
? }                                                             ?
? funct2()                                                      ?
? {                                                             ?
?      printf ("\t\t Hello from function2!\n\n);                ?
? }                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

5.2  "C": Compiling a Program


To compile the previous example program into an executable module,
enter the following command at the command line.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cc hello.c                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Without any options, cc accepts C source code and assembly language
programs that follow the conventions outlined above.  It will
compile, assemble, and load these programs to produce an executable
called a.out.  The cc utility puts the object code in files with
the same base filename (everything before the period) as the source
but with a filename extension of .o .  The a.out stands for
assembly output.  This is the default.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cc hello.c                                                   ?
? $a.out                                                        ?
? Hello from main!                                              ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function1!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?                Hello from function1!                          ?
?                                                               ?
?           Back from function1!                                ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function2!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?                Hello from function2!                          ?
?                                                               ?
?           Back from function2!                                ?
?                                                               ?
? That's all!                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

NOTE:     The a.out file that was created by the cc utility has
          the following permissions:

          user - read, write, and execute 
          group - read and execute
          other - read and execute


It is not necessary for you to change the permissions using the
chmod command because the cc utility set the execute permissions
for you.
5.3  "C": Renaming the Executable Module


You can rename the executable module using the mv command.  The
file permissions will be the same as before the file is renamed.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $mv a.out hello                                               ?
? $hello                                                        ?
? Hello from main!                                              ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function1!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?                Hello from function1!                          ?
?                                                               ?
?           Back from function1!                                ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function2!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?                Hello from function2!                          ?
?                                                               ?
?           Back from function2!                                ?
?                                                               ?
? That's all!                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.4  "C": Giving a Name to the Output File


It is possible to have the output sent to a file you specify
instead of a.out by using the following command:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  cc -o output source                         ?
?                                                               ?
?  output - the name of the executable file                     ?
?                                                               ?
?  source - the name of the C source code file                  ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                
The -o option tells cc to tell the link editor to use the specified
name for the output instead of the default a.out.

NOTE:     It is not necessary for the -o option to appear after the
          cc command.  The filename that appears after the -o is
          the name of the output file.  For example, cc source -
          o output is the same as cc -o output source.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cc -o hello hello.c                                          ?
? $hello                                                        ?
? Hello from main!                                              ?
? Calling function1!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?                Hello from function1!                          ?
?                                                               ?
?           Back from function1!                                ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function2!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?                Hello from function2!                          ?
?                                                               ?
?           Back from function2!                                ?
?                                                               ?
? That's all!                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.5  "C": Producing an Assembly Listing


This option causes cc to compile C programs and leave the
corresponding assembly language source programs in a file with
filename extensions of .s.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  cc -S hello.c                               ?
?                                                               ?
?  -S = Compile only                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cc -S  hello.c                                               ?
? $ls -C                                                        ?
? example.f    hello     hex.c     octal.c                      ?
? hello.c      hello.s   multiply.c                             ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.6  "C": Main and Two Functions in Three Separate Source Files


This is the same C program that we have seen before, except it is
now in three files rather than one as before.  The three files are
main.c, funct1.c, and funct2.c.


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat main.c                                                   ?
? main ()                                                       ?
? {                                                             ?
?      printf ("Hello from main!\n\n");                         ?
?      printf ("Calling function1!\n\n");                       ?
?      funct1();                                                ?
?      printf ("\t Back from function1!\n\n");                  ?
?      printf ("Calling function2!\n\n");                       ?
?      funct2();                                                ?
?      printf ("\t Back from funct2!\n\n");                     ?
?      printf ("That's all!\n\n");                              ?
? }                                                             ?
? $cat funct1.c                                                 ?
? funct1()                                                      ?
? {                                                             ?
?      printf ("\t\t Hello from function1!\n\n);                ?
? }                                                             ?
? $cat funct2.c                                                 ?
? funct2()                                                      ?
? {                                                             ?
?      printf ("\t\t Hello from function2!\n\n);                ?
? }                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.7  "C": Compiling but Not Producing an Executable Module


Using the previous program, the following command will compile but
not produce an executable module.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?     Command Format:     cc -c main.c funct1.c funct2.c        ?
?                                                               ?
?     -c = Compile, but do not load object files.  This option  ?
?          causes cc to compile and/or assemble source code     ?
?          programs and leave the corresponding object programs ?
?          in files with filename extensions of .o.             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cc -c main.c funct1.c funct2.c                               ?
? main.c:                                                       ?
? funct1.c:                                                     ?
? funct2.c:                                                     ?
? $ls a.out                                                     ?
? a.out not found                                               ?
? $ls -C *.o                                                    ?
? funct1.o           funct2.o          main.o                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The -c options causes the compilation system to suppress the link
edit phase.  This produces an object file or files, in this example
(main.o funct1.o funct2.o), that can be link edited at a later time
with the cc command with no options.
5.8  FORTRAN: Sample Program a Main and Two Subroutines


There are several conventions for use with the FORTRAN compiler.
They are:

     1.   The name of the file containing the FORTRAN source code
          must end with .f.

     2.   The compiler is invoked with f77.

     3.   Several options are available with the compiler.
          (-c, -o, -p, -S)

     4.   Preconnections are made for stdin (unit5) and stdout
          (unit6).

This is the FORTRAN source code example to be used in the following
discussions of the FORTRAN compiler.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat hello.f                                                  ?
?       program calling                                         ?
?       write(6,100)                                            ?
? 100   format (' Hello from main!',/)                          ?
?       write(6,110)                                            ?
? 110   format(' Calling subroutine1!',/)                       ?
?       call sub1                                               ?
?       write(6,120)                                            ?
? 120   format(t15' Back from subroutine1!',/)                  ?
?       write(6,130)                                            ?
? 130   format(' Calling subroutine2!',/)                       ?
?       call sub2                                               ?
?       write(6,140)                                            ?
? 140   format(t15' Back from subroutine2!',/)                  ?
?       write(6,150)                                            ?
? 150   format(' That's all, folks!')                           ?
?       end                                                     ?
?       subroutine sub1                                         ?
?       write(6,200)                                            ?
? 200   format(t20,' Hello from subroutine1!',/)                ?
?       end                                                     ?
?       subroutine sub2                                         ?
?       write(6,210)                                            ?
? 210   format(t20,' Hello from subroutine2!',/)                ?
?       end                                                     ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.9  FORTRAN: Compiling a Program

The FORTRAN compiler is invoked with the following command:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  f77                                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

To compile the above program into an executable program, use the
following command at the command line.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $f77 hello.f                                                  ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Without any options, f77 accepts FORTRAN source code and assembly
language programs that follow the conventions outlined above.  It
will compile, assemble, and load these programs to produce an
executable called a.out.  The f77 utility outputs the object code
into files with the same base filename (everything before the
period) as the source but with a filename extension of .o.
The a.out stands for assembly output.  This is the default.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $f77 hello.f                                                  ?
? $a.out                                                        ?
? Hello from main!                                              ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function1!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?              Hello from function1!                            ?
?                                                               ?
?         Back from function1!                                  ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function2!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?              Hello from function2!                            ?
?                                                               ?
?         Back from function2!                                  ?
?                                                               ?
? That's all!                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????




NOTE:     The a.out file that was created by the f77 utility has
          the following permissions:

          user - read, write, and execute 
          group - read and execute
          other - read and execute

It is not necessary for you to change the permissions using the
chmod command because the f77 utility set the execute permissions
for you.
5.10  FORTRAN: Renaming the Executable Module

You can rename the executable module using the mv command.  The
file permissions will be the same as before the file is renamed.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $mv a.out hello                                               ?
? $hello                                                        ?
? Hello from main!                                              ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function1!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?              Hello from function1!                            ?
?                                                               ?
?         Back from function1!                                  ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function2!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?              Hello from function2!                            ?
?                                                               ?
?         Back from function2!                                  ?
?                                                               ?
? That's all!                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.11  FORTRAN: Giving a Name to the Output File

It is possible to have the output sent to a file you specify
instead of the default, a.out, by using the following command:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  f77 -o output source                        ?
?                                                               ?
?  output - the name of the executable file                     ?
?                                                               ?
?  source - the name of the Fortran source code file            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                
The -o option tells the f77 utility to tell the link editor to use
the specified name for the output instead of the default a.out.

NOTE:     It is not necessary for the -o option to appear after
          the f77 command.  The filename that appears after the -
          o is the name of the output file.  For example, f77
          source -o output is the same as f77 -o output source.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $f77 -o hello hello.f                                         ?
? $hello                                                        ?
? Hello from main!                                              ?
? Calling function1!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?              Hello from function1!                            ?
?                                                               ?
?         Back from function1!                                  ?
?                                                               ?
? Calling function2!                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?              Hello from function2!                            ?
?                                                               ?
?         Back from function2!                                  ?
?                                                               ?
? That's all!                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.12  FORTRAN: Producing an Assembly Listing

This option causes f77 to compile Fortran programs and leave the
corresponding assembly language source programs in a file with
filename extensions of .s.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  f77 -S hello.f                              ?
?                                                               ?
?  -S = Compile only                                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $f77 -S  hello.f                                              ?
? $ls -C                                                        ?
? example.f         hello     hex.c     octal.c                 ?
? hello.c           hello.s   multiply.c                        ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The file hello.s contains the assembly listing.
5.13  FORTRAN: Main and Two Subroutines in Three Separate Source
      Files

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat main.f                                                   ?
?      program calling                                          ?
?      write(6,100)                                             ?
? 100  format (' Hello from main!',/)                           ?
?      write(6,110)                                             ?
? 110  format(' Calling subroutine1!',/)                        ?
?      call sub1                                                ?
?      write(6,120)                                             ?
? 120  format(t15' Back from subroutine1!',/)                   ?
?      write(6,130)                                             ?
? 130  format(' Calling subroutine2!',/)                        ?
?      call sub2                                                ?
?      write(6,140)                                             ?
? 140  format(t15' Back from subroutine2!',/)                   ?
?      write(6,150)                                             ?
? 150  format(' That's all, folks!')                            ?
?      end                                                      ?
? $cat sub1.f                                                   ?
?      subroutine sub1                                          ?
?      write(6,200)                                             ?
? 200  format(t20,' Hello from subroutine1!',/)                 ?
?      end                                                      ?
? $cat sub2.f                                                   ?
?      subroutine sub2                                          ?
?      write(6,210)                                             ?
? 210  format(t20,' Hello from subroutine2!',/)                 ?
?      end                                                      ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.14  FORTRAN: Compiling But Not Producing an Executable Module


Using the above program, the following command will compile but
not produce an executable module.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  f77 -c main.f sub1.f sub2.f                 ?
?                                                               ?
?  -c = Compile, but do not load object files.  This option     ?
?       causes f77 to compile and/or assemble source code       ?
?       programs and leave the corresponding object programs    ?
?       in files with filename extensions of .o.                ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $f77 -c main.f sub1.f sub2.f                                  ?
? main.f:                                                       ?
?      MAIN: calling:                                           ?
? sub1.f:                                                       ?
?      sub1:                                                    ?
? sub2.f:                                                       ?
?      sub2:                                                    ?
? $ls a.out *.o                                                 ?
? a.out not found                                               ?
? funct1.o                                                      ?
? funct2.o                                                      ?
? hello.o                                                       ?
? main.o                                                        ?
? sub1.o                                                        ?
? sub2.o                                                        ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The -c options causes the compilation system to suppress the link
edit phase.  This produces an object file or files, in this example
(main.o sub1.o sub2.o), that can be link edited at a later time
with the f77 command with no options.
5.15  FORTRAN: Compiling Object Files to Produce an Executable   
               Module

The command to produce an executable nodule from several object
files is done in the following manner:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  f77 obj_1 obj_2 obj_3                       ?
?                                                               ?
?  obj_1 through obj_n - the object files                       ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $f77 main.o sub1.o sub2.o                                     ?
? $ls -C                                                        ?
? funct1.o funct2.o hello.o main.o sub1.o sub2.o a.out          ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.16  COBOL: Sample Program with a Main and Two Subroutines


Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat teacher.cob                                              ?
? identification division.                                      ?
? program-id. teacher.                                          ?
? environment division.                                         ?
? configuration section.                                        ?
? data division.                                                ?
? working-storage section.                                      ?
? procedure division.                                           ?
? begin section.                                                ?
? begin-it.                                                     ?
?      display " Hello from main!".                             ?
?      display "  Calling subroutine1!".                        ?
?      perform subroutine1.                                     ?
?      display "               Back from subroutine1!".         ?
?      display "  Calling subroutine2!".                        ?
?      perform subroutine2.                                     ?
?      display "               Back from subroutine2!".         ?
?      display "  That's all, folks!".                          ?
?      stop run.                                                ?
? subroutine1 section.                                          ?
? sub1.                                                         ?
?      display "               Hello from subroutine1!".        ?
? subroutine2 section.                                          ?
? sub2.                                                         ?
?      display "               Hello from subroutine2!".        ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.17  COBOL: Compiling a Program


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  cobol source_filename                       ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Three files are created by the compiler.  They are identified by
the same filename as the source code but with a different
extension.  They have the extensions .IDY, .INT, and .LST.

NOTE:     The extensions are uppercase characters.  UNIX is case 
          sensitive.


Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cobol teacher.cob                                            ?
? $ls teacher*                                                  ?
? teacher.IDY                                                   ?
? teacher.INT                                                   ?
? teacher.LST                                                   ?
? teacher.cob                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
5.18  COBOL: Running a Program


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cbrun teacher.INT                                            ?
? Hello from Main!                                              ?
?   Calling subroutine1!                                        ?
?               Hello from subroutine1!                         ?
?              Back from subroutine1!                           ?
?   Calling subroutine2!                                        ?
?               Hello from subroutine2!                         ?
?              Back from subroutine2!                           ?
? That's all, folks!                                            ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Workshop 5


This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 5. Login to the Multimax using the username
and password given to you by the instructor.  Each student is to
complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES


     1.   "C": What is the command to compile, assemble, and load
          source code programs?


 



     2.   "C": What is the filename extension that indicates a
          source code program? An assembly language program? An
          object code file?






     3.   "C": What is the default filename assigned to the
          executable file?







     4.   "C": What command can be used to rename the executable
          file produced by the cc compiler? What are the file
          protections associated with the executable?







     5.   "C": What option will produce an assembly listing? What
          is the filename extension of this file?


                   Continue on the next page   
     6.   "C": What command will compile the source code program
          but will not load object files but will keep the object
          files in files with extensions of .o?





     7.   FORTRAN: What is the command to invoke the compiler?







     8.   FORTRAN: What is the filename extension for source code
          programs?







     9.   FORTRAN: What is the name of the default
          executable file?







     10.  FORTRAN: How can you change the permissions on the
          executable module so anyone can execute it?







     11.  FORTRAN: What option on the call to the compiler will
          allow you to specify the name of the executable file?





                     Continue on the next page
     12.  FORTRAN: What option on the call to the compiler will
          produce an assembly listing?  What is the filename
          extension of this file?





     13.  FORTRAN: What option will produce object modules but not
          produce an executable module?






     14.  FORTRAN: What command will produce an executable module
          from several object modules?






     15.  COBOL: What is the command to call the compiler?








     16.  COBOL: What are the three files created by the compiler?
          What are the filename extensions?







     17.  COBOL: Which of the three files that have been created
          are used to run the program?







                     Continue on the next page
COMPUTER EXERCISES 


     18.  Copy the following files from /user0/teacher:

          main.c   funct1.c   funct2.c


     Are these programs "C", FORTRAN, or COBOL? Compile these three
     files creating an executable file called main1.exe and then
     execute it. What are the file protections? Why?



     19.  Now append the three files into one file. Use
          output redirection. 

     Compile the file creating the executable file called main2.exe
     . Execute main2.exe.




     20.  Copy the following files from /user0/teacher:

          main.f   sub1.f   sub2.f


          Compile these three files creating an executable file
          called main1.exe . Execute main1.exe


     21.  Now append the three files into one file. 

          Compile the file creating the executable file called
          main2.exe . Execute main2.exe.




     22.  COBOL: Copy teacher.cob from /user0/teacher.

          Compile and run it.
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
6.  UNIX TOOLS

6.1  Processes

A process is the execution of a command by UNIX. Processes can also
be executed by the operating system itself.  Like the file
structure, the process structure is hierarchical. It contains
parents, children, and even a root. A parent can fork (or spawn)
a child process. That child can, in turn, fork other processes.
The first thing the operating system does to begin execution is to
create a single process, PID number 1. PID stands for Process
IDentification. This process will hold the same position as the
root directory in the file structure. This process is the ancestor
to all processes that each user works with. It forks a process for
each terminal. Each one of these processes becomes a Shell process
when the user logs on.

6.2  Executing a Command

When you give a command to the Shell, it will fork a process to
execute the command. While the child process is executing the
command, the parent will go to sleep. Sleeping means that the
process will not use any CPU time. It remains inactive until it is
awakened. When the child process has finished executing the
command, it dies. The parent process, which is running the Shell,
wakes up and prompts you for another command.

When you request a process to run in the background (by ending the
command line with an &), the Shell forks a child process that is
allowed to run to completion. The parent process will report the
PID of the child process and them prompts you for another command.
The child and parent are now independent processes.

6.3  Process Identification

The Unix operating system assigns a unique process identification
number (PID) to each process. It will keep the same PID as long as
the process is in existence. During one session, the same process
is always executing the login Shell. When you execute another
command a new process is forked and a new PID is assigned to that
process. When that child process is finished you are returned to
the login process, which is running the Shell,  and that parent
process has the same PID as when you logged on.
The Shell stores the PID in Shell variable called $. The PID can
also be shown with the process status (ps) command. The format for
ps is as follows:


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    Command Format:  ps [options]                              ?
?                                                               ?
?    See on-line manual for options                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
With no options given the ps command will give you certain
information about processes associated with the controlling
terminal.  The output consists of a short listing containing the
process id, terminal id, cumulative execution time, and the command
name. Otherwise, options will control the display.

Sample session:

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $echo $                                                                   ?
? 8347                                                                       ?
? $ps                                                                        ?
?    PID TTY      TIME COMMAND                                               ?
?   8347 rt021a0  0:03 ksh                                                   ?
?   8376 rt021a0  0:06 ps                                                    ?
? $                                                                          ?
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 

The PID numbers of the Shell are the same in the sample session
because the shell will substitute its own PID number for $. 
The Shell makes the substitution before it forks a new process to
execute the echo command. Therefore, echo will display the PID
number of the process that called it, not the PID of the process
that is executing it.
The -l option will display more information about the processes.


Sample Session:

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ps -l                                                                                   ?
?     F S   UID   PID  PPID  C PRI NI     ADDR     SZ    WCHAN TTY      TIME COMD          ?
? f0000 S   115  8347   309  2  30 20  1009000    140    94014 rt021a0  0:03 ksh           ?
? f0000 O   115  8386  8347 16  68 20  1308000     72          rt021a0  0:01 ps            ?
? $ps -l                                                                                   ?
?     F S   UID   PID  PPID  C PRI NI     ADDR     SZ    WCHAN TTY      TIME COMD          ?
? f0000 S   115  8347   309  1  30 20  1009000    140    94014 rt021a0  0:03 ksh           ?
? f0000 O   115  8387  8347 26  73 20  1146000     72          rt021a0  0:01 ps            ?
? $                                                                                        ?
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

6.4  grep: A Pattern Matching Filter
 
The grep utility can search through a file to see if it contains
a specified string of characters. The utility will not change the 
file it searches but displays each line that contains the string. 
The format for the string is:
 
 
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  grep [options] limited_regular-expression [file]         ?
?                                                                            ?
?    Use the man command for a complete list of options                      ?
?                                                                            ?
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 
The grep utility searches files for a pattern and displays all 
lines that contain the pattern. It uses limited-regular-
expressions (these are expressions that have string values that 
use a subset of all the possible alphanumeric and special 
characters) like those used with ed to match the patterns. 
 
Be careful using the characters $, *, [, ^, |, (, ), and \ in the
regular expression because they will be evaluated by the shell. 
It is good practice to enclose the regular expression in single 
quotes. This will prevent the shell from evaluating these special
characters.
 
The grep utility will assume standard input if no files are  given. 
Normally, each line found in the file will be displayed  to
standard output.
 
Sample session:

.................................................................
.    $grep 'disc' memo                                          .
.................................................................

This command will search the file "memo" for the string "disc". It
will include words like discover and indiscreet because they
contain the characters "disc". The single quote marks are not
necessary and for this example they wouldn't have made any
difference. They do allow you to include spaces in the search
pattern. 
6.4.1  More on Regular Expressions

The grep command can be best understood by a discussion of regular
expressions. Let's create a database of phone numbers called
phone.lis and then use regular expressions to search through the
database. Here is as listing of the contents of phone.lis

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $cat phone.lis                                             ?
?    Smith, Joan              7-7989                            ?
?    Adams, Fran              2-3876                            ?
?    StClair, Fred            4-6122                            ?
?    Jones, Ted               1-3745                            ?
?    Stair, Rich              5-5972                            ?
?    Benson, Sam              4-5587                            ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The format for the records in this database is:
                                             
     Last name, First name <tab>   #-####

Using the database (phone.lis) above. What grep command would we
use to search through the database and get all the records that
had a person whose name contains an "S".

An alphabetic character represents itself.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep S phone.lis                                          ?
?    Smith, Joan              7-7989                            ?
?    StClair, Fred            4-6122                            ?
?    Stair, Rich              5-5972                            ?
?    Benson, Sam              4-5587                            ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This grep command searched for the string "S" and then listed all
the lines in phone.lis that matched.
A single . (dot) is used to represent any single character.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep .S phone.lis                                         ?
?    Benson, Sam         4-5587                                 ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A $ represents the end of the line.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep 5$ phone.lis                                         ?
?    Jones, Ted         1-3745                                  ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A ^ represents the beginning of the line

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep ^S phone.lis                                         ?
?    Smith, Joan         7-7989                                 ?
?    StClair, Fred       4-6122                                 ?
?    Stair, Rich         5-5972                                 ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Regular expressions must get to grep in order for them to be
evaluated properly. Let's say we want to get the records of
employees that have a phone number that begins with a "4".

What does the following expression do?

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep <tab>4 phone.lis                                     ?
?    StClair, Fred        4-6122                                ?
?    Jones, Ted           1-3745                                ?
?    Benson, Sam          4-5587                                ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Why did we get the record of Ted Jones? The tab character was 
evaluated by the shell and so the search was actually made looking
for a "4". This is the same as if we had entered $grep 4 phone.lis.
We must prevent the shell from evaluating these characters, this
is done with the \ (backslash) character as shown in the next
example.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep \<tab>4 phone.lis                                    ?
?    StClair, Fred                4-6122                        ?
?    Benson, Sam                  4-5587                        ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Now it worked properly. It searched for a <tab> character       
followed by the number 4. The [] (left and right brackets) are used
to identify a range of characters.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep \[AF] phone.lis                                      ?
?    Adams, Fran             2-3876                             ?
?    StClair, Fred           4-6122                             ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 
Why do [] need to be quoted? In the previous example the search 
makes a match on "A" or "F" . 

A - (dash) can indicate inclusion. For example, we want to make a
match on a phone number that has a 1, 2, 3, or 4. How can this be
done? Here's an example:

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep \[1-4] phone.lis                                     ?
?    Adams, Fran                2-3876                          ?
?    StClair, Fred              4-6122                          ?
?    Jones, Ted                 1-3745                          ?
?    Stair, Rich                5-5972                          ?
?    Benson, Sam                4-5587                          ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A ^ character looks for all characters NOT inside the [] brackets. 

For example,

     [^0-9]    matches all non-digits

     [^a-zA-Z] matches all non-alphabetic characters

     Note: \, *, and $ lose their meta-character meanings inside
the []. Also the ^ character is special only if it appears first.

What is the following command searching for?

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep '[^789]


 phone.lis                                  ?
?    Adams, Fran                  2-3876                        ?
?    StClair, Fred                4-6122                        ?
?    Jones, Ted                   1-3745                        ?
?    Stair, Rich                  5-5972                        ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
6.4.2  Closure

The * (asterisk) represents zero or more of the characters
preceding the asterisk.

     A*   represents 0 or more As.

     AA*  represents 1 or more As.

     [0-9]*$  0 or more digits at the end of a line 
               (last four digits in a phone number)

     .*   represents 0 or more of any character.


How would you write a grep command using regular expressions to
find the last name starting with an "S" and the first name with an
"F"?


     ^S   Begins with an "S"

     .*,F Any number of characters before ,F

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep ^S.\*,F phone.lis                                    ?
?    StClair, Fred     4-6122                                   ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
Note: The * (asterisk) was quoted so the shell didn't try to
evaluate it.

It is very desireable to quote the entire string to keep the shell
from doing an expansion or substitution. It also increases
readability of the regular expression as in the following example:

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep '^S.*, F' phone.lis                                  ?
?    StClair, Fred     4-6122                                   ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                
6.4.3  Some Nice grep Options 

The grep provides several options that modify how the search is
performed.

     -c   Report count of matching lines only

     -v   Print those lines that don't match the pattern.

What will these lines print?

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?     $grep -c '[J-Z]' phone.lis                                ?
?     5                                                         ?
?     $                                                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
Why did we get this result? Let's analyze the command. In       
English, this command could be interpreted to mean "Tell me how
many records in the file "phone.lis" contain a letter from the set
J through and including Z."  Look at the phone.lis file and see
that five records fit this restriction.
So the answer is 5.

Now look at another example and see what this one does.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $grep -v '[J-Z]' phone.lis                                 ?
?    Adams,Fran        2-3876                                   ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Why is this the only record that was found? The -v option says to
select records that don't match the pattern. This is the same
pattern as the previous example and therefore it selects records
that don't match the pattern. The "Adams" record is the only one
that doesn't make a match. It doesn't have a character from the set
J through and Z.


6.4.4  Summary of Regular Expression Characters

     ^         Beginning of the line

     $         End of the line

     *         0 or more preceding characters

     .         Any single character

     [...]          A range of characters

     [^...]    Exclusion range of characters


6.5  sed: Edit a File to Standard Output

UNIX provides a method of editing streams of data. It is the sed
utility.  The name of this utility is derived from Stream EDitor.
This is not the same as the vi editor. The vi editor edits text in
a file. The sed utility edits text in a stream. In order to edit
a character stream two things are required.  First, the line to
edit must be identified (regular expressions) and second, how to
edit the line.

The formal form for the sed utility is as follows:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?    Command Format: sed [-n] [-e script] [-f sfile] [files]    ?
?                                                               ?
?    Details in on-line man pages                               ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The sed utility copies the named files (standard input default) to
the standard output, edited according to a set (script) of
commands. The -f options cause the script to be taken from file
"sfile".

The general form is:

     $sed /address/instruction

Note:     If no address is specified, all lines are chosen to edit.


'sed' addresses can be line numbers or regular expressions.

Example:
 
     line numbers        2,4
                         2,$  ($ represents the last line)

     textual address     /regular-expression/



Note:     Forward slashes enclose textual addresses

The sed instructions indicate what editing function to perform.
Here some useful sed instructions:

     s         substitute

     d         delete

Note: Most sed command lines contain spaces or metacharacters and
they should be quoted to protect them from the shell. There are
many more editing commands provided by sed. Here is a sample sed
command to edit the records in the database file that we are
already familiar with, namely, phone.lis:

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $sed /s/Smith/Smythe/ phone.lis                            ?
?    Smythe, Joan        7-7989                                 ?
?    Adams, Fran         2-3876                                 ?
?    StClair, Fred       4-6122                                 ?
?    Jones, Ted          1-3745                                 ?
?    Stair, Rich         5-5972                                 ?
?    Benson, Sam         4-5587                                 ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
sed is an editor . It simply copies the standard input to the
standard output, editing the lines that match the indicated
address. The original file is not changed. 

Here's another example of a sed command.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $sed '2,4 s/2$/3/' phone.lis                               ?
?    Smith, Joan         7-7989                                 ?
?    Adams, Fran         2-3876                                 ?
?    StClair, Fred       4-6123                                 ?
?    Jones, Ted          1-3745                                 ?
?    Stair, Rich         5-5972                                 ?
?    Benson, Sam         4-5587                                 ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

What does this sed command do?  If you read command in English it
reads like this: On lines 2 through 4 substitute the 2 at the end
of the line with a 3.  Notice that the phone number for
StClair,Fred changed from 4-6122 to 4-6123.  The number for
Stair,Rich didn't change because it was outside the range.

The sed utility can also be use to delete parts of a line of data.
This is done by substituting nothing for the parts you want to
delete. It looks like this:

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $sed 's/^.*, //' phone.lis                                 ?
?    Joan               7-7989                                  ?
?    Fran               2-3876                                  ?
?    Fred               4-6122                                  ?
?    Ted                1-3745                                  ?
?    Rich               5-5972                                  ?
?    Sam                4-5587                                  ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Reading this command it means:                                   

Substitute from the beginning of the line followed by any number
of characters followed by a comma with the null string (nothing).
This has the effect of removing the text.               

Here's a delete command and how it's used.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $sed d phone.lis                                           ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Why is there no output? Well, it read standard input and did the
editing function on all the selected lines. Since no lines were
specified all lines were selected to be edited. The editing was to
delete the line.

 Question: Has the original file been destroyed?

Multiple commands are allowed in sed. Each instruction is applied
to each input line.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $sed '/Stair/d                                             ?
?    >/Adams/d' phone.lis                                       ?
?    Smith, Joan         7-7989                                 ?
?    StClair, Fred       4-6122                                 ?
?    Jones, Ted          2-1136                                 ?
?    Benson, Sam         4-5587                                 ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The records for Adams and Stair have both been removed from the
database.

Note:     The > character is the BourneShell secondary prompt.

6.6  awk: A Pattern Matching Programming Language

Suppose you wanted to change the format of the database phone.lis
to be the first name followed by the last name. There is no easy
way to do this with sed. Fortunately, UNIX not only provides a
stream editor (sed) but it also has a formatting tool. The
formatting tool in UNIX is called awk. This tool is named after
authors who wrote it  Alfred V. Aho, Peter J. Weinberger, and Brian
W. Kerninghan so it really doesn't have any meaning.

The awk utility is a pattern scanning and processing language. It
will search one or more files for a specified pattern and then
performs an action, such as writing to standard output or
incrementing a counter when it finds a match. You can use awk to
generate reports or filter text. It works equally well with numbers
or text. The authors designed it to be easy to use and sacrificed
execution speed toward this end.

While the sed utility allows us to change the text in a stream,
awk allows us to rearrange, add, or delete text in a stream,
easily.

The awk takes advantage of many constructs from the C programming
language. It has the following features:


     flexible format
     conditional execution
     looping statements
     numeric variables
     string variables
     regular expressions
     C's printf


The awk will take it's input from the files you specify on the
command line or from standard input. The following is the format
for awk:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?    Command format: awk [-Fc] [prog] [files]                   ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The awk will scan each line of file for lines that match a set of
patterns specified by prog. With each pattern in prog there can be
an associated action to be performed when the line is found. The
set of patterns may appear literally as prog, or in a file
specified as -f file. The prog string should be enclosed in single
quotes to protect it from the Shell.

Files are read in order and if there are none specified the
standard input is read. Each line is matched against the pattern
portion of every pattern-action statement.  The associated action
is performed for each matched pattern.  An input line is made up
fields separated by white space.  $1, $2.. define the fields. $0
refers to the whole line.

A pattern-action statement has the form:


     pattern {action}


A missing action means print the line; a missing pattern always
makes a match. a statement can be one of the following:


     if (conditional) statement [else statement]
     while (conditional) statement
     for (expression;conditional;expression) statement
     break
     continue
     {[statement]...}
     variable=expression
     print [expression-list] [>expression]
     printf format [,expression-list][>expression]
     next # skip remaining pattern on this input line
     exit # skip the rest of the input


Statements are terminated by semi-colons, new-lines (CR), or right
braces.

Let's look at the syntax for awk in a little simpler manner.


     awk 'commands' [filename]


An awk program (commands) consists of a optional pattern to match
and an action to perform if a match is found on the current line.
This syntax looks like this:


     awk '/pattern/{action}' [filename]
The pattern used is a regular expression enclosed in forward
slashes. If no pattern is listed, the action will be performed for
every line. An action can contain several commands.  There can be
multiple patterns and actions.

     awk '/pattern1/{action1}
      /pattern2/{action2}' [filename}


One of awks commands is print. It puts the current line on standard
output.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?   $awk '{print}' phone.lis                                    ?
?   Smith, Joan         7-7989                                  ?
?   Adams, Fran         2-3876                                  ?
?   StClair, Fred       4-6122                                  ?
?   Jones, Ted          1-3745                                  ?
?   Stair, Rich         5-5972                                  ?
?   Benson, Sam         4-5587                                  ?
?   $                                                           ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The awk splits every input line at whitespace and keeps track of
the number of fields on each line and counts the number of lines
read. Each field is identified by its field number and a $.

     $1   Identifies the first field

     $2   Identifies the second field

     .

     $0   Identifies the entire line

     NF   Identifies the number of fields on the line

     NR   Identifies the number of lines that have been read
Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?    $awk '{print NR,$1}' phone.lis                             ?
?    1 Smith,                                                   ?
?    2 Adams,                                                   ?
?    3 StClair,                                                 ?
?    4 Jones,                                                   ?
?    5 Stair,                                                   ?
?    6 Benson,                                                  ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

To change the order of the names in phone.lis use awk. The comma
in the print command tells awk to separate each field with a space.
Without the comma, the output would have no spacing.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $awk '{print $2, $1 "<tab>"$3}' phone.lis                  ?
?    Joan Smith,        7-7989                                  ?
?    Fran Adams,        2-3876                                  ?
?    Fred StClair,      4-6122                                  ?
?    Ted Jones,         1-3745                                  ?
?    Rich Stair,        5-5972                                  ?
?    Sam Benson,        4-5587                                  ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
6.7  sort: Sort a File

The sort utility sorts line of all the named files together and
writes the result to standard output. The standard input is used
if - is used as a file name or no input files are specified.

Comparisons are based one or more sort keys extracted from each
line of input. There is only one key by default, that's the entire
line, and ordering is lexicographic by bytes in machine collating
sequence.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?    Command format: sort [-cmu][-ooutput][-ykmem][-zrecsz]     ?
?                         [-dfiMnr][-btx][+pos][-pos2][files]   ?
?                                                               ?
?     See on-line manual for options etc.                       ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The easiest way to use sort is to add it at the end af a pipeline.
What does the following command line accomplish:

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?   $grep '<tab>[45]' phone.lis | sed 's/<tab>/<tab>73/' | sort ?
?   Benson, Sam         734-5587                                ?
?   StClair, Fred       734-6122                                ?
?   Stair, Rich         735-5972                                ?
?   $                                                           ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 
The grep command will select only those records that have a 4 of 
a 5 in the phone number, those records are then sent to sed which
will add "73" just after the tab character, then the records are
sent to sort and put in alphabetical order. Notice that there is
a problem here, should StClair come before Stair in an alphabetical
listing? The answer is NO. Why did this happen? It occurred because
of the collating sequence for the default sort.

This can be fixed by specifying some options on the call to the
sort utility. Here are some options for sort. Let's see if we can
determine how to remedy the problem discovered in the default sort.


Sort options:

     -f   Fold lower case into upper case
     -r   Reverse the sort from highest to lowest
     -b   Ignore leading blank spaces
     -d   Dictionary sort - ignore non alphanumeric characters
     -m   Merge two sorted files together
     -n   Sort the list as numbers not digit characters

Notice the -f options folds lower case into upper case. This option
will make the sort for our problem work correctly. Here's the
sample.

Sample session:
                                                                 
        
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????             
?   $grep '<tab>[45]' phone.lis|sed 's/<tab>/<tab>73/'|sort -f  ?    
?   Benson, Sam         734-5587                                ?             
?   Stair, Rich         735-5972                                ?             
?   StClair, Fred       734-6122                                ?             
?   $                                                           ?             
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 
The sort can also be directed to use only a portion of the line as
a sorting key versus the entire line. The utility will
automatically break each line into fields at whitespace delimiters.
You can use a character other than whitespace by using the -t
option. The fields are set up like this:


        0     1        2
      /----|/---|/-------------|
     Adams, Fran         2-3876

   In order to sort by the second field here is the sort command
to enter.
 
Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $sort +1 phone.lis                                         ?
?    Adams, Fran        2-3876                                  ?
?    StClair, Fred      4-6122                                  ?
?    Smith, Joan        7-7989                                  ?
?    Stair, Rich        5-5972                                  ?
?    Benson, Sam        4-5587                                  ?
?    Jones, Ted         1-3745                                  ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Here's a sample of a sort on the 3rd field.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?     $sort +2 phone.lis                                        ?
?     Jones, Ted        1-3745                                  ?
?     Adams, Fran       2-3876                                  ?
?     Benson, Sam       4-5587                                  ?
?     StClair, Fred     4-6122                                  ?
?     Stair, Rich       5-5972                                  ?
?     Smith, Joan       7-7989                                  ?
?     $                                                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A sort can also be performed by a character position within a
field. Here's the sample.

Sample session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    $sort +2.4 phone.lis                                       ?
?    StClair, Fred           4-6122                             ?
?    Benson, Sam             4-5587                             ?
?    Jones, Ted              1-3745                             ?
?    Adams, Fran             2-3876                             ?
?    Stair, Rich             5-5972                             ?
?    Smith, Joan             7-7989                             ?
?    $                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Note:     The first character of a field is the delimiter for that
          field        
6.8  What Other Useful UNIX Tools are Available

As stated from the beginning, one of the maxims used to develop
UNIX was that tools would continue to be developed. Here is a  
list of tools that might be of interest to you.                  

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?    UNIX Tool         Description                              ?
?                                                               ?
?    comm           Compares two sorted file and reports        ?
?                   differences                                 ?
?                                                               ?
?    cut            Select columns or fields from lines in a    ?
?                   field (System V only)                       ?
?                                                               ?
?    diff           Report the differences between two files    ?
?                                                               ?
?    join           Join lines in two files that contain a      ?
?                   common field                                ?
?                                                               ?
?    pg             Show files (or standard input) on a terminal?
?                   a screen at a time                          ?
?                                                               ?
?    od             Print the numeric equivalent of a file's    ?
?                   content                                     ?
?                                                               ?
?    tail           List end of files (or standard input) on    ?
?                   standard output                             ?
?                                                               ?
?    tee            Sends standard input to two different places?
?                                                               ?
?    tr             Transforms all occurrences of one character ? 
?                   into another                                ?
?                                                               ?
?                                                               ?
?    wc             Count the characters, words, and lines in a ?
?                   file                                        ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

6.9  Archiver and Library Maintainer
                                                                 
This command will maintain groups of files combined into a single
archive file.  The main use of ar is to create and update library
files as used by the link editor.  It can also be used for any
other similar purpose.  The file header consists of printable ASCII
characters.  If the archive consists of printable characters, then
the entire archive is also printable.

The format for the ar command is as follows:
                                                                 
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? Command Format:  ar key [posname] afile [name]...             ?
?                                                               ?
? Unlike command options, the command key is required.  The key,?
? usually a - sign, is formed with one of the following letters ?
? drqtpmx.  Arguments to the key are made from one or more of   ?
? the following set, vuaibcis.  See Appendix I for a complete   ?
? list of command keys.                                         ?
?                                                               ?
? posname is an archive member name used as a reference for     ?
? positioning other files in the archive.                       ?
?                                                               ?
? afile is the name of the archive.                             ?
?                                                               ?
? name[s] are the constituent files in the archive.             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                               
To illustrate how to create and use an archive file, we will use
the "C" program called main.c and the two functions, funct1.c and
funct2.c.  First, create the object files that we intend to put
into the archive file.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cc -c main.c funct1.c funct2.c                               ?
? main.c:                                                       ?
? funct1.c:                                                     ?
? funct2.c:                                                     ?
? $ls -C *.o                                                    ?
? funct1.o funct2.o main.o                                      ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Remember the -c option will not produce an executable module, but
it does create the object modules.  These object modules are file
files that we will place into an archive.

6.9.1  ar: Creating an Archive File with Object Modules

In this call to ar, we will use the r command key which will
replace the named files in the archive.  The v option will give a
verbose file-by-file description of the making of the new archive
file.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ar rv functs.a funct1.o funct2.o                             ?
? a - funct1.o                                                  ?
? a - funct2.o                                                  ?
? ar: creating functs.a                                         ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The name of the new archive file is functs.a.  The files that have
been added to that archive are funct1.o and funct2.o.  The file
protections for the new archive file are rw-r--r--.



6.9.2  ar: Verifying the Contents of the Archive File

The key command to list the table of contents is t.  The t command
will print a table of contents of the archive file.  When the v
option is used with the t command it will give a long listing of
all information about the files.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ar tv functs.a                                               ?
? rw-r--r--    115/    200 448 Sep 27 09:56 1990 funct1.o       ?
? rw-r--r--    115/    200 448 Sep 27 09:56 1990 funct2.o       ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This output shows that there are two members in this archive file,
namely, funct1.o and funct2.o.

The protections of these files is:

     owner - read and write
     group - read
     other - read

The fields are, left to right, the file protections, owner, group,
size (in bytes), creation date and time, and finally the name of
the constituent.

6.9.3  ar: Removing Duplicate Object Files


Once the archive has been created and verified, the object files
in your directory can be deleted.  This can be accomplished with
the rm command.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $rm funct?.o                                                  ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The question mark (?) is a wildcard that stands for any single
character.  The files funct1.o and funct2.o no longer exist in your
subdirectory.

6.9.4  ar: Compiling Main and Archive Files


Now that the object files, funct1.o and funct2.o, are in the
archive file functs.a you, can link them with main.o in the
following manner.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cc -o new_hello main.o functs.a                              ?
? $ls -la new_hello                                             ?
? -rwxr-xr-x  1 teacher class  17570  Sep 27 12:58 new_hello    ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????



Workshop 6

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 6. Login to the Multimax using the username
and password given to you by the instructor.  Each student is to
complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES 


     1.   What is a UNIX process?





     2.   When a command is given to the Shell it will fork a    
     child process to execute the command.

                      True/False



     3.   What is a process identification number (PID)?





     4.   What is the name of the Shell variable that contains   
     the current PID?





     5.   What is the UNIX command to find the PIDs associated   
     with the controlling terminal? What option is needed to     
     get detailed information?






     6.   What does the UNIX command grep do?





                     Continue on the next page
     7.   What do the following regular expressions represent?


               ^Ba



               .*



               BB*



               J*



               [0-9]*$


          
     8.   What does the UNIX command sed do?






     9.   What does the UNIX command awk do?






     10.  What does the UNIX command sort do?






     11.  What is the main use for the UNIX command ar?






                     Continue on the next page
     COMPUTER EXERCISES

     Use the phone.lis database file to answer the following
     questions.


     12.  "I want to find all the phone numbers that begin with a
           4 and end with a 2"





     13.  "I can't remember the name but I believe the last name
           starts with an S and the first name with an F"




     14.  Find all the people with 3 character first names.





     15.  Write a grep command that finds all the phone numbers
          that don't begin with a 4, 5, or 6.




     16.  Write a grep command that finds all entries beginning
          with J-Z and ending with a 2 or 5.





     17.  Put a 23 in front of every phone number. (Hint:sed)
     




     18.  Replace the first name with the person's first initial
          and a period.





                     Continue on the next page
     19.  Task: A new phone system has been installed and people
          with phone extensions beginning with 4 or 5 now have a
          new prefix: 73. Create a file of only the people with
          the new phone numbers.





     
     20.  Print out the phone list showing last name and first   
          name in the following format and sorted by last name.


                    First name <tab> Last name





        That's enough, don't you think?



7.  VAX DCL TO UNIX SHELL SCRIPT CONVERSION

This chapter will describe the steps necessary to convert DCL
command files into Shell scripts. It is not a one to one conversion
and many features found in one operating system are not found in
the other. This requires you to write shell scripts that emulate
features of the other. This is especially true of VAX and UNIX. The
best way to accomplish this is to know exactly what it is that the
command file does in VMS and then write the equivalent function in
a shell script. There are few features that are the similar and
those will be examined.

There is really no "best" way to approach this subject. VMS and
UNIX are both unique operating systems. Much of the material
covered in this course up to this point will be used in the
conversion process. We will start with a list of standard UNIX
tools and their VMS equivalents. This will give a you a flavor of
the kinds of tools each operating system has to offer.
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?Major Tool                  VMS             UNIX               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
?Editors                     EDT             ed                 ?
?                            TECO            ex                 ?
?                            TPU             vi                 ?
?                                                               ?
?Communications              MAIL            mail               ?
?                            REPLY           write              ?
?                            PHONE           talk               ?
?                            DECnet          ftp                ?
?                                            telnet             ?
?                                                               ?
?Compilers                   FORTRAN         f77                ?
?                                            cc                 ?
?                                                               ?
?Text Processing             RUNOFF          troff              ?
?                                            nroff              ?
?                                            awk                ?
?                                            lex                ?
?                                                               ?
?                                            sed                ?
?                                                               ?
?                            SORT            sort               ?
?                            MERGE           merge              ?
?                                                               ?
?Program Development         LINK            link               ?
?Tools                       DEBUG           adb/dbx            ?
?                            LIBRARIAN       ar/ranlib          ?
?                            DEC MMS         make               ?
?                                            yacc               ?
?                            DEC CMS         scs                ?
?                                                               ?
?Miscellaneous               DECalc          bc/dc              ?
?                            DECspell        spell              ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

As you can see from the above lists, both systems offer editors
capable of screen or line editing capabilities. Both have
interactive communications, electronic mail, networking, file
transfer, remote command execution, and remote logins. These
utilities and tools are standard to UNIX but require a license to
run under VMS. The Digital Command Language (DCL) and the UNIX
Shell (Bourne,C, or Korn) are command interpreters. That is, they
are both programs that parse the command line and then pass control
to other programs that are the kernel of the operating system.
7.1  Processes

When you login to either system the operating system will create
a unique process. This process is given access to memory and CPU
resources. The differences between the two operating systems with
respect to multi-tasking needs explanation. Multi-tasking is
concurrent processes initiated by a single user. When the user
starts a terminal session the system initiates a single process
called the PARENT process. It is possible to start multiple
processes from the parent process. This is called spawning in VMS
and forking in UNIX.  The new process is called a sub-process in
VMS and a child process in UNIX. This idea of "forking" a child
process occurs frequently in UNIX. 

When UNIX creates a child process or VMS creates a subprocess
different things occur. First, let's look at VMS. When the
subprocess is spawned the parent goes to "sleep" until the user
logs off from the subprocess. When the logoff occurs control
returns to the parent. The VMS ATTACH command gives control back
to the parent process and the subprocess goes to sleep. The point
is that only one process is active at a time. The exception is the
VMS RUN/PROCESS=name which will run a user-defined process at the
same time commands can be issued at the parent process.

In UNIX, you can run parent and children processes at the same
time. A child process can fork another process and thus a process
can be both a parent and child. Child processes are not restricted
to user-defined images but can be any valid UNIX operation. UNIX
processes that are running or stopped but not getting input from
a terminal are said to be in background. When you begin a UNIX
session the kernel gives you a copy of the shell. When you enter
a command the Shell forks a child. That child then processes the
command you entered.

 Note: some commands are executed by the Shell itself and no child
is forked.
          
This is a different concept from VMS, in which all commands are
executed  by the parent process. Once a subprocess is created the
parent remains dormant until the subprocess completes.

All the above parent and child processes use the standard default
for input and output devices, the terminal. Input and output
streams in UNIX are called standard input (stdin) and standard
output (stdout). Standard error (stderr) also uses the terminal as
it's default output.  In order to redirect these streams from a
terminal in VMS it is requires the assignment of the logical names
SYS$OUTPUT, SYS$INPUT, and SYS$ERROR to a file or device. UNIX has
a much nicer means of redirecting the input or output.

7.2  Pipes

A vertical bar (|) is used to redirect the output of a command to
the input of another command. This is the power of UNIX. For
example, we want to get a list of all currently active users,
sorted in alphabetical order, and sent to the printer, how could
that be done in VMS? Here's one solution:

VMS Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?$SHOW USERS/OUTPUT=A.TEMP                                      ?
?$SORT/KEY=POSITION:40,SIZE:6)-                                 ?
?  A.TEMP SYS$PRINT                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Notice the need for an intermediate file called A.TEMP.

Now how would this same requirement be met using UNIX. There is a
command that will list the users that are currently logged on to
the system. The command is who. Pipes allow the output of one
command to be the input into another command. The output of who
can be put into another UNIX command sort by a pipe. In a similar
manner, the output of sort can be redirected to another command
called lp. Thus the same problem can be solved using UNIX Shell in
this way:

UNIX Bourne Shell Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?$who | sort | lp -dmtlzr                                       ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Notice that there is not a one-to-one command conversion that is
taking place here. The idea is to convert the process more than
individual commands from VMS DCL to UNIX Shell.
7.3  Input, Output, and Error Redirection

Just as the VMS logicals SYS$INPUT, SYS$OUTPUT, SYS$COMMAND, and
SYS$ERROR point at the terminal by default, so do the UNIX
equivalents stdin, stdout, and stderr. The equivalent of the
SYS$COMMAND in UNIX is the "Here is" document. UNIX uses a much
more simplified method of redirecting input and output to or from
a file. UNIX does not require the effect of an ASSIGN statement
ahead of the redirection. UNIX uses a metacharacter that is
included as part of the command line. Here is an example of both
VMS and UNIX.
 
VMS Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?$ASSIGN/USER A.LIS SYS$OUTPUT                                  ?
?$ASSIGN/USER INPUT.DAT FOR005                                  ?
?$RUN MYPROG                                                    ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
The equivalent function can be written in UNIX Shell like this:

UNIX Bourne Shell Sample:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?$myprog < input.dat > a.lis                                    ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
The point here is to see that the metacharacters < and > act as
the input and output redirection symbols. Please don't get the idea 
that UNIX is much simpler than VMS DCL. That is not the case. They
each have strong points and weak points, they are not the same.
This is comparing apples and oranges. 

Here is a partial list of the metacharacters used by the UNIX
Shells and their meanings. These can be useful when you try to
redirect input and output.
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?Character      Meaning                                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?>        Redirect standard output (stdout)                     ?
?                                                               ?
?>>       Redirect and append standard output (stdout)          ?
?                                                               ?
?>&       Redirect standard output (stdout) and standard error  ?
?         (stderr)                                              ?
?                                                               ?
?>>&      Redirect and append standard output (stdout) and      ?
?         standard error (stderr)                               ?
?                                                               ?
?<        Redirect standard input (stdin)                       ?
?                                                               ?
?|        Redirect standard output (stdout) to another          ?
?         command                                               ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

These are the most commonly used redirection metacharacters.

Notes:

     UNIX redirection only affects the command line on which the
     redirection character occurs.

     Error messages are not redirected and will appear on the
     terminal.

     If a file already exists, VMS will create a new version of
     the file with a higher version number. By default, UNIX will
     overwrite the existing file.
7.4  Command Structure and File Naming Conventions

VMS is not case-sensitive in its interpretation of commands. It
doesn't distinguish between upper and lower case characters. This
is not true in UNIX, however. Commands must be entered in lower
case characters only. The Shell will not understand characters that
are in uppercase.

Filenames are also case sensitive in UNIX. The file named
MYFILE.DAT and the file myfile.dat refer to different files. One
advantage of this is that you can have a much larger variety of
filenames with fewer characters. Especially good if you don't like
to type.


This also has advantage over the filename conventions used by VMS.
Directories and subdirectories are pointer files in both operating
systems. When a subdirectory is created in VMS it is given the
extension name .DIR automatically. UNIX files on the other hand do
not distinguish between ordinary files and directories. Many VMS
users have adopted a practice of naming new subdirectories in UNIX
with all capital letters or the first letter being capitalized.
This is not, however, standard UNIX practice.

VMS Sample Session:

.................................................................
.  $CREATE/DIRECTORY [.TEST]                                    .
.  $DIRECTORY                                                   .
.................................................................
                                
UNIX Shell Sample Session:      
                                
.................................................................
.  $mkdir Test                                                  .
.  $ls Test                                                     .
.................................................................

It is possible in UNIX to maintain the same filename conventions
that you used in VMS. The period (.) is a legal character in a UNIX
filename. Some VMS users like to continue the practice of naming
files using the same . extensions from VMS. Problems occur when
default extensions are different between the two systems. For
example, object files use the extension .OBJ in VMS but .o in UNIX.
Another example is FORTRAN source code in UNIX the extension is .f
and VMS uses .FOR. Note that .o and .f are UNIX conventions to
facilitate file recognition and that UNIX commands do not assume
file extensions as VMS does.
Here is a list of commonly used extensions for both operating
systems.
                                                         
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?VMS        UNIX    Definition                                  ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?.OLB       .a      Library                                     ?
?                                                               ?
?.BAS       .bas    BASIC Source Code                           ?
?                                                               ?
?.C         .c      C Source Code                               ?
?                                                               ?
?.FOR       .f      FORTRAN Source Code                         ?
?           .h      C header files                              ?
?           .l      lex program                                 ?
?                                                               ?
?.OBJ       .o      Object Code                                 ?
?                                                               ?
?.PAS       .p      PASCAL Source Code                          ?
?           .s      Symbolic Assembly Code                      ?
?           .y      yacc program                                ?
?                                                               ?
?.EXE        a.out  Executable Image                            ?
?                                                               ?
?.ADA               ADA Source Code                             ?
?.B32               BLISS-32 Source Code                        ?
?.CLD               Command description file                    ?
?.COB               Cobol Source Code                           ?
?.COM               Commands for the language interpreter       ?
?.DAT               Data file                                   ?
?.DIS               Distribution list file for MAIL             ?
?.DIR               Directory file                              ?
?.EDT               Startup command file for EDT editor         ?
?.DOC               Documentation                               ?
?.HLP               Input source files for HELP Library         ?
?.JOU               Journal file created by EDT                 ?
?.LIS               Listing of text                             ?
?.LOG               Batch job output file                       ?
?.MAI               MAIL message file                           ?
?.MAR               VAX Macro source code                       ?
?.SYS               System Image                                ?
?.TMP               Temporary file                              ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
7.5  File Management Commands

This is a table of the more commonly used file management commands.
Some of these commands have been covered elsewhere in this manual.
The on-line manual command (man) can be used to get detailed
information about any UNIX command.

     UNIX           VMS            Purpose
     Command        equivalent

     ar             LIBRARY        Archive files

     awk            TPU            Pattern matching utility

     cat            TYPE/APPEND    Catenates and prints to       
                                   terminal

     cd             SET DEFAULT    Change working directory

     chgrp          SET FILE       Change group ownership

     chmod          SET PROTECTION Changes protection

     cmp            DIFFERENCE     Compares two files and reports
                                   first difference found

     cp             COPY           Create a new copy

     find           DIRECTORY      Locates within a directory 
                                   structure

     ftp            COPY           Transfer to/from remote node

     grep           SEARCH         Finds a string

     ln             ASSIGN         Create a symbolic link

     ls             DIRECTORY      List contents of a directory

     merge          MERGE          Merge files

     mkdir          CREATE/DIR     Make a directory

     mv             RENAME         Moves or renames files

     od             DUMP           Octal, decimal, hex, ASCII
                                   dump

     pr             PRINT/HEAD     Prints files

     pwd            SHOW DEFAULT   Working directory name

     rm             DELETE         Removes or deletes files

    rmdir           DELETE         Removes a directory file

    sort            SORT           Sorts by a key

    tail            EDIT/READ      Outputs last part of file

    tar             BACKUP         Tape archive

    touch           CREATE         Updates file characteristics
                                   or creates null file

    tr              EDIT           Translates characters
     
7.6  Metacharacters

Characters that have special meanings to the Shell are known as
metacharacters. Users should avoid using these characters in
filenames as results might be unpredictable. We have already seen
several metacharacters, for example, vertical bar (|), or the
greater than (>) or less than (<). The function of metacharacters
can be different depending on whether the Shell or a UNIX tool
interprets the character. The following is a list of UNIX special
characters and their VMS equivalent.

 UNIX         Function                            VMS equivalent
 Char

 &   Perform command in Background
 =   Assignment operator                               =
 ;   Command separator
 \   Continuation of command line                      -
 \m  Literal translation of metacharacter m            "m
 '   Turn off special meaning                          "
 `   Process immediately                               @ & run
 "   Group characters into a single argument           "
 #   Comment follows                                   !
 *   Wildcard filename substitution                    *
 ?   Wildcard filename substitution single character   %
 $   Argument substitution follows                     '
 $#  Argument count
 $  Process id                              F$GETJPI("PID")
 $?  Exit status                                  $STATUS
 {body}lt;  Read one line from standard input            INQUIRE, READ
 .   Current directory                                []
 []  Selective filename substitution

Note: Metacharacters unique to the C-Shell have not been included
in this list to reduce confusion. Check C-Shell documentation for
a complete list.

7.7  Wildcards: Are They Really Wild?

UNIX wildcards extend the features found with wildcards in VMS.
The following table shows how UNIX expands wildcard definitions:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?UNIX example                   Meaning                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?                                                               ?
? *             # All files in the current directory and one    ?
?                 level below                                   ?
?                                                               ?
? .             # Files in the current directory                ?
?                                                               ?
?                                                               ?
? *.*           # All files that contain a period in the        ?
?                 filename                                      ?
?                                                               ?
? *.com         # All files in the current directory that       ?
?                 end in .com                                   ?
?                                                               ?
? ?.com         # All files in the current directory that       ?
?                 end in .com and have one character            ?
?                 preceding the period                          ?
?                                                               ?
? name[xyz]     # All files in the current directory, namex,    ?
?                 namey, or namez                               ?
?                                                               ?
? name[a-z]     # All files in the current directory namea      ?
?                 through namez                                 ?
?                                                               ?
? name[a-z4]    # All files in the current directory, namea     ?
?                 through namez and name4                       ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                               
There are no absolute rules concerning the use of wildcards. The
output produced by the wildcard expansion process is command 
dependent. For instance, the ls * command will list files in the
current directory and the files in the directory in the next lower
level as well. The wc * (word count) command will produce output
for the files in the current directory only. Thus as you can see
commands vary in how wildcards are expanded.

Users and programmers can use wildcards in a similar way to the
method of using wildcards on the VAX. UNIX will interpret *.com to
mean any file in the current directory that ends in .com even
though the extension has no meaning in UNIX. 
7.8  Summary

The VMS and UNIX operating systems are similar in some respects.
The VMS user must recognize that there are some fundamental
differences. 

UNIX allows multiple processes and the user must learn to manage
these processes. VMS usually manages a single process which
processes commands in sequence.

UNIX has a different command syntax. UNIX commands are already
short and cannot be abbreviated like VMS commands. UNIX commands
do not lend themselves easily to describe their function. For
example, TYPE seems to describe the function better than cat in
UNIX. Single letter options modify UNIX commands in a manner
similar to VMS command qualifiers.

UNIX has a different file and directory structure. You can address
any file irrespective of the physical device using the absolute or
relative pathname.

UNIX has metacharacters which have special functions when
interpreted by the Shell.
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Workshop 7

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in all the previous chapters. Login to the Multimax using
the username and password given to you by the instructor.  Each
student is to complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES

     1.   Convert the DCL command file found on the next page
          to BourneShell and run it.


     Helpful??  Hints:


          What does the VMS DCL command file do?  

          Does UNIX Shell have a similar function? 

          What does the UNIX command cut do?

          What does the UNIX command date do?

          Can this script be converted one line at a time?















                     Continue on the next page

$ Today = F$cvtime("today",,"weekday")
$ if today .eqs. "Monday" then goto monday
$ if today .eqs. "Tuesday" then goto tuesday
$ if today .eqs. "Wednesday" then goto wednesday
$ if today .eqs. "Thursday" then goto thursday
$ if today .eqs. "Friday" then goto friday
$ go to weekend
$ Monday:
$    Write sys$output " "
$    Write sys$output "Today is ''today' and there are 5 days    
 until this weekend"
$    Write sys$output " "
$    exit
$ Tuesday:
$    Write sys$output " "
$    Write sys$output "Today is ''today' and there are 4 days    
 until this weekend"
$    Write sys$output " "
$    exit
$ Wednesday:
$    Write sys$output " "
$    Write sys$output "Today is ''today' and there are 3 days    
 until this weekend"
$    Write sys$output " "
$    exit
$ Thursday:
$    Write sys$output " "
$    Write sys$output "Today is ''today' and there are 2 days    
 until this weekend"
$    Write sys$output " "
$    exit
$ Friday:
$    Write sys$output " "
$    Write sys$output "Today is ''today' and there is 1 day 
 until this weekend"
$    Write sys$output " "
$    exit
$ Weekend:
$    Write sys$output " "
$    Write sys$output "Today is ''today' and why are you working
 on a weekend"
$    Write sys$output " "
$    exit

  





                     Continue on the next page
     2.   Not all functions, especially calls to library         
          functions, that exist in VMS have an equivalent call in
          UNIX Shell. An example of this is F$ELEMENT in VMS. 
          Write a BourneShell script that will do the same job as
          F$ELEMENT and test it.









         If time remains and you want a further challenge:







     3.   Write a user interface to add and delete records to the
          phone.lis database. Query the user in a user friendly
          manner and check to see if the name is already in the
          database prior to adding it.






          That's all for this workshop. If you didn't finish
          because of time, that's OK, as long as you understand
          the process needed to do conversions.
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
8.  ADVANCED FEATURES OF FTP


This chapter will discuss some advanced features of the FTP server
as implemented on the Multimax.  The introduction of FTP in UNIX
for Beginning Users gave an elementary introduction to some of the
features.  If you are not familiar with the basics, please refer
to that manual.  It is not the purpose to review those basics here.

The FTP (Internet file transfer program) is the user interface to
the DARPA File Transfer Protocol.  This utility program will
transfer files to and from a remote computer.  In order for files
to be transferred from the local computer to a remote computer, a
connection must be established.  This can be done from the FTP
command line.  The connection to the remote computer will remain
active until it is terminated by the user.

The remote computer with whom the connection is to be made can be
specified on the FTP command.  In this case, FTP will immediately
try to establish a connection.  If the remote computer is not
specified, FTP will enter its command interpreter mode and wait
for instructions; a prompt will be displayed.

FTP does have a help feature, and all 58 commands can be listed.
It will also give a terse description of each command.  In
addition, there are on-line manual pages which can be accessed by
using the man command in UMAX.
8.1  Initializing FTP on UMAX


The term, "local computer," will refer to the Multimax.  The
"remote computer" will refer to the other computer with which you
are trying to send/receive files.  For purposes of this course, we
will be referring to the VAX minicomputer as the remote computer.
Please be aware that these procedures will work for any computer
connected to Ethernet and having an FTP server.
 
FTP can be invoked on the local computer using the following
syntax:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  ftp [-v] [-d] [-i] [-n] [-g] [host]         ?
?                                                               ?
?         -v = verbose on, forces ftp to show all responses     ?
?              from the remote server                           ?
?                                                               ?
?         -d = enables debugging                                ?
?                                                               ?
?         -i = turn off interactive prompting during            ?
?              multiple file transfers.                         ?
?                                                               ?
?         -n = disables the "auto-login" feature                ?
?                                                               ?
?         -g = disable filename globbing                        ?
?                                                               ?
?         host = the name of the remote computer                ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

NOTE:     UMAX (UNIX) is case sensitive.  The commands and options
          must be entered as shown. 
8.2  Multiple File Transfers


The syntax for the multiple get command is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  mget remote-files                           ?
?                                                               ?
?  remote-files = remote computer wildcard specification        ?
?                      or                                       ?
?                 file1 file2 ... filen                         ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The remote computer wildcard specification is expanded in a process
called globbing.  Once the globbing is complete, a get is performed
on each filename; and it is  transferred to the local computer. 
The filename is the same on both computers.  You can specify the
filenames to be transferred separating them with spaces.

Example:
.................................................................
. ftp>mget *.dat;*                                              .
.................................................................


This command will transfer all versions of the remote-files that
have the filename extension of .dat.  If the option -i was
specified on the call to FTP, then the files will be transferred
automatically.  If the option was not specified, FTP will prompt
you before transferring each file.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? ftp>mget *.dat                                                ?
? mget change_pass.dat;1?                                       ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


The default is 'yes', pressing (Ret) will cause the file to be sent
to the local directory.  If you don't want this file transferred,
enter n(Ret); you will then be prompted for the next file, if one
exists.
8.3  Auto Login Feature


It is possible to have the login procedure occur automatically. 
To do this requires a file in your home directory called .netrc.
The .netrc file contains login and initialization information to
be used by the auto-login process.  The following variables are
used and can be separated by spaces, tabs, or new lines.


machine name  

This is the name of the remote computer.  The auto-login process
will search the .netrc file for a machine variable that matches
the name of the remote computer on the ftp command or as an open
command argument.  Once a match is found, the next variables are
also processed until the end of file or another machine variable
is encountered.


login name

This is the username on the remote system.  If this variable is
present, the auto-login process will login to the remote computer
with the given username.


password string

This is the password to be used when logging in to the remote
system.

NOTE:     If this variable is present in the .netrc file, ftp will
          abort the auto-login process if the .netrc file is
          readable by anyone but the user.


account string

This supplies an additional account password.  If present, the
auto-login process will supply the string as an additional password
if required by the remote server.


macdef name

This defines a macro.  This variable will function like the ftp
macdef command.  A macro is defined with the specified name, its
contents begin with the next .netrc line and continue until a null
line (2 new line characters).  If a macro named init is defined,
it will be executed as the last step of the auto-login process.
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat .netrc                                                   ?
? machine erc830                                                ?
? login teacher                                                 ?
? password secret1                                              ?
? machine erc780                                                ?
? login rharding                                                ?
? password secret2                                              ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

To invoke the auto-login feature, type the ftp command and enter
the name of the remote computer as an argument.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ftp erc830                                                   ?
? Connected to erc830.                                          ?
? 220 erc830 Wollongong FTP Server (Ver 5.0) at Tue Oct 23      ?
? 331 Password required for rharding.                           ?
? 230 User logged in, default directory D_1131:[RHARDING]       ?
? ftp>                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

If the .netrc file is readable by anyone other than the user, the
following error message will appear; and the connection will not
be made to the remote computer.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ls -l .netrc                                                 ?
? $ftp erc830                                                   ?
? Connected to erc830.                                          ?
? 220 erc830 Wollongong FTP Server (Ver 5.0) at Tue Oct 23      ?
? Error - .netrc file not correct mode.                         ?
? Remove password or correct code.                              ?
? 221 Goodbye.                                                  ?
? ftp>                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

To correct this error, change the mode of the .netrc file so it is
not readable by other users or remove the password from the file.
This is to prevent your password from being read by an unauthorized
user.
8.4  Macros


Macros are a single instruction that a program replaces by several,
usually, more complex instructions.  The ftp command to create a
macro definition is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  macdef macro-name                           ?
?                                                               ?
?  macro-name - the name of the macro                           ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

After the macdef command is given, all subsequent lines are stored
as a macro with the name macro_def.  Consecutive newline characters
or carriage returns terminate the input mode into the macro.  There
is a limit of 16 defined macros and a limit of 4096 characters in
all defined macros.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? ftp>macdef get_files                                          ?
? open erc780                                                   ?
? get file_1                                                    ?
? put result_2                                                  ?
? close                                                         ?
? ftp>                                                          ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In this example, the four lines of the macro can be executed simply
be entering get_files at the ftp prompt.  The macro will only exist
until the current ftp session is closed.
8.5  Filename Translation


Filename conventions differ from one computer to another, and FTP
will allow you to translate the name as it is transferred.  One
way is to specify the name of the file as it is to exist on the
local computer.  This is done by the argument on the put or get
command.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  put local-file [remote-file]                ?
?                                                               ?
?                   get remote-file [local-file]                ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


If you don't specify the remote-file (for the put command) or the
local-file (for the get command), the name will be the same on both
the local and remote computer.  This can cause a problem if you are
not aware of it.  There is an FTP command that will allow
the name to be translated automatically.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  nmap [inpattern outpattern]                 ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


If no arguments are supplied, it will set or unset the filename
mapping mechanism.  If arguments are specified, remote filenames
are mapped during mput (multiple file puts) and put (single file)
commands that are issued without a specified remote filename.

If arguments are specified, local filenames are mapped during mget
(multiple file gets) and get (single file) commands that are issued
without a specified local filename.

The mapping follows the pattern set by inpattern and outpattern.
Variable templating is done by including the sequences "$1",
"$2",...."$9 "in inpattern.  All other characters are treated
literally and are used to determine the nmap inpattern variable
values.

For example, say the inpattern was $1.$2 and the remote filename
is mydata.data, $1 would have the value mydata and $2 would have
the value data.  The outpattern determines the resulting mapped
filename.  The sequences "$1", "$2",..."$9", are replaced by the
value resulting from the inpattern template.  "$0" is replaced by
the original filename.
8.6  Aborting Transfers


Press the terminal interrupt key (usually Ctrl-C) to abort a file
transfer.  The sending transfer will stop immediately.  Receiving
transfers will be halted by FTP sending an ABOR command to the
remote server and discarding any further data that is received.


If the remote server doesn't support the ABOR protocol command the
ftp> prompt will not appear until the requested file has been sent.
8.7  More Remote Computer Commands

These commands can be useful when working with the directories on
the remote computer.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  cdup                                        ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This FTP command will change the remote machine current working
directory to the parent of the current working directory.


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  delete remote-file                          ?
?                                                               ?
?  remote-file  name of the file to delete                      ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This FTP command will delete the specified file.


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  mdelete [remote-files]                      ?
?                                                               ?
?  remote-files  names of the files to delete                   ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
This FTP command acts as a multiple delete.  It will delete all
the specified files.


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  mkdir directory-name                        ?
?                                                               ?
?  directory-name  the name of the directory to be created      ?
?                  on the remote computer.                      ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                                                                 
This FTP command will create a directory on the remote computer.


?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  rmdir directory-name                        ?
?                                                               ?
?  directory-name  the name of the directory on the remote      ?
?                  computer that will be removed.               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

This FTP command will remove the specified directory.

NOTE:     This command will not work with some remote servers.
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Workshop 8

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 9. Login to the Multimax using the username
and password given to you by the instructor.  Each student is to
complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES (10 minutes)


     1.   What FTP command is used to transfer more than one file
          at a time? What FTP command will give a prompt to you
          before each file is retrieved? Suggestion: there are two
          ways





     2.   What is the name of the file where the auto-login
          variables are found?  Extra credit: Why does this file
          begin with a dot (.)? 





     3.   How can the file in question the auto-login file be
          protected from unauthorized reading?





     4.   What do the following FTP commands do?


          cdup


          delete (tough question)


          mdelete (ditto)


          mkdir


          rmdir

                     Continue on the next page
COMPUTER EXERCISES (30 minutes)


     5.   Transfer all the files from on the VAX (erc830) to the
          domax1. Use only one command and use wildcards. The
          username and password for the VAX will be given to you
          by the instructor. 





     6.   Transfer the files from the VAX and this time translate
          the names of the files as they are transferred.





     7.   Create an auto-login file for the erc830 and
          then do an auto-login to the VAX.





     8.   Logout.
9.  OPTIONAL CHAPTER - KORNSHELL PROGRAMMING


The KornShell is a command-programming language that executes
commands read from a terminal or file.  The KornShell is close to
being upward compatible with the standard BourneShell.  For
example, scripts written for the BourneShell (sh) will also work
in the KornShell (ksh).  The major enhancements are command-line
reentry, in-line command editing, and aliasing.

This chapter will deal with some, not all, of the features that
differentiate it from the BourneShell.  For your information, here
is a list of features that have been enhanced from Bourne.
Improvements have been made as a command language, including
command-line editing, a command history mechanism, command-name
aliasing, job control, new capabilities for cd, and tilde
expansion.  

Improvements as a Programming Language include a more general I/O
mechanism, Menu selection primitive, Built-in integer arithmetic,
Substring operators, Array variables and attributes, More-general
function facility, Co-process facility, Easier to debug, Better
performance, and Better security.

The KornShell is a high level programming language and a command
line interpreter.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format: ksh [acefhikmnorstuvx] [ -o option]...[args] ?
?                                                               ?
?      See the appendix for a complete list of options          ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


9.1  KornShell Variables


The KornShell has variables that are initialized for you on login
such as:

PATH      Determine which directories are searched, sequentially
          for shell commands.

CDPATH    The directories that are searched for arguments to the
          "cd" command.

SHELL     The current interactive shell.

PWD       The present working directory.

IFS       Valid inter-field separators used to separate commands
          from arguments, arguments from each other and commands
          from each other.

EDITOR    Command line edit mode.

FCEDIT    Editor entered when using fc

TERM      Defines terminal capabilities

PS1       Primary shell prompt

PS2       Secondary shell prompt

PS3       Select command prompt

HOME      Home directory

ENV       File(s) to execute when entering this shell

LOGNAME   Login name of the user


The command line argument variables are also available:
$, $?, $*, $#, and the positionals ($0, $1, $2...etc)
9.2  User Defined Variables


These variables are similar to the BourneShell.  The general form
is VARIABLE=value.

No spaces are allowed around the =.  You can enclose them in double
quotes "=" or single quotes '=' for clarity.  No spaces are allowed
in "value".  These can also be enclosed in double or single quotes.
"value" can be a string or an expression.  The value of a variable
can be accessed by preceding the name of the variable with a dollar
sign ($).

Examples:
.................................................................
. $MyString'='"This is a string"                                .
. $MyStatic=47                                                  .
. $readonly Mystatic                                            .
.................................................................

The readonly command makes MyStatic read only (can't change the
contents).

Example:
.................................................................
. $typeset -i BIGINT=1492                                       .
.................................................................


This will make the variable integer for faster arithmetics:

.................................................................
. $typeset -i8 OCTINT=9                                         .
.................................................................


The output of OCTINT will be an octal integer; the assignment is
decimal.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $echo $OCTINT                                                 ?
? 8#11                                                          ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
9.3  Values of Variables Between Child and Parent Processes


Values in one shell are local only to that shell.  If a child
process or a subshell needs to have access to a value established
in its parent, the value must be exported from the parent.

     $typeset -i8 -x OCTINT=19


The -x option exports the variable OCTINT; subshells can read it,
but can't change the value in the parent.

     $MyString='Hi there'


At this point, the variable MyString is local to the current
process.  It is not available to a child process.

     $export MyString


Now the variable MyString is available to subshells.

To allow a subshell to change the content of an exported variable
and have that change be know to the parent, execute the child with
". program_name"

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat my.vars                                                  ?
? echo Variable coming into script: $PARENT                     ?
? PARENT='child value'                                          ?
? echo Variable coming out of the script: $PARENT               ?
? $PARENT='parent value'                                        ?
? $echo $PARENT                                                 ?
? parent value                                                  ?
? $my.vars                                                      ?
? Variable coming into script:                                  ?
? Variable coming out of the script: child value                ?
? $echo $PARENT                                                 ?
? parent value                                                  ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????


Sample session:
          
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $PARENT='parent value'                                        ?
? $echo $PARENT                                                 ?
? parent value                                                  ?
? $. my.vars                                                    ?
? Variable coming into the script: parent value                 ?
? Variable coming out of the script: child value                ?
? $echo $PARENT                                                 ?
? child value                                                   ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

9.4  ksh: Aliases

The first word of each command can be replaced by the text of an
alias if an alias for this word has been defined.  The first
character of an alias name can be any printable character, but the
remaining characters must be the same as any valid identifier.
Aliases can be created, listed, and exported with the alias
command.  They can be removed with the unalias command.

Aliasing is performed when scripts are read but not while they are
executed.  Therefore, for an alias to take effect the alias command
has to be executed before the command which references the alias
is read.

The format for the alias command is as shown below.

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  alias [-tx] [name=value]                    ?
?                                                               ?
?  -t = to set and list tracked aliases                         ?
?  -x = to set or display exported aliases                      ?
?                                                               ?
?  name = if specified, it must be a valid alias name           ?
?                                                               ?
?  value = value to equate with name                            ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Example:
.................................................................
. $alias                                                        .
.................................................................

The command alone will display all aliases.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $alias                                                        ?
? cd=c                                                          ?
? echo=print -                                                  ?
? false=let 0                                                   ?
? functions=typeset -f                                          ?
? hash=alias -t                                                 ?
? history=fc -l                                                 ?
? integer=typeset -i                                            ?
? monitor=/usr/lbin/top                                         ?
? nohup=nohup                                                   ?
? pwd=print - $PWD                                              ?
? r=fc -e -                                                     ?
? true=:                                                        ?
? type=whence -v                                                ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Suppose, instead of typing in the ls -la command to get a full,
long listing of the contents of the current directory, we want to
shorten the command to list.  Enter the following command to set
the alias.

Example:
.................................................................
. $alias list='ls -la'                                          .
.................................................................

Now when you type in the command list, the alias will substitute
the command ls -la for list; and the long listing will be
displayed.


Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $list                                                         ?
? total 54   0                                                  ?
? drwx------  4 teacher  class   2590  May 1 09:39  .           ?
? drwxr-xr-x 63 teacher  class   1536  Sep 9 13:11  ..          ?
? -rw-r--r--  1 teacher  class     64  Jul 4 10:33  .assistrc   ?
.                                                               .
.                                                               .

9.5  ksh: Command Line Editing

There are two forms of command-line editing in the KornShell. Both
use the command history in the file indicated by the KornShell
variable HISTFILE (default is HISTFILE=$HOME/.history).

Editing commands in the history file is accomplished with fc (fix
command).  To get a list of commands in the .history file, you
enter the fc -l command at the dollar ($).

By default, the alias history may also be used.

Editing a command in the .history file with the fc command is
controlled by the KornShell variable FCEDIT.  FCEDIT determines
the editor that the fc command will use.

Example:
.................................................................
.  $FCEDIT=/usr/bin/vi                                          .
.  $fc                                                          .
.................................................................

The KornShell variable causes the fc command to use the vi editor. 
The fc command, by itself, will take you into the vi editor with
the most recent command.  In this example, upon exiting the vi
editor, the edited command will be executed.

Example:
.................................................................
. $ct .profile                                                  .
. .profile: No such file or directory                           .
. $fc -e - ct=cat c                                             .
.................................................................

The first line is a deliberate mistake; notice the error message.
The fc command executes the most recent command that starts with
a "c" and changes the first occurrence of "ct" to "cat"; it doesn't
enter the editor.

Example:
.................................................................
. $ls /                                                         .
. $fc -e - ls=cd                                                .
.................................................................

The first command will list the contents of the root directory.
The fc command changes that command from "ls" to "cd"; the "-"
indicates that the line is to be edited instead of taken into the
editor before execution.
9.6  ksh: Interactive Command Line Editing


In this method of command-line editing, the EDITOR KornShell
variable controls the editing.

Example:
.................................................................
. $EDITOR=/usr/bin/vi                                           .
.................................................................


This command will put the KornShell in the vi editing mode.

To enter the edit history press Esc.

NOTE:     This example is for the vi edit mode only; emacs or 
          gmacs edit modes use different key stokes.

To move though the .history file use following keys:

     <k>                      Select the previous command

     <j>                      Select the next command

     <h>                      Next letter to the left

     <l>                      Next letter to the right


When the command line that you desire to change is displayed on
the screen, you can use the following commands to make changes:


     <i> insert chars Esc          Insert characters before the
                                   cursor

     <A> append chars Esc          Append characters at the end of
                                   the line

     <r> replacement char Esc      Change single character

     <cw> replacement word Esc     Change single word

     <x>                           Delete single character

     NOTE:     A number can precede the command as a count, for
               example, "3x" deletes 3 characters.

     <dw>                          Delete single word

     NOTE:     A number can precede the command as a count, for
               example, "2dw" deletes 2 words.

     (Ret)                         Execute the altered command


When the (Ret) key is pressed, the edited command line will be
executed.  History is not changed, but the new command is entered
into the .history file at the end.

These are not the only commands available with the interactive
command line editing.  You will find that the arrow keys will not
work while editing the command line.  Most of the editor features
will be available for you to use, depending upon which editor was
selected by the EDITOR shell variable.
9.7  ksh: Functions


Functions are similar to aliases, they run in the current KornShell
process and define a set of actions.  Positional parameters can be
referenced; other previously defined functions can be referenced;
nested function definitions are allowed with full visibility to all
definitions.

The function keyword is used to define KornShell functions.  The
functions are read in and stored internally.  Any alias names are
resolved when the function is read.  Functions are executed like
commands with arguments passed as positional parameters.

Functions execute in the same process as the caller and share all
files, traps, and present working directory with the caller.

The format for functions is:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:                                              ?
?                                                               ?
?  function  identifier                                         ?
?  {                                                            ?
?        compound list                                          ?
?  }                                                            ?
?                                                               ?
?  identifier - name by which the function is called            ?
?                                                               ?
?  compound list - The body of the function.                    ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The left bracket { and the right bracket } are considered to be
reserved words.  The body of the function must exist between the
two brackets.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $function k                                                   ?
? {                                                             ?
? cd /; ls -C;                                                  ?
? }                                                             ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

To execute the function, simply type the name of the function on
the command line.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $k                                                            ?
? bck          lib       tmp       user12         user5         ?
? bin          lost      tmp.ja    user13         user6         ?
? bsd          nbox      unix      user14         user7         ?
.                                                               .
.                                                               .
.                                                               .
9.8  ksh: The Select Construct


The "select" construct is unique to the KornShell.  It allows the
user to determine the action based on input from either the command
line (without an in list) or from an automatically prompted input. 
PS3 controls the "select" prompt.

The command format is as follows:
                                                                 
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?  Command Format:  select identifier [in list]                 ?
?                   do                                          ?
?                        commands                               ?
?                   done                                        ?
?                                                               ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

In the select command:

ksh will display the items in one or more columns on standard
error, each preceded by a number.  The PS3 prompt follows.  The
number of columns is determined by the values of COLUMNS and LINES.

ksh will then read a selection line from standard input.  If the
line is the number of one of the displayed items, ksh sets the
value of "identifier" to the item corresponding to this number. If
the line is empty, ksh again displays the list of items; and the
prompt is redisplayed.  The "commands" are not executed.

ksh saves the contents of the selection line read from standard
input in the KornShell variable REPLY.

ksh runs "commands" for each selection until ksh encounters a
break, return, or exit command in the "commands" list.
Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $cat select.ksh                                               ?
? stty erase                                                    ?
? select myselection in fred wilma pebbles barney betty         ?
? do                                                            ?
? case $myselection in                                          ?
?    fred)                                                      ?
?         echo Fred was the selection                           ?
?         ;;                                                    ?
?    wilma)                                                     ?
?         echo Wilma was the selection                          ?
?         ;;                                                    ?
?    pebbles)                                                   ?
?         echo Pebbles was the selection                        ?
?         ;;                                                    ?
?    barney)                                                    ?
?         echo Barney was the selection                         ?
?         ;;                                                    ?
?    betty)                                                     ?
?         echo Betty was the selection                          ?
?         ;;                                                    ?
? esac                                                          ?
? done                                                          ?
? $chmod 755 select.ksh                                         ?
? $select.ksh                                                   ?
? 1) fred                                                       ?
? 2) wilma                                                      ?
? 3) pebbles                                                    ?
? 4) barney                                                     ?
? 5) betty                                                      ?
? #? 3                                                          ?
? Pebbles was the selection                                     ?
? #? 5                                                          ?
? Betty was the selection                                       ?
? #? 6                                                          ?
? #? 4                                                          ?
? Barney was the selection                                      ?
? # Ctrl-C                                                      ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
9.9  ksh: Tracing and Conditional Execution


A KornShell script that is not executable can be run implicitly
with the ksh command.  Tracing can be accomplished using the
-v or the -x option.

Sample Session:

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
? $ls -l select.ksh                                             ?
? -rw-r--r-- 1 teacher class 390 Oct 16 09:21 select.ksh        ?
? $ksh -x select.ksh                                            ?
? + stty erase                                                  ?
? 1) fred                                                       ?
? 2) wilma                                                      ?
? 3) pebbles                                                    ?
? 4) barney                                                     ?
? 5) betty                                                      ?
? #? 3                                                          ?
? + print - Pebbles was the selection                           ?
? Pebbles was the selection                                     ?
? #? 5                                                          ?
? + print - Betty was the selection                             ?
? Betty was the selection                                       ?
? #? 6                                                          ?
? #? 4                                                          ?
? + print - Barney was the selection                            ?
? Barney was the selection                                      ?
? #? Ctrl-C                                                     ?
? $                                                             ?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The -n option will trace execution of the script without execution.
Workshop 9

This workshop will reinforce your understanding of the ideas
presented in Chapter 10. Login to the Multimax using the username
and password given to you by the instructor.  Each student is to
complete the entire workshop.

DESK EXERCISES


     1.   What command will invoke the KornShell?







     2.   What option will trace execution of a KornShell script?






                     Continue on the next page
     3.   What do the following shell variables indicate:


          PATH


          CDPATH


          SHELL


          PWD


          IFS


          EDITOR


          FCEDIT


          TERM


          PS1


          PS2


          PS3  


          HOME


          ENV


          LOGNAME



                     Continue on the next page
          4.   What is an alias?






COMPUTER EXERCISES (30 minutes)


     5.   Define a function k that will:

          Display the present working directory, display a message
          that a listing will follow, sleep for three seconds, and
          then list the contents.







     6.   Set up an alias to do the ls -C function. Use a name of
          your own choice.







     7.   Write a KornShell script using the  select command to
          display the following choices:

          Apples
          Bananas
          Pears
          Jack Daniels

          After a choice has been made print the following:

          "Thanks, your choice was" (display the choice)



     8.   Logout





                     Continue on the next page
                  Complete the Summary Workshop 

                                and

                         Course Evaluation
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX A - sh


NAME
     sh, rsh - shell, the standard/restricted command programming
     language

SYNOPSIS
     sh [ -acefhiknrstuvx ] [ args ]
     rsh [ -acefhiknrstuvx ] [ args ]

DESCRIPTION                                                                   
     sh is a command programming language that executes commands
     read from a terminal or a file.  rsh is a restricted version
     of the standard command interpreter sh; it is used to set up
     login names and execution environments whose capabilities
     are more controlled than those of the standard shell.  See
     Invocation below for the meaning of arguments to the shell.
                                                                
                                                                
   Definitions                                                          
     A blank is a tab or a space.  A name is a sequence of
     letters, digits, or underscores beginning with a letter or
     underscore.  A parameter is a name, a digit, or any of the         
     characters *, @, #, ?, -, $, and !.                                
                                                                        
   Commands                                                             
     A simple-command is a sequence of non-blank words separated        
     by blanks.  The first word specifies the name of the command       
     to be executed.  Except as specified below, the remaining          
     words are passed as arguments to the invoked command.  The         
     command name is passed as argument 0 (see exec(2)).  The           
     value of a simple-command is its exit status if it                 
     terminates normally, or (octal) 200+status if it terminates        
     abnormally (see signal(2) for a list of status values).            
                                                                        
     A pipeline is a sequence of one or more commands separated         
     by |.  The standard output of each command but the last is         
     connected by a pipe(2) to the standard input of the next           
     command.  Each command is run as a separate process; the           
     shell waits for the last command to terminate.  The exit           
     status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last command.       
                                                                        
     A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by         
     ;, &, &&, or ||, and optionally terminated by ; or &.  Of          
     these four symbols, ; and & have equal precedence, which is        
     lower than that of && and ||.  The symbols && and || also          
     have equal precedence.  A semicolon (;) causes sequential         
     execution of the preceding pipeline; an ampersand (&) causes      
     asynchronous execution of the preceding pipeline (i.e., the       
     shell does not wait for that pipeline to finish).  The            
     symbol && (||) causes the list following it to be executed        
     only if the preceding pipeline returns a zero (non-zero)          
     exit status.  An arbitrary number of new-lines may appear in      
     a list, instead of semicolons, to delimit commands.               
                                                                       
     A command is either a simple-command or one of the                
     following.  Unless otherwise stated, the value returned by a
     command is that of the last simple-command executed in the        
     command.                                                          
                                                                       
     for name [ in word ... ] do list done                             
          Each time a for command is executed, name is set to the      
          next word taken from the in word list.  If in word ...       
          is omitted, then the for command executes the do list        
          once for each positional parameter that is set (see          
          Parameter Substitution below).  Execution ends when          
          there are no more words in the list.                         
    case word in [ pattern [ | pattern ] ... ) list ;; ] ... esac      
          A case command executes the list associated with the         
          first pattern that matches word.  The form of the            
          patterns is the same as that used for file-name              
          generation (see File Name Generation) except that a
          slash, a leading dot, or a dot immediately following a
          slash need not be matched explicitly.                        
   if list then list [ elif list then list ] ... [ else list ] fi      
          The list following if is executed and, if it returns a
          zero exit status, the list following the first then is
          executed.  Otherwise, the list following elif is      
          executed and, if its value is zero, the list following
          the next then is executed.  Failing that, the else lis
          is executed.  If no else list or then list is executed
          then the if command returns a zero exit status.       
     while list do list done                                    
          A while command repeatedly executes the while list and
          if the exit status of the last command in the list is 
          zero, executes the do list; otherwise the loop        
          terminates.  If no commands in the do list are        
          executed, then the while command returns a zero exit  
          status; until may be used in place of while to negate 
          the loop termination test.                            
     (list)                                                     
          Execute list in a sub-shell.                         
     { list; }                                                 
          list is executed in the current (that is, parent)    
          shell.                                               
     name () { list; }                                         
          Define a function which is referenced by name.  The  
          body of the function is the list of commands between {
          and }.  Execution of functions is described below (see        
          Execution).                                                   
                                                                        
     The following words are only recognized as the first word of       
     a command and when not quoted:                                     
                                                                        
          if  then  else  elif  fi  case  esac  for  while  until       
          do  done  {}                                                  
                                                                        
   Comments                                                             
     A word beginning with # causes that word and all the               
     following characters up to a new-line to be ignored.               
                                                                        
   Command Substitution                                                 
     The shell reads commands from the string between two grave         
     accents (``) and the standard output from these commands may       
     be used as all or part of a word.  Trailing new-lines from         
     the standard output are removed.                                   
                                                                        
     No interpretation is done on the string before the string is       
     read, except to remove backslashes (\) used to escape other        
     characters.  Backslashes may be used to escape a grave             
     accent (`) or another backslash (\) and are removed before         
     the command string is read.  Escaping grave accents allows         
     nested command substitution.  If the command substitution          
     lies within a pair of double quotes (" ...` ...` ... "), a
     backslash used to escape a double quote (\") will be                
     removed; otherwise, it will be left intact.                        
                                                                        
     If a backslash is used to escape a new-line character              
     (\new-line), both the backslash and the new-line are removed       
     (see the later section on Quoting).  In addition,                  
     backslashes used to escape dollar signs (\$) are removed.          
     Since no interpretation is done on the command string before       
     it is read, inserting a backslash to escape a dollar sign          
     has no effect.  Backslashes that precede characters other          
     than \, `, ", new-line, and $ are left intact when the             
     command string is read.                                            
                                                                        
   Parameter Substitution                                               
     The character $ is used to introduce substitutable                 
     parameters.  There are two types of parameters, positional         
     and keyword.  If parameter is a digit, it is a positional          
     parameter.  Positional parameters may be assigned values by        
     set.  Keyword parameters (also known as variables) may be          
     assigned values by writing:                                        
                                                                        
          name=value [ name=value ] ...                                 
                                                                        
     Pattern-matching is not performed on value.  There cannot be       
     a function and a variable with the same name.                      
                                                                        
     ${parameter}                                                       
          The value, if any, of the parameter is substituted.           
          The braces are required only when parameter is followed       
          by a letter, digit, or underscore that is not to be           
          interpreted as part of its name.  If parameter is * or        
          @, all the positional parameters, starting with $1, are       
          substituted (separated by spaces).  Parameter $0 is set       
          from argument zero when the shell is invoked.                 
     ${parameter:-word}                                                 
          If parameter is set and is non-null, substitute its           
          value; otherwise substitute word.                             
     ${parameter:=word}                                                 
          If parameter is not set or is null set it to word; the        
          value of the parameter is substituted.  Positional            
          parameters may not be assigned to in this way.                
     ${parameter:?word}                                                 
          If parameter is set and is non-null, substitute its           
          value; otherwise, print word and exit from the shell.         
          If word is omitted, the message "parameter null or not        
          set" is printed.                                              
     ${parameter:+word}                                                 
          If parameter is set and is non-null, substitute word;         
          otherwise substitute nothing.                                
                                                                       
     In the above, word is not evaluated unless it is to be used       
     as the substituted string, so that, in the following              
     example, pwd is executed only if d is not set or is null:        
                                                                      
          echo ${d:-`pwd`}                                            
                                                                      
     If the colon (:) is omitted from the above expressions, the      
     shell only checks whether parameter is set or not.               
                                                                      
     The following parameters are automatically set by the shell:     
          #    The number of positional parameters in decimal.        
          -    Flags supplied to the shell on invocation or by         
               the set command.                                        
          ?    The decimal value returned by the last                
               synchronously executed command.                       
          $    The process number of this shell.                     
          !    The process number of the last background command     
               invoked.                                               
                                                                      
     The following parameters are used by the shell:                  
          HOME  The default argument (home directory) for the cd      
                command.                                              
          PATH  The search path for commands (see Execution           
                   below).  The user may not change PATH if                   
         executing under rsh.                                     
          CDPATH                                                  
                The search path for the cd command.               
          MAIL  If this parameter is set to the name of a mail    
                file and the MAILPATH parameter is not set, the   
                shell informs the user of the arrival of mail in  
                the specified file.                               
          MAILCHECK                                               
                This parameter specifies how often (in seconds)       
                the shell will check for the arrival of mail in       
                the files specified by the MAILPATH or MAIL           
                parameters.  The default value is 600 seconds (10     
                minutes).  If set to 0, the shell will check          
                before each prompt.                                   
          MAILPATH                                                   
                A colon (:) separated list of file names.  If         
                this parameter is set, the shell informs the user    
                of the arrival of mail in any of the specified       
                files. Each file name can be followed by % and a
                message that will be printed when the                
                modification time changes.  The default message      
                is you have mail.                                      
          PS1   Primary prompt string, by default "$ ".                
          PS2   Secondary prompt string, by default "> ".              
          IFS   Internal field separators, normally space, tab,        
                and new-line.                                          
          SHACCT                                               
                If this parameter is set to the name of a file 
                writable by the user, the shell will write an          
                accounting record in the file for each shell           
                procedure executed.  Accounting routines such as       
                acctcom(1) and acctcms(1M) can be used to analyze      
                the data collected.                                   
          SHELL When the shell is invoked, it scans the                
                environment (see Environment below) for this           
                name.  If it is found and 'rsh' is the file name       
                part of its value, the shell becomes a restricted      
                shell.                                                 
                                                                       
     The shell gives default values to PATH, PS1, PS2, MAILCHECK       
     and IFS.  HOME and MAIL are set by login(1).                      
                                                                       
   Blank Interpretation                                                
     After parameter and command substitution, the results of         
     substitution are scanned for internal field separator            
     characters (those found in IFS) and split into distinct          
     arguments where such characters are found.  Explicit null        
     arguments ("" or '') are retained.  Implicit null arguments      
     (those resulting from parameters that have no values) are        
     removed.                                                        
                                                                     
   Input/Output                                                       
     A command's input and output may be redirected using a
     special notation interpreted by the shell.  The following     
     may appear anywhere in a simple-command or may precede or     
     follow a command and are not passed on to the invoked            
     command; substitution occurs before word or digit is used:       
                                                                      
     <word         Use file word as standard input (file              
                   descriptor 0).                                     
     >word         Use file word as standard output (file             
                   descriptor 1).  If the file does not exist it      
                   is created; otherwise, it is truncated to zero     
                   length.                                            
     >>word        Use file word as standard output.  If the file     
                   exists output is appended to it (by first          
                   seeking to the end-of-file); otherwise, the        
                   file is created.                                   
     <<[-]word     After parameter and command substitution are       
                   done on word, the shell input is read up to        
                   the first line that literally matches the          
                   resulting word, or to an end-of-file.  If,         
                   however, - is appended to <<:                      
                   1)  leading tabs are stripped from word before     
                       the shell input is read (but after             
                       parameter and command substitution is done     
                       on word),                                      
                   2)  leading tabs are stripped from the shell       
                       input as it is read and before each line       
                       is compared with word, and                     
                   3)  shell input is read up to the first line       
                       that literally matches the resulting word,     
                       or to an end-of-file.                          
                   If any character of word is quoted (see            
                   Quoting, later), no additional processing is       
                   done to the shell input.  If no characters of      
                   word are quoted:                                   
                   1)  parameter and command substitution occurs,     
                   2)  (escaped) \newline is ignored, and             
                   3)  \ must be used to quote the characters \,      
                       $, and `.                                       
                   The resulting document becomes the standard         
                   input.                                              
     <&digit       Use the file associated with file descriptor        
                   digit as standard input.  Similarly for the         
                   standard output using >&digit.                     
     <&-           The standard input is closed.  Similarly for       
                   the standard output using >&--.                    
                                                                      
     If any of the above is preceded by a digit, the file             
     descriptor which will be associated with the file is that        
     specified by the digit (instead of the default 0 or 1).  For     
     example:                                                         
                                                                      
          ... 2>&1                                                    
                                                                      
     associates file descriptor 2 with the file currently             
     associated with file descriptor 1.                               
                                                                      
     The order in which redirections are specified is                 
     significant.  The shell evaluates redirections left-to-          
     right.  For example:                                             
                                                                     
          ... 1>xxx  2>&1                                            
                                                                      
     first associates file descriptor 1 with file xxx.  It            
     associates file descriptor 2 with the file associated with       
     file descriptor 1 (i.e. xxx).  It directs both standard          
     output and standard error output (stdout, stderr) to xxx.        
     If the order of redirections were reversed, file descriptor      
     2 would be associated with the terminal (assuming file           
     descriptor 1 had been) and file descriptor 1 would be            
     associated with file xxx.                                        
                                                                      
     Using the terminology introduced on the first page, under       
     Commands, if a command is composed of several simple            
     commands, redirection will be evaluated for the entire           
     command before it is evaluated for each simple command.          
     That is, the shell evaluates redirection for the entire          
     list, then each pipeline within the list, the each command       
     within each pipeline, then each list within each command.        
                                                                      
     If a command is followed by & the default standard input for    
     the command is the empty file /dev/null.  Otherwise, the        
     environment for the execution of a command contains the file    
     descriptors of the invoking shell as modified by                
     input/output specifications.                                    
                                                                   
     Redirection of output is not allowed in the restricted        
     shell.                                                           
                                                                      
   File Name Generation                                                
     Before a command is executed, each command word is scanned        
     for the characters *, ?, and [.  If one of these characters      
     appears, the word is regarded as a pattern.  The word is         
     replaced with alphabetically sorted file names that match         
     the pattern.  If no file name is found that matches the          
     pattern, the word is left unchanged.  The character . at the     
     start of a file name or immediately following a /, as well       
     as the character / itself, must be matched explicitly.           
                                                                    
          *       Matches any string, including the null string.    
          ?       Matches any single character.                     
          [...]   Matches any one of the enclosed characters.  A
                  pair of characters separated by - matches any     
                  character lexically between the pair,             
                  inclusive.  If the first character following      
                  the opening "[" is a "!" any character not        
                  enclosed is matched.                              
                                                                    
   Quoting                                                          
     The following characters have a special meaning to the shell  
     and cause termination of a word unless quoted:                
                                                                   
          ;  &  (  )  |  ^  <  >  new-line  space  tab
                                                                   
     A character may be quoted (i.e., made to stand for itself)    
     by preceding it with a backslash (\) or inserting it between 
     a pair of quote marks ('' or "").  During processing, the    
     shell may quote certain characters to prevent them from      
     taking on a special meaning. Backslashes used to quote a
     single character are removed from the word before the       
     command is executed.  The pair \newline is removed from a
     word before command and parameter substitution.             
                                                                 
     All characters enclosed between a pair of single quote marks
     (''), except a single quote, are quoted by the shell.      
     Backslash has no special meaning inside a pair of single   
     quotes.  A single quote may be quoted inside a pair of    
     double quote marks (for example, "'").                    
                                                               
     Inside a pair of double quote marks (""), parameter and   
     command substitution occurs and the shell quotes the results  
     to avoid blank interpretation and file name generation. If    
     $* is within a pair of double quotes, the positional          
     parameters are substituted and quoted, separated by quoted    
     spaces ("$1 $2 ..."); however, if $@ is within a pair of        
     double quotes, the positional parameters are substituted and    
     quoted, separated by unquoted spaces ("$1" "$2" ...).  \        
     quotes the characters \, `, ", and $.  The pair \newline is     
     removed before parameter and command substitution.  If a
     backslash precedes characters other than \, `, ", $, and        
     new-line, the backslash itself is quoted by the shell.          
                                                                     
   Prompting                                                         
     When used interactively, the shell prompts with the value of    
     PS1 before reading a command.  If at any time a new-line is      
     typed and further input is needed to complete a command, the     
     secondary prompt (i.e., the value of PS2) is issued.             
                                                                       
   Environment                                                         
     The environment (see environ(5)) is a list of name-value          
     pairs that is passed to an executed program in the same way       
     as a normal argument list.  The shell interacts with the         
     environment in several ways.  On invocation, the shell scans     
     the environment and creates a parameter for each name found,     
     giving it the corresponding value.  If the user modifies the     
     value of any of these parameters or creates new parameters,      
     none of these affects the environment unless the export          
     command is used to bind the shell's parameter to the             
     environment (see also set -a).  A parameter may be removed       
     from the environment with the unset command.  The                
     environment seen by any executed command is thus composed of     
     any unmodified name-value pairs originally inherited by the      
     shell, minus any pairs removed by unset, plus any                
     modifications or additions, all of which must be noted in         
     export commands.                                                  
                                                                       
     The environment for any simple-command may be augmented by        
     prefixing it with one or more assignments to parameters.          
     Thus:                                                             
                                                                       
          TERM=450 cmd                                                 
     and                                                               
          (export TERM; TERM=450; cmd)                                 
                                                                       
     are equivalent (as far as the execution of cmd is                 
     concerned).                                                       
                                                                       
     If the -k flag is set, all keyword arguments are placed in        
     the environment, even if they occur after the command name.       
     The following first prints a=b c and c:                          
                                                                      
          echo a=b c                                                 
          set -k                                                     
          echo a=b c                                                   
                                                                       
   Signals                                                             
     The INTERRUPT and QUIT signals for an invoked command are         
     ignored if the command is followed by &; otherwise signals       
     have the values inherited by the shell from its parent, with     
     the exception of signal 11 (SIGSEGV) (but see also the trap      
     command below).  See nohup(1) for more signal handling.          
                                                                       
   Execution                                                           
     Each time a command is executed, the above substitutions are      
     carried out.  If the command name matches one of the Special      
     Commands listed below, it is executed in the shell process.       
     If the command name does not match a Special Command, but         
     matches the name of a defined function, the function is          
     executed in the shell process (note how this differs from        
     the execution of shell procedures).  The positional               
     parameters $1, $2, ....  are set to the arguments of the          
     function.  If the command name matches neither a Special          
     Command nor the name of a defined function, a new process is      
     created and an attempt is made to execute the command via
     exec(2).                                                          
                                                                       
     The shell parameter PATH defines the search path for the          
     directory containing the command.  Alternative directory         
     names are separated by a colon (:).  The default path is         
     :/bin:/usr/bin (specifying the current directory, /bin, and       
     /usr/bin, in that order).  Note that the current directory        
     is specified by a null path name, which can appear                
     immediately after the equal sign or between the colon             
     delimiters anywhere else in the path list.  If the command        
     name contains a / the search path is not used; such commands      
     will not be executed by the restricted shell.  Otherwise,         
     each directory in the path is searched for an executable          
     file.  If the file has execute permission but is not an          
     a.out file, it is assumed to be a file containing shell          
     commands.  A sub-shell is spawned to read it.  A
     parenthesized command is also executed in a sub-shell.           
                                                                      
     The location in the search path where a command was found is     
     remembered by the shell (to help avoid unnecessary execs         
     later).  If the command was found in a relative directory,       
     its location must be re-determined whenever the current         
     directory changes.  The shell forgets all remembered            
     locations whenever the PATH variable is changed or the hash      
     -r command is executed (see below).                              
                                                                      
   Special Commands                                                   
     Input/output redirection is now permitted for these              
     commands.  File descriptor 1 is the default output location.     
                                                                      
     :                                                                
          No effect; the command does nothing.  A zero exit code      
          is returned.                                                
     . file                                                           
          Read and execute commands from file and return.  The        
          search path specified by PATH is used to find the           
          directory containing file.                                    
     break [ n ]                                                       
          Exit from the enclosing for or while loop, if any.  If      
          n is specified break n levels.                              
     continue [ n ]                                                  
          Resume the next iteration of the enclosing for or while    
          loop.  If n is specified resume at the nth enclosing       
          loop.                                                      
     cd [ arg ]                                                      
          Change the current directory to arg.  The shell             
          parameter HOME is the default arg.  The shell parameter     
          CDPATH defines the search path for the directory             
          containing arg.  Alternative directory names are             
          separated by a colon (:).  The default path is <null>        
          (specifying the current directory).  Note that the           
          current directory is specified by a null path name,          
          which can appear immediately after the equal sign or         
          between the colon delimiters anywhere else in the path     
          list.  If arg begins with a / the search path is not       
          used.  Otherwise, each directory in the path is             
          searched for arg.  The cd command may not be executed       
          by rsh.                                                     
     echo [ arg ... ]                                                 
          Echo arguments. See echo(1) for usage and description.      
     eval [ arg ... ]                                                 
          The arguments are read as input to the shell and the        
          resulting command(s) executed.                            
     exec [ arg ... ]                                                 
          The command specified by the arguments is executed in       
          place of this shell without creating a new process.         
          Input/output arguments may appear and, if no other          
          arguments are given, cause the shell input/output to be     
          modified.                                                   
     exit [ n ]                                                       
          Causes a shell to exit with the exit status specified       
          by n.  If n is omitted the exit status is that of the       
          last command executed (an end-of-file will also cause       
          the shell to exit.)                                          
     export [ name ... ]                                               
          The given names are marked for automatic export to the       
          environment of subsequently-executed commands.  If no        
          arguments are given, a list of all names that are            
          exported in this shell is printed.  (Variable names         
          exported from a parent shell are listed only if they        
          have been exported again during the current shell's         
          execution.) Function names may not be exported.             
     getopts                                                          
          Use in shell script to support command syntax standards     
          (see intro(1)); it parses positional parameters and         
          checks for legal options.  See getopts(1) for usage and     
          description.                                                
     hash [ -r ] [ name ... ]                                         
          For each name, the location in the search path of the       
          command specified by name is determined and remembered      
          by the shell.  The -r option causes the shell to forget     
          all remembered locations.  If no arguments are given,       
          information about remembered commands is presented.         
          hits is the number of times a command has been invoked      
          by the shell process.  cost is a measure of the work        
          required to locate a command in the search path.  If a
          command is found in a "relative" directory in the           
          search path, after changing to that directory, the          
          stored location of that command is recalculated.            
          Commands for which this will be done are indicated by       
          an asterisk (*) adjacent to the hits information.  cost     
          will be incremented when the recalculation is done.         
     newgrp [ arg ... ]                                               
          Equivalent to exec newgrp arg ....  See newgrp(1M) for      
          usage and description.                                      
     pwd                                                              
          Print the current working directory.  See pwd(1) for         
          usage and description.                                      
     read [ name ... ]                                                
          One line is read from the standard input and, using the     
          internal field separator, IFS (normally space or tab),     
          to delimit word boundaries, the first word is assigned     
          to the first name, the second word to the second name,     
          etc., with leftover words assigned to the last name.        
          Lines can be continued using \new-line.  Characters        
          other than new-line can be quoted by preceding them        
          with a backslash.  These backslashes are removed before     
          words are assigned to names, and no interpretation is       
          done on the character that follows the backslash.  The      
          return code is 0 unless an end-of-file is encountered.      
     readonly [ name ... ]                                            
          The given names are marked readonly and the values of       
          these names may not be changed by subsequent                
          assignment.  If no arguments are given, a list of all       
          readonly names is printed.                                  
     return [ n ]                                                      
          Causes a function to exit with the return value              
          specified by n.  If n is omitted, the return status is       
          that of the last command executed.                           
     set [ --aefhkntuvx [ arg ... ] ]                                 
          -a
 Mark variables which are modified or created for        
               export.                                   
          -e   Exit immediately if a command exits with a non-    
               zero exit status.                                  
          -f   Disable file name generation.                      
          -h   Locate and remember function commands as functions 
               are defined (function commands are normally           
               located when the function is executed).               
          -k   All keyword arguments are placed in the               
               environment for a command, not just those that        
               precede the command name.                              
          -n   Read commands but do not execute them.                 
          -t   Exit after reading and executing one command.          
          -u   Treat unset variables as an error when                 
               substituting.                                          
          -v   Print shell input lines as they are read.              
          -x   Print commands and their arguments as they are        
               executed.                                              
          --   Do not change any of the flags; useful in setting      
               $1 to -.                                              
          Using + rather than - causes these flags to be turned      
          off.  These flags can also be used upon invocation of      
          the shell.  The current set of flags may be found in       
          $-.  The remaining arguments are positional parameters       
          and are assigned, in order, to $1, $2, ....  If no           
          arguments are given the values of all names are           
          printed.                                                  
     shift [ n ]                                                    
          The positional parameters from $n+1 ... are renamed $1       
          ....  If n is not given, it is assumed to be 1.            
     test                                                            
          Evaluate conditional expressions. See test(1) for usage     
          and description.                                            
     times                                                            
          Print the accumulated user and system times for             
          processes run from the shell.                               
     trap [ arg ] [ n ] ...                                           
          The command arg is to be read and executed when the         
          shell receives signal(s) n.  (Note that arg is scanned      
          once when the trap is set and once when the trap is         
          taken.) Trap commands are executed in order of signal       
          number.  Any attempt to set a trap on a signal that was     
          ignored on entry to the current shell is ineffective.       
          An attempt to trap on signal 11 (memory fault) produces     
          an error.  If arg is absent all trap(s) n are reset to      
          their original values.  If arg is the null string this      
          signal is ignored by the shell and by the commands it       
          invokes.  If n is 0 the command arg is executed on exit     
          from the shell.  The trap command with no arguments         
          prints a list of commands associated with each signal       
          number.                                                     
     type [ name ... ]                                                
          For each name, indicate how it would be interpreted if      
          used as a command name.                                     
     ulimit [ n ]                                                     
          Impose a size limit of n blocks on files written by the     
          shell and its child processes (files of any size may be     
          read).  If n is omitted, the current limit is printed.      
          Each user may lower the ulimit, but only a super-user       
          (see su(1M)) can raise a ulimit.                            
     umask [ nnn ]                                                    
          The user file-creation mask is set to nnn (see              
          umask(1)).  If nnn is omitted, the current value of the     
          mask is printed.                                            
     unset [ name ... ]                                               
          For each name, remove the corresponding variable or         
          function.  The variables PATH, PS1, PS2, MAILCHECK and      
          IFS cannot be unset.                                        
     wait [ n ]                                                       
          Wait for a background process whose process ID is n and     
          report its termination status.  If n is omitted, all        
          the shell's currently active background processes are       
          waited for and the return code will be zero.                
                                                                     
   Invocation                                                        
     If the shell is invoked through exec(2) and the first           
     character of argument zero is -, commands are initially read    
     from /etc/profile and from $HOME/.profile, if such files        
     exist.  Thereafter, commands are read as described below,       
     which is also the case when the shell is invoked as /bin/sh.    
     The flags below are interpreted by the shell on invocation      
     only.  Note that unless the -c or -s flag is specified, the     
     first argument is assumed to be the name of a file              
     containing commands, and the remaining arguments are passed     
     as positional parameters to that command file:                  
                                                                      
     -c string If the -c flag is present commands are read from       
               string.                                                
     -s        If the -s flag is present or if no arguments           
               remain commands are read from the standard input.      
               Any remaining arguments specify the positional         
               parameters.  Shell output (except for Special          
               Commands) is written to file descriptor 2.             
     -i        If the -i flag is present or if the shell input        
               and output are attached to a terminal, this shell      
               is interactive.  In this case TERMINATE is ignored     
               (so that kill 0 does not kill an interactive           
               shell) and INTERRUPT is caught and ignored (so         
               that wait is interruptible).  In all cases, QUIT       
               is ignored by the shell.                               
     -r        If the -r flag is present the shell is a
               restricted shell.                       
                                                                     
     The remaining flags and arguments are described under the       
     set command above.                                              
                                                                     
   rsh Only                                                          
     rsh is used to set up login names and execution environments    
     whose capabilities are more controlled than those of the        
     standard shell.  The actions of rsh are identical to those       
     of sh, except that the following are disallowed:                 
                                                                      
          changing directory (see cd(1)),                             
          setting the value of $PATH,                                 
          specifying path or command names containing /,              
          redirecting output (> and >>).                              
                                                                      
     The restrictions above are enforced after .profile is            
     interpreted.                                                     
                                                                      
     A restricted shell can be invoked in one of the following        
     ways: (1) rsh is the file name part of the last entry in the     
     /etc/passwd file (see passwd(4)); (2) the environment            
     variable SHELL exists and rsh is the file name part of its       
     value; (3) the shell is invoked and rsh is the file name         
     part of argument 0; (4) the shell is invoked with the -r         
     option.                                                          
                                                                      
     When a command to be executed is found to be a shell             
     procedure, rsh invokes sh to execute it.  Thus, it is            
     possible to provide to the end-user shell procedures that        
     have access to the full power of the standard shell, while       
     imposing a limited menu of commands; this scheme assumes         
     that the end-user does not have write and execute                
     permissions in the same directory.                               
                                                                      
     The net effect of these rules is that the writer of the          
     .profile has complete control over user actions, by              
     performing guaranteed setup actions and leaving the user in      
     an appropriate directory (probably not the login directory).     
                                                                      
     The system administrator often sets up a directory of            
     commands (i.e., /usr/rbin) that can be safely invoked by         
     rsh.  Some systems also provide a restricted editor red.         
                                                                      
EXIT STATUS                                                           
     Errors detected by the shell, such as syntax errors, cause       
     the shell to return a non-zero exit status.  If the shell is     
     being used non-interactively execution of the shell file is      
     abandoned.  Otherwise, the shell returns the exit status of      
     the last command executed (see also the exit command above).     
                                                                      
FILES                                                                 
     /etc/profile                                                     
     $HOME/profile                                                    
     /tmp/sh*                                                         
     /dev/null                                                        
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     acctcom(1), cd(1), echo(1), env(1), ksh(1), login(1),            
     pwd(1), test(1), umask(1).                                       
     acctcms(1M), newgrp(1M), su(1M) in the UMAX V                    
     Administrator's Reference Manual.                                
     dup(2), exec(2), fork(2), pipe(2), signal(2), ulimit(2),         
     wait(2), a.out(4), passwd(4), profile(4), environ(5) in the      
     UMAX V Programmer's Reference Manual.                            
                                                                      
CAVEATS                                                               
     Words used for filenames in input/output redirection are not     
     interpreted for filename generation (see File Name               
     Generation, above).  For example, cat file1 > a* will create     
     a file named a*.                                                 
                                                                      
     Because commands in pipelines are run as separate processes,     
     variables set in a pipeline have no effect on the parent         
     shell.                                                           
                                                                      
     If the error message cannot fork, too many processes is          
     displayed, try using the wait(1) command to clean up the         
     background processes.  If this does not help, the system         
     process table is probably full or there are too many active      
     foreground processes.  (There is a limit to the number of        
     process IDs associated with a login and to the number of         
     which the system can keep track.)                                
BUGS                                                                  
     If a command is executed, and a command with the same name       
     is installed in a directory in the search path before the        
     directory where the original command was found, the shell        
     will continue to exec the original command.  Use the hash        
     command to correct this situation.                               
                                                                      
     If the current directory or one above it is moved, pwd may       
     not give the correct response.  Use the cd command with a
     full path name to correct this situation.                        
                                                                      
     Not all the processes of a 3- or more-stage pipeline are         
     children of the shell, and thus cannot be waited for.            
                                                                      
     For wait n, if n is not an active process id, all the            
     shell's currently active background processes are waited for     
     and the return code will be zero.                          
    
                                  NOTES
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX B - test


$man test                                                             
                                                                      
NAME                                                                  
     test - condition evaluation command                              
                                                                      
SYNOPSIS                                                              
     test expr                                                        
     [ expr ]                                                         
                                                                      
DESCRIPTION                                                           
     test evaluates the expression expr and, if its value is          
     true, returns a zero (true) exit status; otherwise, a non-       
     zero (false) exit status is returned; test also returns a
     non-zero exit status if there are no arguments.  When            
     permissions are tested, the effective user ID of the process     
     is used.                                                         
                                                                      
     All operators, flags, and brackets (brackets used as shown       
     in the second SYNOPSIS line) must be separate arguments to       
     the test command; normally these items are separated by          
     spaces.                                                          
                                                                      
     The following primitives are used to construct expr:             
                                                                      
     -r file     true if file exists and is readable.                 
                                                                      
     -w file     true if file exists and is writable.                 
                                                                      
     -x file     true if file exists and is executable.               
                                                                      
     -f file     true if file exists and is a regular file.           
                                                                      
     -d file     true if file exists and is a directory.              
                                                                      
     -c file     true if file exists and is a character special       
                 file.                                                
                                                                      
     -b file     true if file exists and is a block special file.     
                                                                      
     -p file     true if file exists and is a named pipe (fifo).      
                                                                      
     -u file     true if file exists and its set-user-ID bit is       
                 set.                                                 
                                                                      
     -g file     true if file exists and its set-group-ID bit is      
                 set.                                                 
                                                                      
     -k file     true if file exists and its sticky bit is set.       
                                                                      
     -s file     true if file exists and has a size greater than      
                 zero.                                                
                                                                      
     -t [ fildes ]                                                    
                 true if the open file whose file descriptor          
                 number is fildes (1 by default) is associated        
                 with a terminal device.                              
                                                                      
     -z s1       true if the length of string s1 is zero.             
                                                                      
     -n s1       true if the length of the string s1 is non-zero.     
                                                                      
     s1 =  s2    true if strings s1 and s2 are identical.             
                                                                      
     s1 != s2    true if strings s1 and s2 are not identical.         
                                                                      
     s1          true if s1 is not the null string.                   
                                                                      
     n1 -eq n2   true if the integers n1 and n2 are algebraically     
                 equal.  Any of the comparisons -ne, -gt, -ge,        
                 -lt, and -le may be used in place of -eq.            
                                                                      
     These primaries may be combined with the following               
     operators:                                                       
                                                                      
     !           unary negation operator.                             
                                                                      
     -a
        binary and operator.                                 
                                                             
     -o          binary or operator (-a has higher precedence
                 than -o).                                   
                                                             
     ( expr )    parentheses for grouping.  Notice that      
                 parentheses are meaningful to the shell and,
                 therefore, must be escaped.                 
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     csh(1), find(1), ksh(1), sh(1).                                  
                                                                      
WARNING                                                               
     If a user tests a file (using -r, -w, or -x), but the            
     permission tested does not have the owner bit set, a non-        
     zero (false) exit status will be returned even though the        
     file may have the group or other bit set for that                
     permission. The correct exit status will be set if the user      
     is super-user.                                                   
                                                                      
     The = and != operators have a higher precedence than the -r      
     through -n operators, and = and != always expect arguments;      
     therefore, = and != cannot be used with the -r through -n        
     operators.                                                       
                                                                      
     If more than one argument follows the -r through -n              
     operators, only the first argument is examined; the others       
     are ignored, unless a -a or a -o is the second argument.         
                                                                      
     In the second form of the command (i.e., the one that uses       
     [], rather than the word test), the square brackets must be      
     delimited by blanks.         
                                    
                               NOTES
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX C - expr                                                       
                                                                        

$man expr                                                             
NAME                                                                  
     expr - evaluate arguments as an expression                       
                                                                      
SYNOPSIS                                                              
     expr arguments                                                   
                                                                      
DESCRIPTION                                                           
     The arguments are taken as an expression.  After evaluation,     
     the result is written on the standard output.  Terms of the      
     expression must be separated by blanks.  Characters special      
     to the shell must be escaped.  Note that 0 is returned to        
     indicate a zero value, rather than the null string.  Strings     
     containing blanks or other special characters should be          
     quoted.  Integer-valued arguments may be preceded by a unary     
     minus sign.  Internally, integers are treated as 32-bit, 2s      
     complement numbers.                                              
                                                                      
     The operators and keywords are listed below.  Characters         
     that need to be escaped are preceded by \.  The list is in       
     order of increasing precedence, with equal precedence            
     operators grouped within {} symbols.                             
                                                                      
     expr \ | expr  returns the first expr if it is neither null      
                    nor 0, otherwise returns the second expr.         
                                                                      
     expr \& expr   returns the first expr if neither expr is         
                    null nor 0, otherwise returns 0.                  
                                                                      
     expr { =, \>, \, \<, \, != } expr                                
                    returns the result of an integer comparison       
                    if both arguments are integers, otherwise         
                    returns the result of a lexical comparison.       
                                                                      
     expr { +, - } expr                                               
                    addition or subtraction of integer-valued         
                    arguments.                                        
                                                                      
     expr { \*, /, % } expr                                           
                    multiplication, division, or remainder of the     
                    integer-valued arguments.                         
                                                                      
     expr : expr    The matching operator : compares the first        
                    argument with the second argument which must      
                    be a regular expression.  Regular expression      
                    syntax is the same as that of ed(1), except       
                    matching operator returns the number of           
                    characters matched (0 on failure).                
                    Alternatively, the \(...\) pattern symbols        
                    can be used to return a portion of the first      
                    argument.                                         
                                                                      
EXAMPLES                                                              
     1.   a=`expr $a + 1`                                             
          adds 1 to the shell variable                                
                                                                      
     2.   #  For $a equal to either "/usr/abc/file" or just           
          "file"                                                      
          expr $a : '.*/\(.*\)' \| $a
                                 ?
          returns the last segment of a path name (i.e., file).        
          Watch out for / alone as an argument:  expr will take        
          it as the division operator (see BUGS below).                
                                                                       
     3.   #  A better representation of the previous example.          
          expr //$a : '.*/\(.*\)'                                      
          The addition of the // characters eliminates any             
          ambiguity about the division operator and simplifies         
          the whole expression.                                        
                                                                       
     4.   expr $VAR :  '.*'                                            
          returns the number of characters in $VAR.                    
                                                                       
SEE ALSO                                                               
     ed(1), sh(1).                                                     
                                                                       
DIAGNOSTICS                                                            
     As a side effect of expression evaluation, expr returns the       
     following exit values:                                            
     0    if the expression is neither null nor 0                      
     1    if the expression is null or 0                               
     2    for invalid expressions.                                     
                                                                       
     syntax error                                                      
          for operator/operand errors                                  
     non-numeric argument                                              
          if arithmetic is attempted on such a string                  
                                                                       
BUGS                                                                   
     After argument processing by the shell, expr cannot tell the      
     difference between an operator and an operand except by the       
     value.  If $a is an =, the command:  expr  $a = '=' looks         
     like:  expr = = = as the arguments are passed to expr (and        
     they will all be taken as the = operator).  The following         
     works:  expr  X$a = X=                                            
APPENDIX D - ftp


$man ftp                                                               
                                                                       
NAME                                                                   
     ftp - Internet file transfer program                              
                                                                       
SYNOPSIS                                                               
     ftp [ -v ] [ -d ] [ -i ] [ -n ] [ -g ] [ host ]                   
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     ftp is the user interface to the DARPA File Transfer              
     Protocol. The program transfers files to and from a remote        
     network site.                                                     
                                                                       
     The client host with which ftp is to communicate can be           
     specified on the command line. In this case, ftp immediately      
     attempts to establish a connection to an FTP server on that       
     host; otherwise, ftp enters its command interpreter and           
     waits for instruction, displaying the prompt ftp>.                
                                                                       
     ftp recognizes the following commands:                            
                                                                       
     ! [ command [ args ] ]                                            
               Invoke an interactive shell on the local machine.       
               If there are arguments, the first is taken to be a
               command to execute directly, with the rest of the       
               arguments as its arguments.                             
                                                                       
     $ macro-name [ args ]                                             
               Execute the macro-name that was defined with     
               the macdef command.  Arguments are passed to the 
               macro unglobbed.                                 
                                                                
     account [ passwd ]                                         
               Supply a supplemental password required by a
               remote system for access to resources once a login      
               has been successfully completed.  If no argument        
               is included, the user will be prompted for an           
               account password in a non-echoing input mode.           
                                                                       
     append local-file [ remote-file ]                                 
               Append a local file to a file on the remote             
               machine. If remote-file is left unspecified, the        
               local file name is used to name the remote file         
               after being altered by any ntrans or nmap setting.      
               File transfer uses the current settings for type,       
               format, mode, and structure.                            
                                                                       
     ascii     Set the file transfer type to network ASCII. This       
               is the default type.                                    
                                                                       
     bell      Sound a bell after each file transfer command is        
               completed.                                              
                                                                       
     binary    Set the file transfer type to support binary image      
               transfer.                                               
                                                                       
     bye       Terminate the FTP session with the remote server        
               and exit ftp.                                           
                                                                       
     case      Toggle remote computer file name case mapping           
               during mget commands.  When case is on (default is      
               off), remote computer file names with all letters       
               in upper case are written in the local directory        
               with the letters mapped to lower case.                  
                                                                       
     cd remote-directory                                               
               Change the working directory on the remote machine      
               to remote-directory.                                    
                                                                       
     cdup      Change the remote machine working directory to the     
               parent of the current remote machine working           
               directory.                                             
                                                                      
     close     Terminate the FTP session with the remote server,      
               and return to the command interpreter.  Any            
               defined macros are erased.                             
                                                                      
     cr        Toggle carriage return stripping during ASCII type     
               file retrieval.  Records are denoted by a carriage     
               return/linefeed sequence during ASCII type file        
               transfer.  When cr is on (the default), carriage       
               returns are stripped from this sequence to conform     
               with the UNIX single linefeed record delimiter.        
               Records on non-UNIX remote systems may contain         
               single linefeeds; when an ASCII type transfer is       
               made, these linefeeds may be distinguished from a
               record delimiter only when cr is off.                  
                                                                      
     delete remote-file                                               
               Delete the file remote-file on the remote machine.     
                                                                      
     debug [ debug-value ]                                            
               Toggle debugging mode. If an optional debug-value      
               is specified, it is used to set the debugging          
               level. When debugging is on, ftp prints each           
               command sent to the remote machine, preceded by        
               the string --> .                                       
                                                                      
     dir [ remote-directory ] [ local-file ]                          
               Print the contents of directory, remote-directory,     
               and, optionally, place the output in local-file.       
               If no directory is specified, the current working      
               directory on the remote machine is used. If no         
               local file is specified, or local-file is -,           
               output comes to the terminal.                          
                                                                      
     disconnect                                                       
               A synonym for close.                                   
                                                                      
     form format                                                      
               Set the file transfer form to format.  The default      
               format is file.                                         
                                                                       
     get remote-file [ local-file ]                                    
               Retrieve the remote-file and store it on the local      
               machine. If the local file name is not specified,       
               it is given the same name it has on the remote          
               machine, subject to alteration by the current           
               case, ntrans, and nmap settings. The current            
               settings for type, form, mode, and structure are        
               used while transferring the file.                       
                                                                       
     glob      Toggle filename expansion for mdelete, mget and         
               mput.  If globbing is turned off with glob, the         
               file name arguments are taken literally and not         
               expanded.  Globbing for mput is done as in csh(1).      
               For mdelete and mget, each remote file name is          
               expanded separately on the remote machine and the       
               lists are not merged.  Expansion of a directory         
               name is likely to be different from expansion of        
               the name of an ordinary file:  the exact result         
               depends on the foreign operating system and FTP         
               server, and can be previewed by doing                   
               "mls remote-files -".  Note:  mget and mput are         
               not meant to transfer entire directory subtrees of      
               files.  That can be done by transferring a tar(1)       
               archive of the subtree (in binary mode).                
                                                                       
     hash      Toggle number-sign (#) printing for each data
               block transferred. The size of a data block i
               1024 bytes.                                  
                                                                      
     help [ command ]                                                 
               Print a description of command.  With no argument,     
               ftp prints a list of the known commands.               
                                                                      
     lcd [ directory ]                                                
               Change the working directory on the local machine.     
               If no directory is specified, changes to the          
               user's home directory.                                
                                                                     
     ls [ remote-directory ] [ local-file ]                          
               Print an abbreviated listing of the contents of a
               directory on the remote machine. If remote-           
               directory is left unspecified, the current working    
               directory is used. If no local file is specified,     
               the output is sent to the terminal.                   
                                                                     
     macdef macro-name                                               
               Define a macro.  Subsequent lines are stored as       
               the macro-name; a null line (consecutive        
               newline characters in a file or carriage returns      
               from the terminal) terminates macro input mode.       
               There is a limit of 16 macros and 4096 total          
               characters in all defined macros.  Macros remain      
               defined until a close command is executed.  The       
               macro processor interprets "$" and "\" as special     
               characters.  A "$" followed by a number (or           
               numbers) is replaced by the corresponding argument    
               on the macro invocation command line.  A "$"          
               followed by an "i" signals that macro processor       
               that the executing macro is to be looped. On the      
               first pass "$i" is replaced by the first argument     
               on the macro invocation command line, on the          
               second pass it is replaced by the second argument,    
               and so on.  A "\" followed by any character is        
               replaced by that character.  Use the "\" to           
               prevent special treatment of the "$".                 
                                                                     
     mdelete [ remote-files ]                                        
               Delete the specified files on the remote machine.     
                                                                     
     mdir remote-files local-file                                    
               Like dir, except multiple remote files may be         
               specified.  If interactive prompting is on, ftp       
               will prompt the user to verify that the last          
               argument is indeed the target local file for          
               receiving mdir output.                                
                                                                     
     mget remote-files                                                
               Expand the remote-files on the remote machine and      
               do a get for each file name thus produced.  See        
               glob for details on the filename expansion.            
               Resulting file names will then be processed            
               according to case, ntrans, and nmap settings.          
               Files are transferred into the local working           
               directory, which can be changed with                   
               "lcd directory"; new local directories can be          
               created with "! mkdir directory".                      
                                                                      
     mkdir directory-name                                             
               Make a directory on the remote machine.                
                                                                      
     mls remote-files local-file                                       
               Like ls, except multiple remote files may be            
               specified.  If interactive prompting is on, ftp         
               will prompt the user to verify that the last            
               argument is indeed the target local file for            
               receiving mls output.                                   
                                                                       
     mode [ mode-name ]                                                
               Set the file transfer mode to mode-name.  The           
               default mode is stream.                                 
                                                                       
     mput local-files                                                  
               Expand wild cards in the list of local files given      
               as arguments and do a put for each file in the         
               resulting list.  See glob for details of filename      
               expansion.  Resulting file names will then be          
               processed according to ntrans and nmap settings.       
                                                                      
     nmap [ inpattern outpattern ]                                     
               Set or unset the filename mapping mechanism.  If        
               no arguments are specified, the filename mapping        
               mechanism is unset.  If arguments are specified,        
               remote filenames are mapped during mput commands        
               and put commands issued without a specified remote      
               target filename.  If arguments are specified,           
               local filenames are mapped during mget commands         
               and get commands issued without a specified local       
               target filename.  This command is useful when           
               connecting to a non-UNIX remote computer with           
               different file naming conventions or practices.         
               The mapping follows the pattern set by inpattern        
               and outpattern.  inpattern is a template for            
               incoming filenames (which may have already been         
               processed according to the ntrans and case              
               settings).  Variable templating is accomplished by      
               including the sequences "$1", "$2", ..., "$9" in        
               inpattern.  Use "\" to prevent this special             
               treatment of the "$" character.  All other              
               characters are treated literally, and are used to       
               determine the nmap inpattern variable values.  For      
               example, given inpattern $1.$2 and the remote file      
               name mydata.data, $1 would have the value mydata,       
               and $2 would have the value data.  The outpattern       
               determines the resulting mapped filename.  The          
               sequences "$1", "$2", ..., "$9" are replaced by         
               any value resulting from the inpattern template.        
               The sequence "$0" is replaced by the original           
               filename.  Additionally, the sequence                   
               "[seq1,seq2]" is replaced by seq1 if seq1 is not a
               null string; otherwise it is replaced by seq2.          
               For example, the command "nmap $1.$2.$3                 
               [$1,$2].[$2,file]" would yield the output filename      
               myfile.data for input filenames myfile.data and         
               myfile.data.old, myfile.file for the input              
               filename myfile, and myfile.myfile for the input        
               filename .myfile.  Spaces may be included in            
               outpattern, as in the example:                          
                                                                       
                    nmap $1 | sed "s/  *$//" > $1                      
                                                                       
               Use the "\" character to prevent special treatment      
               of the "$", "[", "]", and "," characters.               
                                                                       
     ntrans [ inchars [ outchars ] ]                                   
               Set or unset the filename character translation         
               mechanism.  If no arguments are specified, the          
               filename character translation mechanism is unset.      
               If arguments are specified, characters in remote        
               filenames are translated during mput commands and       
               put commands issued without a specified remote          
               target filename.  If arguments are specified,           
               characters in local filenames are translated            
               during mget commands and get commands issued            
               without a specified local target filename.  This        
               command is useful when connecting to a non-UNIX         
               remote computer with different file naming              
               conventions or practices.  Characters in a
               filename matching a character in inchars are            
               replaced with the corresponding character in            
               outchars.  If the character's position in inchars       
               is longer than the length of outchars, the              
               character is deleted from the file name.                
                                                                       
     open host [ port ]                                                
               Establish a connection to the specified host's FTP      
               server. An optional port number can be supplied,        
               in which case, ftp attempts to contact an FTP           
               server at that port. If the auto-login option is        
               on (default), ftp also attempts to automatically        
               log the user in to the FTP server (see below).          
                                                                       
     prompt    Toggle interactive prompting. Interactive               
               prompting occurs during multiple file transfers to      
               allow the user to selectively retrieve or store         
               files. If prompting is turned off (default), any        
               mget or mput transfers all files and mdelete will       
               delete all files.                                       
                                                                       
     proxy ftp-command                                                 
               Execute an ftp command on a secondary control           
               connection.  This command allows simultaneous           
               connection to two remote FTP servers for                
               transferring files between the two servers.  The        
               first proxy command should be an open, to               
               establish the secondary control connection.  Enter      
               the command "proxy ?" to see other ftp commands         
               executable on the secondary connection.  The            
               following commands behave differently when              
               prefaced by proxy:  open will not define new            
               macros during the auto-login process, close will        
               not erase existing macro definitions, get and mget      
               transfer files from the host on the primary             
               control connection to the host on the secondary         
               control connection, and put, mput, and append           
               transfer files from the host on the secondary           
               control connection to the host on the primary           
               control connection.  Third party file transfers         
               depend upon support of the FTP protocol PASV            
               command by the server on the secondary control          
               connection.                                             
                                                                       
     put local-file [ remote-file ]                                    
               Store a local file on the remote machine. If            
               remote-file is left unspecified, the local file         
               name is used in naming the remote file, after           
               processing according to any ntrans or nmap              
               settings.  File transfer uses the current settings      
               for type, format, mode, and structure.                  
                                                                       
     pwd       Print the name of the current working directory on      
               the remote machine.                                     
                                                                       
     quit      A synonym for bye.                                      
                                                                       
     quote arg1 arg2 ...                                               
               The arguments specified are sent, verbatim, to the      
               remote FTP server.                                      
                                                                       
     recv remote-file [ local-file ]                                   
               A synonym for get.                                      
                                                                       
     remotehelp [ command-name ]                                       
               Request help from the remote FTP server. If a
               command-name is specified, it is supplied to the       
               server as well.                                        
                                                                      
     rename [ from ] [ to ]                                           
               Rename, on the remote machine, the file from to        
               the file to.                                           
                                                                      
     reset     Clear reply queue.  This command re-synchronizes       
               command/reply sequencing with the remote FTP           
               server.  Resynchronization may be necessary            
               following a violation of the FTP protocol by the       
               remote server.                                         
                                                                      
     rmdir directory-name                                             
               Delete a directory on the remote machine.              
                                                                      
     runique   Toggle storing of files on the local system with       
               unique filenames.  If a file already exists with a
               name equal to the target local filename for a get       
               or mget command, a ".1" is appended to the name.        
               If the resulting name matches another existing          
               file, a ".2" is appended to the original name.  If      
               this process continues up to ".99", an error            
               message is printed, and the transfer does not take      
               place.  The generated unique filename will be           
               reported.  Note that runique will not affect local      
               files generated from a shell command (see below).       
               The default value is off.                               
                                                                       
     send local-file [ remote-file ]                                   
               A synonym for put.                                      
                                                                       
     sendport  Toggle the use of PORT commands. By default, ftp        
               attempts to use a PORT command when establishing a
               connection for each data transfer. The use of PORT      
               commands can prevent delays when performing             
               multiple file transfers.  If the PORT command           
               fails, ftp uses the default data port. When the         
               use of PORT commands is disabled, no attempt is         
               made to use them for each data transfer. This is        
               useful for certain FTP implementations that do          
               ignore PORT commands but wrongly indicate they          
               have been accepted.                                     
                                                                       
     status    Show the current status of ftp.                          
                                                                        
     struct [ struct-name ]                                             
               Set the file transfer structure to struct-name.          
               The default structure is stream.                         
                                                                        
     sunique   Toggle storing of files on remote machine under        
               unique file names.  Remote FTP server must support     
               the FTP protocol STOU command for successful           
               completion.  The remote server will report a
               unique name.  Default value is off.                    
                                                                      
     tenex     Set the file transfer type to that needed to talk      
               to TENEX machines.                                     
                                                                      
     trace     Toggle packet tracing.                                 
                                                                      
     type [ type-name ]                                               
               Set the file transfer type to type-name.  If no        
               type-name is specified, the current type is            
               printed. The default type is network ascii.            
                                                                      
     user user-name [ password ] [ account ]                          
               The user identifies him/herself to the remote FTP      
               server. If the password is not specified and the       
               server requires it, ftp prompts the user for it        
               (after disabling local echo).  If an account field     
               is not specified, and the FTP server requires it,      
               the user is prompted for it. If an account field       
               is specified, an account command will be relayed       
               to the remote server after the login sequence is       
               completed if the remote server did not require it      
               for logging in.  Unless ftp is invoked with            
               "auto-login" disabled, this process is done            
               automatically on initial connection to the FTP         
               server.                                                
                                                                      
     verbose   Toggle verbose mode. In verbose mode, all              
               responses from the FTP server are displayed to the     
               user. In addition, if verbose is on, when a file       
               transfer completes, statistics regarding the           
               efficiency of the transfer are reported. By            
               default, verbose is on.                                
                                                                      
     ? [ command ]                                                    
               A synonym for help.                                    
                                                                      
     Command arguments that have embedded spaces can be quoted        
     with double quote (") marks.                                     
                                                                      
ABORTING A FILE TRANSFER                                              
     To abort a file transfer, use the terminal interrupt key         
     (usually <ctrl>C).  Sending transfers will be immediately        
     halted.  Receiving transfers will be halted by sending a FTP     
     protocol ABOR command to the remote server, and discarding       
     any further data received.  The speed at which this is           
     accomplished depends upon the remote server's support for        
     ABOR processing.  If the remote server does not support the      
     ABOR command, an ftp> prompt will not appear until the           
     remote server has completed sending the requested file.          
                                                                      
     The terminal interrupt key sequence will be ignored when ftp     
     has completed any local processing and is awaiting a reply       
     from the remote server.  A long delay in this mode may           
     result from the ABOR processing described above, or from         
     unexpected behavior by the remote server, including              
     violations of the FTP protocol.  If the delay results from       
     unexpected remote server behavior, the local ftp program         
     must be killed by hand.                                          
                                                                      
FILE NAMING CONVENTIONS                                               
     Files specified as arguments to ftp commands are processed       
     according to the following rules.                                
                                                                      
     1.   If the file name is -, the standard input (for reading)     
          or the standard output (for writing) is used.               
                                                                       
     2.   If the first character of the file name is a bar |, the      
          remainder of the argument is interpreted as a shell          
          command.  ftp then forks a shell, using popen(3S) with       
          the argument supplied, and reads (writes) from the           
          stdout (stdin).  If the shell command includes spaces,       
          the argument must be quoted; for example, "| ls -lt". A
          particularly useful example of this mechanism is            
          "dir | more".                                               
                                                                      
     3.   Failing the above checks, if globbing is enabled, local     
          file names are expanded according to the rules used in      
          the csh(1); see the glob command.  If the ftp command       
          expects a single local file (e.g., put), only the first     
          filename generated by the globbing operation is used.       
                                                                      
     4.   For mget commands and get commands with unspecified         
          local file names, the local filename is the remote          
          filename, which may be altered by a case, ntrans, or        
          nmap setting.  The resulting filename may then be           
          altered if runique is on.                                   
                                                                      
     5.   For mput commands and put commands with unspecified         
          remote file names, the remote filename is the local         
          filename, which may be altered by a ntrans or nmap          
          setting.  The resulting filename may then be altered by     
          the remote server if sunique is on.                         
                                                                      
FILE TRANSFER PARAMETERS                                              
     The FTP specification identifies many parameters that can        
     affect a file transfer. The type can be one of ascii, image      
     (binary), ebcdic, and local byte size (for PDP-10's and          
     PDP-20's mostly).  ftp supports the ascii and image types of     
     file transfer, plus local byte size 8 for tenex mode             
     transfers.                                                       
                                                                      
     ftp supports only the default values for the remaining file      
     transfer parameters:  mode, form, and struct.                    
                                                                      
OPTIONS                                                                
     Options can be specified at the command line, or to the           
     command interpreter.                                              
                                                                       
     The -v (verbose on) option forces ftp to show all responses       
     from the remote server, as well as report on data transfer        
     statistics.                                                       
                                                                       
     The -n option restrains ftp from attempting "auto-login"          
     upon initial connection.  If auto-login is enabled, ftp           
     checks the netrc file in the user's home directory for an         
     entry describing an account on the remote machine. If no          
     entry exists, ftp will prompt for the remote machine login        
     name (default is the user identity on the local machine),         
     and, if necessary, prompt for a password and an account with      
     which to login.                                                   
                                                                      
     The -i option turns off interactive prompting during             
     multiple file transfers.                                         
                                                                      
     The -d option enables debugging.                                 
                                                                      
     The -g option disables file name globbing.                       
                                                                      
THE .netrc FILE                                                       
     The .netrc file contains login and initialization                
     information used by the "auto-login" process.  It resides in     
     the user's home directory.  The following tokens are             
     recognized; they may be separated by spaces, tabs, or new-       
     lines:                                                           
                                                                      
     machine name                                                     
          Identify a remote machine name.  The auto-login process     
          searches the .netrc file for a machine token that           
          matches the remote machine specified on the ftp command     
          line or as an open command argument.  Once a match is       
          made, the subsequent .netrc tokens are processed,           
          stopping when the end of file is reached or another         
          machine token is encountered.                               
                                                                      
     login name                                                       
          Identify a user on the remote machine.  If this token       
          is present, the "auto-login" process will initiate a
          login using the specified name.                             
                                                                      
     password string                                                  
          Supply a password.  If this token is present, the           
          "auto-login" process will supply the specified string       
          if the remote server requires a password as part of the     
          login process.  Note that if this token is present in       
          the .netrc file, ftp will abort the "auto-login"            
          process if the .netrc is readable by anyone besides the     
          user.                                                       
                                                                      
     account string                                                   
          Supply an additional account password.  If this token       
          is present, the "auto-login" process will supply the        
          specified string if the remote server requires an           
          additional account password, or the "auto-login"            
          process will initiate an ACCT command if it does not.       
                                                                      
     macdef name                                                      
          Define a macro.  This token functions like the ftp          
          macdef command functions.  A macro is defined with the      
          specified name; its contents begin with the next .netrc     
          line and continue until a null line (consecutive new-       
          line characters) is encountered.  If a macro named init     
          is defined, it is automatically executed as the last        
          step in the "auto-login" process.                           
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     csh(1).                                                          
     ftpd(1M) in the UMAX V Administrator's Reference Manual.         
                                                                      
BUGS                                                                  
     Correct execution of many commands depends upon proper           
     behavior by the remote server.                                   
                                                                      
     An error in the treatment of carriage returns in the 4.2BSD      
     UNIX ASCII-mode transfer code has been corrected.  This          
     correction may result in incorrect transfers of binary files     
     to and from 4.2BSD servers using the ascii type.  Avoid this     
     problem by using the binary image type.
                          
                               NOTES
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX E - cc

$man cc                                                                  
                                                                       
NAME                                                                   
     cc - C compiler                                                   
                                                                       
SYNOPSIS                                                               
     cc [ option ] ... file ...                                        
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     The cc command invokes the C language compiler. This C            
     compiler is an advanced, optimizing compiler that accepts a
     complete implementation of the C programming language.  For       
     a more complete description of the compiler, see "C               
     Language" and "Compiler and C Language" in the UMAX V             
     Programmer's Guide.                                               
                                                                       
     Files with a .c suffix are taken to be C language source          
     programs.  The compiler processes every C language source         
     file to produce a corresponding object file with the same         
     file name and a .o suffix.  Files with a .s suffix are taken      
     to be assembly language source programs.  These are               
     assembled to produce a corresponding object file with the         
     same file name and a .o suffix.  Files with a suffix other        
     than .c and .s are assumed to be object files (usually            
     produced by an earlier compilation or assembly) or C-             
     compatible libraries.  These files, together with any object      
     code produced by the compiler, are linked in the order they       
     were specified to produce an executable program file named        
     a.out.                                                            
                                                                       
     If only one input file with a .c or .s suffix is supplied,        
     the compiler automatically deletes the object file output         
     produced from that input file after the executable program        
     file a.out is created.                                            
                                                                       
     The cc options that modify the behavior described above are:      
                                                                       
     -A       Cause ASCII assembler output to be generated and         
              automatically piped to the assembler.  The default       
              is for direct generation of object code. The -A          
              option is the same as the -q nodirect_code option.       
                                                                       
     -Bpath   Run the compiler program contained in pathccom.  If      
              -B is specified with no path, then the default path      
              is assumed to be /lib/o and the compiler program in      
              /lib/occom is run.  If no -B option is specified,        
              then the compiler program in /lib/ccom is run.           
                                                                       
     -c       Compile only. Produce object file output, even if        
              there was only one source file.                          
                                                                       
     -C       Retain comments during the macro preprocessor pass.      
                                                                       
     -Dname=def                                                        
              Define symbol name to be string def, as if by a
                 #define statement.  If =def is omitted, define name     
              to be 1.                                                 
                                                                       
     -E       Run only the macro preprocessor, process only input      
              files with the .c suffix; send the result of this        
              pass to the standard output.                             
                                                                       
     -g       Generate special symbol table data for sdb(1) or         
              cdb(1) and pass the -g flag to the link editor.          
                                                                       
     -G       Cause object code to be directly generated by the        
              compiler, bypassing the intermediate steps of            
              producing assembly code and assembling it to             
              produce object code.  This is the default.  The -G       
              option is the same as the -q direct_code option.         
                                                                       
     -Idir    dir is a directory name.  Search for #include files      
              whose names do not begin with / first in the             
              directory containing the source file, then in dir,       
              and then in a list of standard defaults.  Multiple       
              -I options can establish a hierarchy of #include         
              file directories.                                        
                                                                       
     -o output                                                         
              Name the final, executable output file output            
              instead of a.out.  Note the space between the -o         
              and the file name.                                       
                                                                       
     -O       Perform optimizations which speed up the generated       
              code. Also, perform any space optimizations which        
              do not impact code speed.  See also the -q option.       
                                                                       
     -p       Prepare to generate an execution profile using           
              prof(1).  Include special profiling code that            
              counts how many times each routine is called.  If        
              linking occurs, use a special startup routine that       
              calls monitor(3C) and produces a mon.out file upon       
              termination.  Uses special profiling versions of         
              standard libraries found in /usr/lib/libp/lib*.a.        
             NOTE: use of the MARK macro (see prof(5)) requires        
              the -A option of cc.                                     
                                                                       
     -pg      Prepare to generate an execution profile using           
              gprof(1).  Include special profiling code that           
              counts how many times each function is called and        
              how much time is spent in each.  If linking occurs,      
              use a special startup function that calls                
              monstartup and produces a gmon.out file upon             
              termination.  Uses special profiling versions of         
              standard libraries found in /usr/lib/libp/lib*.a.        
              Note: Use of the MARK macro (see prof(5)) requires       
              the -A option of cc.                                     
                                                                       
     -P       Run all .c files through the preprocessing step,         
              putting the result in the corresponding output file      
              with a .i suffix.                                        
                                                                       
     -R       Make initialized variables shared and read-only (by      
              passing the -r option to the assembler).                 
                                                                       
     -S       Generate only assembly language output, putting it       
              in one or more files that have the source file name      
              and an .s suffix.                                       
                                                                      
     -Uname   Undefine symbol name to remove its default              
              definition.                                             
                                                                      
     -v       Report the names of all subprocesses invoked in the     
              compiled program, and their arguments.  This option     
              shows any files that are linked automatically and       
              the current compiler, assembler, and link editor        
              options.                                                
                                                                      
     -w       Suppress warning diagnostics.                           
                                                                      
     -Wc,arg                                                          
     -Wa,arg                                                          
     -Wl,arg  Pass option arg to the compiler (see "C Compiler        
              Internal Options" in the "Compiler and C Language"      
              chapter in the UMAX V Programmer's Guide),              
              assembler (see as(1)), or linker (see ld(1)),           
              respectively.                                           
                                                                      
     The following options are intended to provide more detailed      
     control over the generated code and action of the compiler.      
     In general, they should only be used for special situations.     
                                                                      
     -q qualifier                                                     
     -q qualifier=arg                                                 
              Modify the generated code of the compiler to            
              reflect various special requirements of a program.      
              Qualifiers include the following:                       
                                                                      
              align_text, noalign_text                                
                  Enable alignment of text segments on boundaries     
                  that allows the burst mode of systems equipped      
                  with APCs (Advanced Dual Processor Cards,           
                  utilizing the NS32332 CPU chip) to be most          
                  effectively used.  The default option is            
                  -q noalign_text, unless the -q optimize=time        
                  option is specified.                                
                                                                      
              xpc, apc, dpc                                           
                  Generate code optimized for a system equipped       
                  with XPCs (Extended Performance Dual Processor      
                  Cards, utilizing the NS32532 CPU chip), APCs        
                  (Advanced Dual Processor Cards, utilizing the       
                  NS32332 CPU chip), or DPCs (Dual Processor          
                  Cards, utilizing the NS32032 CPU chip).  If the     
                  -q xpc option is specified, then the                
                  preprocessor symbol ns32532 is defined and code     
                  optimal for the NS32532 is generated.  If the       
                  -q apc option is specified, then the                
                  preprocessor symbol ns32332 is defined and the      
                  -q align_text option is enabled.  If the -q dpc     
                  option is specified, then the preprocessor          
                  symbol ns32032 is defined and the                   
                  -q noalign_text option is enabled.  If neither      
                  -q xpc nor -q apc nor -q dpc is specified, then     
                  the default option is either -q xpc or -q apc       
                  or -q dpc , depending upon whether the system       
                  upon which the compiler is running is equipped      
                  with XPCs, APCs, or DPCs, respectively.  Code       
                  generated with these options will work on all       
                  XPCs, APCs, and DPCs.                               
                                                                      
              asmdir=prefix                                           
              crt0dir=prefix                                          
              lddir=prefix                                            
                  Overrides the defaults for the locations of         
                  as(1) (the assembler), the relevant startup         
                  routine (either crt0.o, mcrt0.o, or gcrt0.o),       
                  and ld(1) (the link editor).  The default           
                  values for these are asmdir=/bin/,                  
                  crt0dir=/lib/ (if the startup routine is crt0.o     
                  or mcrt0.o), crt0dir=/usr/lib/ (if the startup      
                  routine is gcrt0.o), and lddir=/bin/.               
                                                                      
              compiler_registers, nocompiler_registers                
                  Enable or disable compiler allocation of local      
                  variables to registers beyond those specified       
                  by register storage class specifications. The       
                  default option is -q compiler_registers.  The       
                  -q nocompiler_registers option should only be       
                  used when code is written to depend on the          
                  existence of non-register class variables in        
                  memory.                                             
                                                                      
              direct_code, nodirect_code                              
                  Enable or disable the direct generation of code     
                  by the compiler. When enabled, the compiler         
                  will directly generate object code, bypassing       
                  the intermediate steps of producing assembly        
                  code and assembling it to produce the object        
                  code. The -q nodirect_code option (same as the      
                  -A option) should only be needed if the source      
                  file contains asm statements. The                   
                  -q direct_code option (same as the -G option)       
                  is enabled by default. The -q nodirect_code         
                  option is enabled if the -R option is               
                  specified.                                          
                                                                      
              enter_exits, noenter_exits                              
                  Generate enter and exit instructions at             
                  subroutine start and end.  Enter and exit           
                  instructions make stack tracing by debuggers        
                  possible.  The -q noenter_exits option is           
                  enabled by default, unless the -g option is         
                  used.                                               
                                                                      
              extensions, noextensions                                
              extensions=parallel                                     
              extensions=microtasking                                 
                  Specifies which language extensions will be         
                  recognized.  The -q extensions=parallel option      
                  specifies that extensions which support             
                  parallel programming are recognized.  This          
                  includes shared memory declarations and in-line     
                  code generation for spin lock routines.             
                  Consult the section "C Parallel Programming         
                  Extensions" in Chapter 18, Compiler and C           
                  Language in the UMAX V Programmer's Guide.  The      
                  -q extension=microtasking option specifies that      
                  extensions which support microtasking are            
                  recognized.  This includes the                       
                  -q extension=parallel extensions, and also           
                  specifies that the microtasking library and an       
                  alternate version of crt0.o are to be used by        
                  the load step.  The -q extensions option is          
                  equivalent to -q extension=microtasking.  The        
                  default option is -q noextensions.                   
                                                                       
              limitfregs, nolimitfregs                                 
                  Use or don't use the new NS32532 double              
                  precision floating point registers f1, f3, f5,       
                  f7. This flag is valid only in conjunction with      
                  the -q xpc flag. The default value for this          
                  flag is -q limitfregs (the new registers are         
                  not used). The double precision registers f1,        
                  f3, f5, f7 do not exist on APCs and DPCs, and        
                  code that uses these registers will not work on      
                  APCs and DPCs.                                       
                                                                       
              includes, noincludes                                     
                  Look or don't look for C language include files      
                  in the standard directory /usr/include.              
                  -q noincludes specifies there is no standard         
                  location for the include files.  The default         
                  value is -q includes.                                
                                                                       
              long_case, nolong_case                                   
                  Enable or disable the generation of case             
                  statements using a full four byte displacement.      
                  The -q nolong_case option is the default,            
                  allowing case statements to span 8 Kilobytes.        
                  The -q long_case option allows case statements       
                  to span 16 Megabytes. This should only be            
                  needed in unusual circumstances.                     
                                                                       
              long_jump, nolong_jump                                   
                  Enable or disable the generation of jumps with       
                  four byte displacements when the assembler is        
                  unable to resolve them in 1 byte.  This option       
                  only has effect when direct code generation is       
                  not enabled.  The default option,                    
                  -q nolong_jump, allows branches to span up to        
                  _8 Kilobytes.  The -q long_jump option will          
                  allow branches to span up to _16 Megabytes.          
                                                                       
              loops, noloops                                           
                  Enable or disable loop optimizations. These          
                  optimizations include loop-invariant hoisting        
                  and strength reduction. The default option is        
                  -q noloops.                                          
                                                                       
              optimize, nooptimize                                     
      optimize=none,optimize=standard,optimize=time,optimize=space     
                  Specify the level of optimization.  The              
                  -q optimize option is equivalent to the              
                  -q optimize=standard.  The -q nooptimize option      
                  is equivalent to -q optimize=none.  The -O           
                  option is equivalent to -q optimize=standard.        
                  The -q optimize=standard option enables a set        
                  of optimizations that do not take an excessive       
                  time to generate and do not overly favor space       
                  over time or vice versa.  The -q optimize=time       
                  option enables optimizations which may take          
                  longer to recognize but should yield a program       
                  that takes minimal time.  This option enables        
                  -q align_text, -q loops, and -q novolatile. If       
                  any of these options are inappropriate, they         
                  may be overridden by the appropriate -q noxxx        
                  option.  The -q optimize=space option enables        
                  optimizations which may take longer to generate      
                  but should yield a program which takes minimal       
                  space.  This option enables                          
                  -q preload_constants and -q tail_merge.  The         
                  default option is -q optimize=none.                  
                                                                       
              preload_constants, nopreload_constants                   
                  Enable or disable the linking of constant            
                  values and addresses that are frequently             
                  referenced in the source code at the start of a
                  program.  This option saves space; it may save       
                  execution time if the constants and addresses        
                  are also referenced frequently during                
                  execution. The -q nopreload_constants option is      
                  the default; the -q preload_constants option is     
                  enabled by the -O option.                           
                                                                      
              reg_params, noreg_params                                
                  Pass the first two parameters to a subroutine       
                  in registers rather than on the stack.  The         
                  -q noreg_params option is the default.  The         
                  standard libraries provided with the system         
                  assume -q noreg_params and will not work with       
                  object files built with the -q reg_params           
                  option.                                             
                                                                      
              sbfixed, nosbfixed                                      
                  Enable or disable the use of the NS32000 sb         
                  register when generating immediate addresses.       
                  The -q sbfixed option is the default.               
                                                                      
              signed_bit_fields, nosigned_bit_fields                  
                  Enable or disable making bit fields in              
                  structures of type int, short, and char to be       
                  signed. The default option,                         
                  -q nosigned_bit_fields, is to make all fields       
                  unsigned.                                           
                                                                      
              small_enums, nosmall_enums                              
                  Enable or disable the allocation of each enum       
                  type as the smallest predefined type that can       
                  represent all of the values that are listed         
                  (that is values of type char, short, int,           
                  unsigned char, unsigned short, or unsigned that     
                  are used in the enum statement). The default        
                  option, -q nosmall_enums, allocates an enum         
                  type as an int.                                     
                                                                      
              standard_library, nostandard_library                    
                  Allows the compiler to replace calls to             
                  standard libc routines with equivalent in-line      
                  code.  The default option is                        
                  -q nostandard_library, unless the                   
                  -q optimize=time option is specified.               
                                                                      
              tail_merge, notail_merge                                
                  Enable or disable branch-tail merging, an           
                  optimization which reduces code size by sharing     
                  common portions of then and else clauses or of      
                  case switches.   The -q tail_merge option is        
                  enabled by default, and disabled when -O is         
                  specified.                                          
                                                                      
              volatile, novolatile                                    
                  Disable or enable additional optimization on        
                  the assumption that memory never changes except     
                  as the result of explicit store operations. The     
                  default option, -q volatile, disables these         
                  optimizations.  The -q novolatile option should     
                  be used when all variables that can be modified     
                  asynchronously (e.g., by signal handlers) have      
                  type volatile.  Asynchronous modification could     
                  happen, for example, with signals, device           
                  drivers, and parallel processes accessing           
                  shared memory.  The current default is              
                  -q novolatile.  In the future, the goal is to       
                  have -q volatile the default value.                 
                                                                      
FILES                                                                 
     file.c              input file                                   
     file.o              object file                                  
     a.out               linked output                                
     /lib/ccom           compiler                                     
     /lib/occom          backup compiler                              
     /lib/crt0.o         runtime startoff                             
     /lib/mcrt0.o        startoff for profiling                       
     /lib/libc.a         standard library, see intro(3)                
     /usr/libp/lib*.a    profiling libraries, see intro(3)             
     /usr/include        standard directory for #include files         
     mon.out             file produced for analysis by prof(1)         
                                                                       
SEE ALSO                                                               
     adb(1), as(1), cdb(1), gprof(1), ld(1), prof(1), sdb(1),          
     a.out(4), monitor(3C).                                            
     cflow(1) in the UMAX V User's Reference Manual.                   
     "C Language" and "Compiler and C Language" in the UMAX V          
     cflow(1) in the UMAX V User's Reference Manual.                   
     "C Language" and "Compiler and C Language" in the UMAX V         
     Programmer's Guide.                                              
     B. W. Kernighan and D. M. Ritchie, The C Programming             
     Language.  Prentice-Hall, 1978.                                  
                                                                      
DIAGNOSTICS                                                           
     The diagnostics produced by C itself are intended to be          
     self-explanatory.  Occasional messages may be produced by        
     the assembler or link editor.                                    
                               NOTES
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                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX F - f77

$man f77                                                                  
                                                                       
NAME                                                                   
     f77 - Fortran-77 compiler                                         
                                                                       
SYNOPSIS                                                               
     f77 [ options ] file [ options ] [ files ] ...                    
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     The f77 compiler is an advanced, optimizing Fortran-77            
     compiler that accepts a complete implementation of the            
     standard Fortran language defined by ANSI standard X3.9-          
     1978.  It also has extensions to support VAX Fortran              
     functionality and parallel programming.  The  Fortran-77          
     compiler accepts any or none of the options described             
     following, and one or more input file names.  Files and           
     options can be mixed in any order.  Any differences between       
     4.2 and  V are noted in the text.                                 
                                                                       
     Files that have an f or F extension are taken to be               
     Fortran-77 language source programs.  The compiler processes      
     every Fortran-77 source file to produce a corresponding           
     object file with the same file name and an o extension.           
     Source files that have an F extension are passed through the      
     C language macro preprocessor before being compiled by the        
     f77 compiler.  Files that have an e extension are assumed to      
     be EFL (Extended Fortran Language) files, which are passed        
     through the efl preprocessor before being compiled by the         
     Fortran-77 compiler.  Files that have an r extension are          
     taken to be Ratfor files and passed through the ratfor            
     preprocessor before being compiled.  Files that have an s         
     extension are assumed to be assembly language source              
     programs.  These are assembled to produce a corresponding         
     object file with the same file name and an o extension.           
                                                                       
     Files with extensions other than f, F, e, r, and s are            
     assumed to be Fortran-compatible libraries, or object files       
     such as those files produced by an earlier compilation or         
     assembly.  These files, together with any object code             
     produced during the compilation, are loaded to produce an         
     executable program file named aout.                               
                                                                       
     If only one input file with an f, F, e, r, or s extension is      
     supplied, the compiler automatically deletes the object file      
     output produced from that input file after executable             
     program file aout has been created.                               
                                                                       
     All unrecognized options and all file names with extensions     
     other than .f, .F, .e, .r, .c are passed to the loader.  For    
     assembler options, see as(1); for loader options, see ld(1).    
     The f77 options are:                                            
                                                                     
     -Bprefix  Run the compiler program contained in file            
               prefixfcom.  If prefix is not given,                  
               /usr/lib/ofcom is the default compiler used.            
                                                                       
     -c        Compile only.  Produce object file output (even if      
               there was only one source file) and do not load         
               the program after compiling it.                         
                                                                       
     -Dname=def                                                        
               Define symbol name to be string def, when running       
               the C language preprocessor, as if by a #define         
               statement.  If =def is omitted, defines name to be      
               1 while running the C preprocessor.                     
                                                                       
     -Estring  Pass option(s) string to the efl preprocessor when      
               processing input files that have the e extension.       
                                                                       
     -F        Generate only Fortran language output from the          
               ratfor or efl preprocessor, placing it in a file        
               that has the source file name and the f extension,      
               but do not run the Fortran-77 compiler.                 
                                                                       
     -g        Generate special symbol table data for the sdb(1)       
               debugger (or the optional debugger), and pass the       
               -lg flag to the loader.                                 
                                                                       
     -Ipath    Include source files from the directory named path      
               when running the C language preprocessor.  When         
               compiling source files named with the F extension,      
               search for #include files (whose names do not           
               begin with /) first in the directory containing         
               the source file, then in the directory path, and        
               then in a list of standard defaults.  Multiple -I       
               options can establish a hierarchy of #include file      
               directories.                                            
                                                                       
     -i2       Make the default length of integer constants and        
               variables, and all logical quantities, be short.        
               Complementary option -i4 is the default, which          
               calls for long integer variables and constants.         
                                                                       
     -m        Apply the M4 macro preprocessor to each EFL or          
               Ratfor source file before passing it through the        
               efl or ratfor preprocessor.                             
                                                                       
     -O        Perform optimizations that speed up the generated       
               code; also perform any space optimizations that do      
               not impact code speed.  See also the -q qualifier       
               options.                                                
                                                                       
     -o output Name the final, executable output file output           
               rather than aout.                                       
                                                                       
     -onetrip  Generate object code that executes the range of         
               every do loop at least once, even if the initial        
               value of the loop index exceeds the limit value.        
                                                                       
     -p        Prepare to generate an execution profile using          
               prof(1).  Include special profiling code that           
               counts how many times each routine is called.  If       
               loading occurs, use a special startup routine that      
               calls monitor(3) and produces a monout file upon        
               termination.  Use a special profiling library           
               instead of the standard C library.                      
                                                                       
     -pg       Generate an execution profile using gprof.              
               Include special profiling code that counts how          
               many times each routine is called.  If loading          
               occurs, use a special startup routine that calls        
               monitor(3) and produces one or more gmon.pid upon       
               termination.  A profiling version of the standard      
               library is used.                                       
                                                                      
     -R        Make initialized variables shared and read-only        
               (by passing the -r option to the assembler).           
                                                                      
     -Rstring  Pass option(s) string to the ratfor preprocessor       
               when processing input files that have an r             
               extension.                                             
                                                                      
     -S        Generate assembly language output for each source      
               file, but do not assemble it.  Assembler output        
               for a source file with the extension f, F, e, r,       
               or c is put in a file with the same name and a s       
               extension.                                             
                                                                      
     -U        Do not convert uppercase letters to lowercase          
               letters.  By default Fortran programs are              
               converted to lowercase letters except within           
               character string constants.                            
                                                                      
     -u        Disable automatic data typing and, instead, make       
               the default type of a variable the undefined type.     
                                                                      
     -v        Report the names of all subprocesses invoked by        
               the compiler and their arguments.                      
                                                                      
     -w        Suppress warning diagnostics.                          
                                                                      
     -w66      Recognized only for compatibility with the             
               Portable Fortran-77 Compiler, which used this          
               option to suppress warnings about Fortran-66           
               features encountered during compilation.  The          
               Fortran-77 compiler does not flag language             
               elements that are unique to Fortran-66.                
                                                                      
     -W[a c l], arg                                                   
               Pass option arg to the assembler, compiler, or         
               linker, as specified respectively by -Wa, arg,         
               -Wc, arg, or -Wl, arg.  The internal options for       
               the  f77 compiler include implementation options       
               used to reconfigure the compiler for alien             
               operating environments, and debugging options used     
               for testing compiler software.  These options          
               should never be used in normal operation; they are     
               described in the Fortran-77 Manual.                    
                                                                      
     -q qualifier[=arg]                                               
               The qualifier options provide more detailed            
               control over the generated code and action of the      
               compiler.  They modify the generated code of the       
               compiler to reflect various special requirements       
               of a program, and in general should only be used       
               for special situations.  The qualifier options         
               deal with architecture, optimization selections,       
               file configuration, and Fortran language               
               extensions.  In this listing they are grouped by       
               category.  Both the qualifiers and any arguments,      
               which have compiler-defined values, can be             
               abbreviated to their minimum number of unique          
               characters.  The qualifiers are:                       
                                                                      
                    portable                                          
               apc, apc01, apc02, dpc, xpc[,2arg], host_is_target,    
                     These qualifiers select generation of code       
                     that is compatible with Multimax systems         
                     having APC DPC or XPC (National                  
                     Semiconductor NS32xxx-based) processor           
                     boards.  The default is to generate code         
                     appropriate for the machine on which the         
                     compiler is running.  (Differences between       
                     generated APC and DPC code are primarily in      
                     alignment optimization.)                         
                                                                      
                     apc   The apc qualifier selects APC01 code       
                           and the libm_apc.a math library.           
                                                                      
                     apc01 The apc01 qualifier is the same as the     
                           apc qualifier.  It is equivalent to        
                           the obsoleted switch combination,          
                           -q apc -q nofpa.                           
                                                                      
                     apc02 The apc02 qualifier selects APC02 code     
                           (with Cone instructions) and uses the      
                           libm_fpa.a math library.  This is          
                           equivalent to the obsoleted switch         
                           combination, -q apc -q fpa.                  
                                                                       
                     dpc   The dpc qualifier selects code              
                           optimized for a DPC system, and uses        
                           the libm_apc.a library.                     
                                                                       
                     xpc[,arg]                                         
                           The xpc qualifier generates code            
                           optimized for XPC systems, using the        
                           libm_xpc.a math library.  Since xpc         
                           permits access of 4 additional              
                           floating point (fp) registers and uses      
                           floating point instructions that do         
                           not exist for APC and DPC boards, code      
                           compiled using this option may not be       
                           portable to APC and DPC systems.  xpc       
                           accepts the arguments limitfregs and        
                           nolimitfregs.  -q xpc,limitfregs            
                           assures code compatibility with APC         
                           and DPC systems, selecting the              
                           libm_apc.a math library rather than         
                           libm_xpc.a and suppressing the usage        
                           of some double-precision floating           
                           point registers that are available to       
                           XPC systems; only 4 double-precision        
                           float registers are used.                   
                           -q xpc,nolimitfregs permits all             
                           floating point registers to be used,        
                           and uses the libm_xpc.a math library.       
                                                                       
                     host_is_target                                    
                           The host_is_target qualifier optimizes      
                           code for the system performing the          
                           compilation.  No attempt is made to         
                           preserve portability.  This is default      
                           behavior.                                   
                                                                       
                     portable                                          
                           The portable qualifier generates code       
                           that is portable across all Multimax        
                           APC, DPC, and XPC systems.  A
                           universal math library, libm_apc.a, is     
                           used.  Only optimizations that are         
                           explicitly portable are used.              
                           Produced code is portable to APC and       
                           DPC systems even if compiled on an XPC     
                           system, since only 4 double-precision      
                           float registers are used.                  
                                                                      
               align_text, noalign_text                               
                     Enable or disable alignment of text segments     
                     on boundaries to optimize burst mode on          
                     Multimax systems having APC s.  The default      
                     is noalign_text, unless optimize=time is         
                     enabled.                                         
                                                                      
               asmdir=prefix                                          
                     Use the assembler located in the prefixas        
                     file instead of the default assembler,           
                     /bin/as.                                         
                                                                      
               compiler_registers, nocompiler_registers               
                     Enable or disable compiler allocation of         
                     local variables to registers beyond those        
                     specified by register storage class              
                     specifications.  The default is                  
                     compiler_registers.  nocompiler_registers        
                     should only be used when code is written to      
                     depend on the existence of non-register          
                     class variables in memory.                       
                                                                      
               crt0dir=prefix                                         
                     Use the prefixcrt0.o startup file instead of     
                     the default startup file, /lib/crt0.o.           
                                                                      
               d_lines, nod_lines                                     
                     Enable or disable the recognition of any         
                     comment line, beginning with a D, as a code      
                     line.  The default is nod_lines.                 
                                                                      
               direct_code, nodirect_code                             
                     Enable or disable the direct generation of       
                     code by the compiler.  When enabled, the         
                     compiler directly generates object code,         
                     bypassing the intermediate steps of              
                     producing assembly code and assembling it to     
                     produce the object code.  The nodirect_code      
                     qualifier should only be needed if the           
                     source file contains asm statements.             
                     direct_code is enabled by default.               
                     nodirect_code is enabled if the -R option is     
                     specified.                                       
                                                                      
               extensions[=arg], noextensions                         
                     Enable or disable the specification of           
                     Fortran extensions.  The default qualifier       
                     is noextensions.  The available arguments         
                     are:                                              
                                                                       
                     berkeley_f77   Supports the standard UNIX         
                                    f77.  This is equivalent to       
                                    noextensions.                     
                                                                      
                     extended_f77   Supports an extension to f77      
                                    that allows Fortran programs      
                                    written for VAX/VMS to be         
                                    compiled on Multimax systems.     
                                    This is the default when the      
                                    -q extensions qualifier is        
                                    given without an argument.        
                                                                      
                     parallel       Recognizes the extensions         
                                    that support parallel             
                                    programming, including shared     
                                    memory declarations and           
                                    spinlocks in-line.  This does     
                                    not change the value of an        
                                    earlier specified                 
                                    berkeley_f77 or extended_f77      
                                    selection.                        
                                                                      
               lddir=prefix                                           
                     Use the link editor in prefixld instead of       
                     the default, /bin/ld.                            
                                                                      
               long_case, nolong_case                                 
                     Enable or disable the generation of case         
                     statements using a full four-byte                
                     displacement.  nolong_case is the default,       
                     allowing case statements to span 4               
                     Kilobytes.  long_case allows case statements     
                     to span 2 Megabytes.  This should only be        
                     needed in unusual circumstances.                 
                                                                      
               long_jump, nolong_jump                                 
                     Enable or disable the generation of jumps        
                     with four-byte displacements when the            
                     assembler is unable to resolve them in one       
                     byte.  The default, nolong_jump, allows          
                     branches to span up to _8 Kilobytes.             
                     long_jump allows branches to span up to _16      
                     Megabytes.  Direct code generation selects       
                     one-, two-, or four-byte displacement as         
                     appropriate, regardless of the setting of        
                     this option.                                     
                                                                      
               loops, noloops                                         
                     Enable or disable loop optimizations.  These     
                     optimizations include loop-invariant             
                     hoisting and strength reduction.  The            
                     default is noloops.                              
                                                                      
               optimize[=arg], nooptimize                             
                     Enable or disable different levels of            
                     optimization.  The default is optimize=none.     
                     The available arguments are:                     
                                                                      
                     none       Enable no special optimizations.      
                                none is equivalent to nooptimize.     
                                                                      
                     space      Enable optimizations which may        
                                take longer to generate but which     
                                should produce a program that         
                                requires minimal space.  This         
                                argument also enables                 
                                preload_constants and tail_merge.     
                                                                      
                     standard   Enable a set of optimizations         
                                that do not take an excessive         
                                amount of time to generate and        
                                which do not favor space over         
                                time (or vice versa).                 
                     time       Enable optimizations which may        
                                take longer to recognize but          
                                which should produce a program        
                                that requires minimal execution       
                                time.  This argument also enables     
                                align_text, loops, and                
                                novolatile.                           
                                                                      
               preload_constants, nopreload_constants                 
                     Enable or disable the loading of constant        
                     values and addresses that are frequently         
                     referenced in the source code at the start       
                     of a program.  This option saves space; it       
                     may save execution time if the constants and     
                     addresses are also referenced frequently         
                     during execution.  no_preload_constants is       
                     the default; preload_constants is enabled by     
                     the -O option.                                   
                                                                      
               single_lib, nosingle_lib                               
                     Enable or disable the use of single              
                     precision math routines for certain built-in     
                     functions when the functions are called with     
                     single precision arguments.  The single          
                     precision versions offer significantly           
                     increased speed with almost no reduction in      
                     accuracy.  single_lib is enabled by default.     
                                                                      
               tail_merge, notail_merge                               
                     Enable or disable branch-tail merging, an        
                     optimization that reduces code size by           
                     sharing common portions of then and else         
                     clauses or of case switches.  tail_merge is      
                     disabled by default.                             
                                                                      
               volatile, novolatile                                   
                     Enable or disable additional optimization on     
                     the assumption that memory never changes         
                     except as the result of explicit store           
                     operations.  The default is volatile, unless     
                     optimize=time is selected.  novolatile,          
                     which enables the optimizations, is              
                     available only when optimize=time is             
                     selected.  novolatile should only be used        
                     when it is clear that no variables can be        
                     modified asynchronously.  Asynchronous           
                     modification could happen, for example, with     
                     signals, device drivers, or parallel             
                     processes accessing shared memory.               
                                                                      
RESTRICTIONS                                                          
     The -q flag and its qualifier options replace the following      
     options, which are no longer supported:                          
                                                                      
     -A  Replaced by -q nodirect_code.                                
                                                                      
     -G  Replaced by -q direct_code.                                  
                                                                      
     -H  Replaced by -q notail_merge.                                 
                                                                      
     -J  Replaced by -q long_jump.                                    
                                                                      
     -T  Replaced by -q loops.                                        
                                                                      
     -V  Replaced by -q novolatile.                                   
                                                                      
FILES                                                                 
     ./fort[pid].?           temporary fortran process files          
     a.out                   loaded output file                       
     file.[fFresc]           input file                               
     file.o                  object file                              
  gmon.[pid]              file produced for analysis by monitor(3)    
     mon.out                 file produced for analysis by prof(1)    
     /lib/cpp                C preprocessor                           
     /lib/libc.a             C library                                
     /lib/cpp                C preprocessor                           
     /lib/libc.a             C library                                
     /usr/lib/fcom           Fortran compiler                         
     /usr/lib/libFBERK.a     combined libF77.a, libI77.a, and         
                             libU77.a library                         
     /usr/lib/libFBERK_p.a   profiling combined Berkeley function     
                             library                                  
     /usr/lib/libFORT.a      combined libFBERK.a and libX77.a
                             library                                  
     /usr/lib/libFORT_p.a    profiling combined extended Berkeley      
                             function                                 
     /usr/lib/libm_apc.a     standard NS32081 code math library       
     /usr/lib/libm_fpa.a     math library for APC02 systems with      
                             Cone processor                           
     /usr/lib/libm_xpc.a     XPC system math library (8 float-        
                             register, NS32381)                       
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     as(1), cc(1), ld(1), m4(1), prof(1), sdb(1), cdb(1X),            
     efl(1F), fpr(1F) fsplit(1F) ratfor(1F), struct(1F),              
     intro(3F) epf(9F),                                               
      Fortran-77 Manual.                                              
                                                                      
     American National Standard Programming Language Fortran,         
     ANSI X3.9-1978.                                                  
                               NOTES
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX G - lint
                                                                        
$man lint                                                             
                                                                      
NAME                                                                  
     lint - a C program checker                                       
                                                                      
SYNOPSIS                                                              
     lint [ option ] ... file ...                                     
                                                                      
DESCRIPTION                                                           
     lint attempts to detect features of the C program files that     
     are likely to be bugs, non-portable, or wasteful.  It also       
     checks type usage more strictly than the compilers.  Among       
     the things that are currently detected are unreachable           
     statements, loops not entered at the top, automatic              
     variables declared and not used, and logical expressions         
     whose value is constant.  Moreover, the usage of functions       
     is checked to find functions that return values in some          
     places and not in others, functions called with varying          
     numbers or types of arguments, and functions whose values        
     are not used or whose values are used but none returned.         
                                                                      
     Arguments whose names end with .c are taken to be C source       
     files.  Arguments whose names end with .ln are taken to be       
     the result of an earlier invocation of lint with either the      
     -c or the -o option used.  The .ln files are analogous to .o     
     (object) files that are produced by the cc(1) command when       
     given a .c file as input.  Files with other suffixes are         
     warned about and ignored.                                        
                                                                      
     lint will take all the .c, .ln, and llib-lx.ln (specified by     
     -lx) files and process them in their command line order.  By     
     default, lint appends the standard C lint library (llib-         
     lc.ln) to the end of the list of files.  However, if the -p      
     option is used, the portable C lint library (llib-port.ln)       
     is appended instead.  When the -c option is not used, the        
     second pass of lint checks this list of files for mutual         
     compatibility.  When the -c option is used, the .ln and the      
     llib-lx.ln files are ignored.                                    
                                                                      
     Any number of lint options may be used, in any order,            
     intermixed with file-name arguments.  The following options      
     are used to suppress certain kinds of complaints:                
                                                                      
     -a      Suppress complaints about assignments of long values     
             to variables that are not long.                          
                                                                      
     -b      Suppress complaints about break statements that          
             cannot be reached.  (Programs produced by lex(1) or      
             yacc(1) will often result in many such complaints.)      
                                                                      
     -h      Do not apply heuristic tests that attempt to intuit      
             bugs, improve style, and reduce waste.                   
                                                                      
     -u      Suppress complaints about functions and external         
             variables used and not defined, or defined and not       
             used.  (This option is suitable for running lint on      
             a subset of files of a larger program).                  
                                                                      
     -v      Suppress complaints about unused arguments in            
             functions.                                               
                                                                      
     -x      Do not report variables referred to by external          
             declarations but never used.                             
                                                                      
     The following arguments alter lint's behavior:                   
                                                                      
     -lx  Include additional lint library llib-lx.ln.  For            
          example, a lint version of the Math Library llib-lm.ln      
          can be included by inserting -lm on the command line.       
          This argument does not suppress the default use of          
          llib-lc.ln.  These lint libraries must be in the            
          assumed directory.  This option can be used to              
          reference local lint libraries and is useful in the         
          development of multi-file projects.                         
                                                                      
     -n   Do not check compatibility against either the standard      
          or the portable lint library.                               
                                                                      
     -p   Attempt to check portability to other dialects (IBM and     
          GCOS) of C.  Along with stricter checking, this option      
          causes all non-external names to be truncated to eight      
          characters and all external names to be truncated to        
          six characters and one case.                                
                                                                      
     -c   Cause lint to produce a .ln file for every .c file on       
          the command line.  These .ln files are the product of       
          lint's first pass only, and are not checked for inter-      
          function compatibility.                                     
                                                                      
     -o lib                                                           
          Cause lint to create a lint library with the name           
          llib-llib.ln.  The -c option nullifies any use of the       
          -o option.  The lint library produced is the input that     
          is given to lint's second pass.  The -o option simply       
          causes this file to be saved in the named lint library.     
          To produce a llib-llib.ln without extraneous messages,      
          use of the -x option is suggested.  The -v option is        
          useful if the source file(s) for the lint library are       
          just external interfaces (for example, the way the file     
          llib-lc is written).  These option settings are also        
          available through the use of "lint comments" (see           
          below).                                                     
                                                                      
     The -D, -U, and -I options of cc(1) and cpp(1) and the -g        
     and -O options of cc are also recognized as separate             
     arguments.  The -g and -O options are ignored, but, by           
     recognizing these options, lint's behavior is closer to that     
     of the cc command.  Other options are warned about and           
     ignored.  The pre-processor symbol "lint" is defined to          
     allow certain questionable code to be altered or removed for     
     lint.  Therefore, the symbol "lint" should be thought of as      
     a reserved word for all code that is planned to be checked       
     by lint.                                                         
                                                                      
     Certain conventional comments in the C source will change        
     the behavior of lint:                                            
                                                                      
     /*NOTREACHED*/                                                   
          at appropriate points stops comments about unreachable      
          code.  (This comment is typically placed just after         
          calls to functions like exit(2).)                           
                                                                      
     /*VARARGSn*/                                                     
          suppresses the usual checking for variable numbers of        
          arguments in the following function declaration.  The        
          data types of the first n arguments are checked; a
          missing n is taken to be 0.                                  
                                                                       
     /*ARGSUSED*/                                                      
          turns on the -v option for the next function.                
                                                                       
     /*LINTLIBRARY*/                                                   
          at the beginning of a file shuts off complaints about        
          unused functions and function arguments in this file.        
          This is equivalent to using the -v and -x options.           
                                                                       
     lint produces its first output on a per-source-file basis.        
     Complaints regarding included files are collected and             
     printed after all source files have been processed.               
     Finally, if the -c option is not used, information gathered       
     from all input files is collected and checked for                 
     consistency.  At this point, if it is not clear whether a
     complaint stems from a given source file or from one of its      
     included files, the source file name will be printed             
     followed by a question mark.                                     
                                                                      
     The behavior of the -c and the -o options allows for             
     incremental use of lint on a set of C source files.              
     Generally, one invokes lint once for each source file with       
     the -c option.  Each of these invocations produces a .ln         
     file which corresponds to the .c file, and prints all            
     messages that are about just that source file.  After all        
     the source files have been separately run through lint, it       
     is invoked once more (without the -c option), listing all        
     the .ln files with the needed -lx options.  This will print      
     all the inter-file inconsistencies.  This scheme works well      
     with make(1); it allows make to be used to lint only the         
     source files that have been modified since the last time the     
     set of source files were linted.                                 
                                                                      
FILES                                                                 
     /usr/lib/lint[12]        first and second passes                 
     /usr/lib/llib-lc.ln      declarations for C Library              
                              functions (binary format; source is     
                              in /usr/lib/llib-lc)                    
     /usr/lib/llib-port.ln    declarations for portable functions     
                              (binary format; source is in            
                              /usr/lib/llib-port)                     
     /usr/lib/llib-lm.ln      declarations for Math Library           
                              functions (binary format; source is     
                              in /usr/lib/llib-lm.ln)                 
     /usr/tmp/*lint*          temporaries                             
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     cc(1), cpp(1), lex(1), make(1), yacc(1), tmpnam(3S).             
                                                                      
BUGS                                                                  
     exit(2), longjmp(3C), and other functions that do not return     
     are not understood; this causes various lies.                    
APPENDIX H - cb

$man cb                                                                 
                                                                        
NAME                                                                    
     cb - C program beautifier                                         
                                                                       
SYNOPSIS                                                               
     cb [ -s ] [ -j ] [ -l leng ] [ file ... ]                         
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     The cb comand reads C programs either from its arguments or       
     from the standard input, and writes them on the standard          
     output with spacing and indentation that display the              
     structure of the code.  Under default options, cb preserves       
     all user new-lines.                                               
                                                                       
     cb accepts the following options.                                 
                                                                       
     -s        Canonicalizes the code to the style of Kernighan        
               and Ritchie in The C Programming Language.              
                                                                       
     -j        Causes split lines to be put back together.             
                                                                       
      -l leng  Causes cb to split lines that are longer than           
               leng.                                                   
                                                                       
SEE ALSO                                                               
     cc(1).                                                            
     The C Programming Language.  Prentice-Hall, 1978.                 
                                                                       
BUGS                                                                   
     Punctuation that is hidden in preprocessor statements will        
     cause indentation errors.                                         
                               NOTES
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX I - ar

$man ar                                                                  
                                                                       
NAME                                                                   
     ar - archive and library maintainer for portable archives         
                                                                       
SYNOPSIS                                                               
     ar key [ posname ] afile [ name ] ...                             
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     The ar command maintains groups of files combined into a
     single archive file.  Its main use is to create and update      
     library files as used by the link editor.  It can be used,      
     though, for any similar purpose.  The magic string and the      
     file headers used by ar consist of printable ASCII              
     characters.  If an archive is composed of printable files,      
     the entire archive is printable.                                
                                                                     
     When ar creates an archive, it creates headers in a format      
     that is portable across all machines.  The portable archive     
     format and structure is described in detail in ar(4).  The      
     archive symbol table (described in ar(4)) is used by the        
     link editor (ld(1)) to effect multiple passes over libraries    
     of object files in an efficient manner.  An archive symbol      
     table is only created and maintained by ar when there is at     
     least one object file in the archive.  The archive symbol       
     table is in a specially named file which is always the first    
     file in the archive.  This file is never mentioned or           
     accessible to the user.  Whenever the ar command is used to     
     create or update the contents of such an archive, the symbol    
     table is rebuilt.  The s option described below will force      
     the symbol table to be rebuilt. The symbol table holds a
     maximum of 20,000 symbols.                                       
                                                                      
     Unlike command options, the command key is a required part       
     of ar's command line.  The key (which may begin with a -) is     
     formed with one of the following letters:  drqtpmx.              
     Arguments to the key, alternatively, are made with one of        
     more of the following set:  vuaibcls.  posname is an archive     
     member name used as a reference point in positioning other       
     files in the archive.  afile is the archive file.  The names     
     are constituent files in the archive file.  The meanings of      
     the key characters are as follows:                               
                                                                      
     d    Delete the named files from the archive file.               
                                                                      
     r    Replace the named files in the archive file.  If the        
          optional character u is used with r, then only those        
          files with dates of modification later than the archive     
          files are replaced.  If an optional positioning             
          character from the set aib is used, then the posname        
          argument must be present and specifies that new files       
          are to be placed after (a) or before (b or i) posname.      
          Otherwise new files are placed at the end.                  
                                                                      
     q    Quickly append the named files to the end of the            
          archive file.  Optional positioning characters are          
          invalid.  The command does not check whether the added      
          members are already in the archive. This option is          
          useful to avoid quadratic behavior when creating a
          large archive piece-by-piece.  Unchecked, the file may      
          grow exponentially up to the second degree.                 
                                                                      
     t    Print a table of contents of the archive file.  If no       
          names are given, all files in the archive are tabled.       
          If names are given, only those files are tabled.            
                                                                      
     p    Print the named files in the archive.                       
                                                                      
     m    Move the named files to the end of the archive.  If a
          positioning character is present, then the posname          
          argument must be present and, as in r, specifies where      
          the files are to be moved.                                  
                                                                      
     x    Extract the named files.  If no names are given, all        
          files in the archive are extracted.  In neither case        
          does x alter the archive file.                              
                                                                      
     The meanings of the key arguments are as follows:                
                                                                      
     v    Give a verbose file-by-file description of the making       
          of a new archive file from the old archive and the          
          constituent files.  When used with t, give a long           
          listing of all information about the files.  When used      
          with x, precede each file with a name.                      
                                                                      
     c    Suppress the message that is produced by default when       
          afile is created.                                           
                                                                      
     l    Place temporary files in the local (current working)        
          directory, rather than in the default temporary             
          directory, /tmp.                                             
                                                                       
     s    Force the regeneration of the archive symbol table even      
          if ar is not invoked with a command which will modify        
          the archive contents.  This command is useful to             
          restore the archive symbol table after the strip(1)          
          command has been used on the archive.                        
                                                                       
SEE ALSO                                                               
     ld(1), lorder(1), strip(1), tmpnam(3S), a.out(4), ar(4).          
     "The Common Object File Format" in the UMAX V Programmer's        
     Guide.                                                            
                                                                       

BUGS                                                                   
     If the same file is mentioned twice in an argument list, it       
     may be put in the archive twice.                                  
                                                                       
                                                                              
                                                               
NAME                                                                   
     ar - common archive file format                                   
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     The archive command ar(1) combines several files into one.        
     Archives are used mainly as libraries to be searched by the       
     link editor ld(1).                                                
                                                                       
     Each archive begins with the archive magic string:                
                                                                       
     #define  ARMAG     "!<arch>\n"   /* magic string */               
     #define  SARMAG    8             /* length of magic string */     
                                                                       
     Each archive that contains common object files (see               
     a.out(4)) includes an archive symbol table.  The link editor      
     ld uses the symbol table to determine which archive members       
     Each archive that contains common object files (see               
     a.out(4)) includes an archive symbol table.  The link editor      
     ld uses the symbol table to determine which archive members       
     must be loaded during the link edit process.  The archive         
     symbol table (if it exists) is always the first file in the       
     archive (but is never listed) and is automatically created        
     and updated by ar.                                                
                                                                       
     Following the archive magic string are the archive file           
     members.  Each file member is preceded by a file member           
     header in the following format:                                   
                                                                       
     #define ARFMAG            "`\n"  /* header trailer string */      
     struct  ar_hdr {                 /* file member header */         
             char ar_date[12];        /* file member date */           
                                      member name */                   
             char ar_gid[6];          /* file member group             
                                      identification */                
             char ar_mode[8];         /* file member mode              
                                      (octal) */                       
             char ar_size[10];        /* file member size */           
             char ar_fmag[2];         /* header trailer string */      
     };                                                                
                                                                       
     All information in the file member headers is in printable        
     ASCII .  The numeric information in the headers is stored as      
     decimal numbers (except for ar_mode, which is in octal).          
     Thus, if the archive contains printable files, the archive        
     itself is printable.                                              

                                                                       
     The ar_name field is blank-padded and terminated with a
     slash (/).  The ar_date field is the modification date of         
     the file at the time it is inserted into the archive.             
     Common format archives can be moved from system to system as      
     long as the portable archive command ar is used.                  
                                                                       
     Each archive file member begins on an even byte boundary; a
     newline is inserted between files if necessary.                  
     Nevertheless the size given reflects the actual size of the      
     file exclusive of padding.                                       
                                                                      
     Notice there is no provision for empty areas in an archive       
     file.                                                            
                                                                      
     If the archive symbol table exists, the first file in the        
     archive has a zero length name (that is, ar_name[0] == '/').     
     The contents of this file are:                                   
                                                                      
          The number of symbols.  Length: 4 bytes.                    
                                                                      
          The array of offsets into the archive file.  Length: 4      
          bytes * "the number of symbols".                            
                                                                      
          The name string table.  Length:  ar_size - (4 bytes *       
          ("the number of symbols" + 1)).                             
                                                                      
     The string table contains exactly as many null-terminated        
     strings as there are elements in the offsets array.  Each        
     offset from the array is associated with the corresponding       
     name from the string table (in order).  The names in the         
     string table are all the defined global symbols found in the     
     common object files in the archive.  Each offset is the          
     location of the archive header for the associated symbol.        
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     ar(1), ld(1), strip(1), ldahread(3X), ldfcn(4), a.out(4).        
                                                                      
CAVEATS                                                               
     strip removes all archive symbol entries from the header.        
     The archive symbol entries must be restored with the ts          
     option of ar command before the archive can be used with the     
     link editor ld.                                                  
                               NOTES
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
APPENDIX J - time

$man time                                                                  
                                                                       
NAME                                                                   
     time - get time                                                   
                                                                       
SYNOPSIS                                                               
     #include <sys/types.h>                                            
                                                                       
     time_t time (tloc)                                                
     time_t *tloc;                                                     
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     time returns the value of time in seconds since 00:00:00          
     GMT, January 1, 1970.                                             
                                                                       
     If tloc is not a null pointer, the return value is also           
     stored in the location to which tloc points.                      
                                                                       
     time will fail if the following is true:                          
                                                                       
     [EFAULT]  points to an illegal address.                           
                                                                       
SEE ALSO                                                               
     stime(2).                                                         
                                                                       
DIAGNOSTICS                                                            
     Upon successful completion, time returns the value of time.       
     Otherwise, a value of -1 is returned and errno is set to          
     indicate the error.                                               
                                                                       
                                                                       
NAME                                                                   
     time, ctime, ltime, gmtime - return system time                   
                                                                       
SYNOPSIS                                                               
     integer function time() character*(*) function ctime (stime       
     integer stime subroutine ltime (stime, tarray)                    
     integer stime, tarray(9) subroutine gmtime (stime, tarray)        
     integer stime, tarray(9)                                          
                                                                       
DESCRIPTION                                                            
     Time returns the time since 00:00:00 GMT, Jan 1, 1970,            
     measured in seconds.  This is the value of the system clock       
                                                                       
     Ctime converts a system time to a 24-character ASCII string       
     The format is described under ctime(3).  No newline or NULL       
     is included.                                                      
                                                                       
     Ltime and gmtime both disect a time field into month, day,        
     etc., either for the local time zone or for GMT.  The order       
     and meaning of each element returned in tarray is described       
     under ctime(3).                                                   
                                                                       
FILES                                                                  
     /usr/lib/libU77.a
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     ctime(3), itime(3F), idate(3F), fdate(3F)                        
                                                                      
                                                                      
NAME                                                                  
     time - time a command                                            
                                                                      
SYNOPSIS                                                              
     time command                                                     
                                                                      
DESCRIPTION                                                           
     The command is executed; after it is complete, time prints       
     the elapsed time during the command, the time spent in the       
     system, and the time spent in execution of the command.          
     Times are reported in seconds.                                   
                                                                      
     The times are printed on standard error.                         
                                                                      
SEE ALSO                                                              
     timex(1).                                                        
     times(2) in the UMAX V Programmer's Reference Manual.            
APPENDIX K - ksh

$man ksh                                                                 
                                                                      
NAME                                                                  
     ksh, rksh - korn shell, a command programming language           
                                                                      
SYNOPSIS                                                              
     ksh [ -acefhikmnorstuvx ] [ -o option ] ... [ arg ... ]          
     rksh [ -acefhikmnorstuvx ] [ -o option ] ... [ arg ... ]         
                                                                      
DESCRIPTION                                                           
     ksh is a command programming language that executes commands     
     read from a terminal or a file.  rksh is a restricted            
     version of the standard command interpreter ksh; it is used      
     to set up login names and execution environments whose           
     capabilities are more controlled than those of the standard      
     shell.  See Invocation below for the meaning of arguments to     
     the shell.                                                       
                                                                      
     ksh is close to being upwards compatible with the standard       
     Bourne shell (sh(1)).  Its major enhancements include            
     command re-entry, in-line command editing, and aliasing.         
                                                                      
   Definitions.                                                       
     A metacharacter is one of the following characters:              
                                                                      
          ; & ( ) | < > new-line space tab                            
                                                                      
     A blank is a tab or a space.  An identifier is a sequence of     
     letters, digits, or underscores starting with a letter or        
     underscore.  Identifiers are used as names for aliases,          
     functions, and named parameters.  A word is a sequence of        
     characters separated by one or more non-quoted                   
     metacharacters.                                                  
                                                                      
   Commands.                                                          
     A simple-command is a sequence of blank separated words           
     which may be preceded by a parameter assignment list.  (See       
     Environment below).  The first word specifies the name of         
     the command to be executed.  Except as specified below, the       
     remaining words are passed as arguments to the invoked            
     command.  The command name is passed as argument 0 (see           
     exec(2)).  The value of a simple-command is its exit status       
     if it terminates normally, or (octal) 200+status if it            
     terminates abnormally (see signal(2) for a list of status         
     values).                                                          
                                                                       
     A pipeline is a sequence of one or more commands separated        
     |.  The standard output of each command but the last is           
     connected by a pipe(2) to the standard input of the next          
     command.  Each command is run as a separate process; the          
     shell waits for the last command to terminate.  The exit          
     status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last command.      
     A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by        
     ;, &, &&, or ||, and optionally terminated by ;, &, or |&.        
     Of these five symbols, ;, &, and |& have equal precedence,        
     which is lower than that of && and ||.  The symbols && and        
     || also have equal precedence.  A semicolon (;) causes            
     sequential execution of the preceding pipeline; an ampersand      
     (&) causes asynchronous execution of the preceding pipeline       
     (i.e., the shell does not wait for that pipeline to finish).      
     The symbol |& causes asynchronous execution of the preceding      
     command or pipeline with a two-way pipe established to the        
     parent shell.  The standard input and output of the spawned       
     command can be written to and read from by the parent shell       
     using the -p option of the special commands read and print        
     described later.  Only one such command can be active at any      
     given time.  The symbol && (||) causes the list following it      
     to be executed only if the preceding pipeline returns a zero      
     (non-zero) value.  An arbitrary number of new-lines may           
     appear in a list, instead of semicolons, to delimit               
     commands.                                                         
                                                                       
     A command is either a simple-command or one of the                
     following.  Unless otherwise stated, the value returned by a
     command is that of the last simple-command executed in the        
     command.                                                          
                                                                       
     for identifier [ in word ... ] do list done                       
          Each time a for command is executed, identifier is set       
          to the next word taken from the in word list.  If in         
          word ...  is omitted, then the for command executes the      
          do list once for each positional parameter that is set       
          (see Parameter Substitution below).  Execution ends          
          when there are no more words in the list.                    
                                                                       
     select identifier [ in word ... ] do list done                    
          A select command prints on standard error (file              
          descriptor 2), the set of words, each preceded by a
          number.  If in word ...  is omitted, then the                
          positional parameters are used instead (see Parameter        
          Substitution below).  The PS3 prompt is printed and a
          line is read from the standard input.  If this line         
          consists of the number of one of the listed words, then     
          the value of the parameter identifier is set to the         
          word corresponding to this number.  If this line is         
          empty, the selection list is printed again.  Otherwise      
          the value of the parameter identifier is set to null.       
          The contents of the line read from standard input is        
          saved in the parameter REPLY.  The list is executed for     
          each selection until a break or end-of-file is              
          encountered.                                                
                                                                      
     case word in [ pattern [ | pattern ] ... ) list ;; ] ... esac
          A case command executes the list associated with the    
          first pattern that matches word.  The form of the            
          patterns is the same as that used for file-name              
          generation (see File Name Generation below).                 
                                                                       
    if list then list [ elif list then list ] ... [ else list ] fi     
          The list following if is executed and, if it returns a
          zero exit status, the list following the first then is       
          executed.  Otherwise, the list following elif is             
          executed and, if its value is zero, the list following       
          the next then is executed.  Failing that, the else list      
          is executed.  If no else list or then list is executed,      
          then the if command returns a zero exit status.              
                                                                       
     while list do list done                                           
     until list do list done                                           
          A while command repeatedly executes the while list and,      
          if the exit status of the last command in the list is        
          zero, executes the do list; otherwise the loop               
          terminates.  If no commands in the do list are               
          executed, then the while command returns a zero exit         
          status; until may be used in place of while to negate        
          the loop termination test.                                   
                                                                       
     (list)                                                            
          Execute list in a separate environment.  Note, that if       
          two adjacent open parentheses are needed for nesting, a
          space must be inserted to avoid arithmetic evaluation        
          as described below.                                          
                                                                       
     {list;}                                                           
          list is simply executed.  Note that { is a keyword and       
          requires a blank in order to be recognized.                  
                                                                       
     function identifier  { list ;}                                    
     identifier  () { list ;}                                          
          Define a function which is referenced by identifier.         
          The body of the function is the list of commands             
          between { and }.  (See Functions below).                     
                                                                       
     time pipeline                                                    
          The pipeline is executed and the elapsed time as well       
          as the user and system time are printed on standard         
          error.                                                      
                                                                      
     The following keywords are only recognized as the first word     
     of a command and when not quoted:                                
                                                                      
     if then else elif fi case esac for while until do done { }       
     function select time                                             
                                                                      
   Comments.                                                          
     A word beginning with # causes that word and all the             
     following characters up to a new-line to be ignored.             
                                                                      
   Aliasing.                                                          
     The first word of each command is replaced by the text of an     
     alias if an alias for this word has been defined.  The first     
     character of an alias name can be any printable character,       
     but the rest of the characters must be the same as for a
     valid identifier.  The replacement string can contain any        
     valid shell script including the metacharacters listed           
     above.  The first word of each command of the replaced text      
     will not be tested for additional aliases.  If the last          
     character of the alias value is a blank then the word            
     following the alias will also be checked for alias               
     substitution.  Aliases can be used to redefine special           
     built-in commands but cannot be used to redefine the             
     keywords listed above.  Aliases can be created, listed, and      
     exported with the alias command and can be removed with the      
     unalias command.  Exported aliases remain in effect for          
     sub-shells but must be reinitialized for separate                
     invocations of the shell (See Invocation below).                 
                                                                      
     Aliasing is performed when scripts are read, not while they      
     are executed.  Therefore, for an alias to take effect the        
     alias command has to be executed before the command which        
     references the alias is read.                                    
                                                                      
     Aliases are frequently used as a short hand for full path        
     names.  An option to the aliasing facility allows the value      
     of the alias to be automatically set to the full path name       
     of the corresponding command.  These aliases are called          
     tracked aliases.  The value of a tracked alias is defined        
     the first time the identifier is read and undefined each         
     time the PATH variable is reset.  These aliases remain           
     tracked so that the next subsequent reference will redefine      
     the value.  Several tracked aliases are compiled into the        
     shell.  The -h option of the set command makes each command      
     name which is an identifier into a tracked alias.                
                                                                      
     The following exported aliases are compiled into the shell       
     but can be unset or redefined:                                   
                                                                      
                         echo='print -'                               
                         false='let 0'                                
                         functions='typeset -f'                       
                         history='fc -l'                              
                         integer='typeset -i'                         
                         nohup='nohup '                               
                         pwd='print - $PWD'                            
                         r='fc -e -'                                   
                         true=':'                                       
                         type='whence -v'                               
                         hash='alias -t'                                
                                                                        

   Tilde Substitution.                                                  
     After alias substitution is performed, each word is checked        
     to see if it begins with an unquoted ~.  If it does, then          
     the word up to a / is checked to see if it matches a user          
     name in the /etc/passwd file.  If a match is found, the ~          
     and the matched login name is replaced by the login                
     directory of the matched user.  This is called a tilde            
     substitution.  If no match is found, the original text is         
     left unchanged.  A ~ by itself, or in front of a /, is            
     replaced by the value of the HOME parameter.  A ~ followed        
     by a + or - is replaced by the value of the parameter PWD         
     and OLDPWD respectively.                                          
                                                                       
     In addition, the value of each keyword parameter is checked       
     to see if it begins with a ~ or if a ~ appears after a :.         
     In either of these cases a tilde substitution is attempted.       
                                                                       
   Command Substitution.                                               
     The standard output from a command enclosed in a pair of          
     grave accents (``) may be used as part or all of a word;          
     trailing new-lines are removed.  The command substitution        
     `cat file` can be replaced by the equivalent but faster          
     `<file>`.  Command substitution of most special commands         
     that do not perform input/output redirection are carried out     
     without creating a separate process.                             
                                                                      
   Parameter Substitution.                                            
     A parameter is an identifier, a digit, or any of the             
     characters *, @, #, ?, -, $, and !.  A named parameter (a
     parameter denoted by an identifier) has a value and zero or      
     more attributes.  Named parameters can be assigned values        
     and attributes by using the typeset special command.  The        
     attributes supported by the shell are described later with       
     the typeset special command.  Exported parameters pass           
     values and attributes to sub-shells but only values to the       
     environment.                                                     
                                                                      
     The shell supports a limited one-dimensional array facility.     
     An element of an array parameter is referenced by a
     subscript.  A subscript is denoted by a [, followed by an        
     arithmetic expression (see Arithmetic Evaluation below)          
     followed by a ].  The value of all subscripts must be in the     
     range of 0 through 511.  Arrays need not be declared.  Any       
     reference to a named parameter with a valid subscript is         
     legal and an array will be created if necessary.                 
     Referencing an array without a subscript is equivalent to        
     referencing the first element.                                   
                                                                      
     The value of a named parameter may also be assigned by           
     writing:                                                         
                                                                      
          name=value [ name=value ] ...                               
                                                                      
     If the integer attribute, -i, is set for name the value is       
     subject to arithmetic evaluation as described below.             
     Positional parameters, parameters denoted by a number, may       
     be assigned values with the set special command.  Parameter      
     $0 is set from argument zero when the shell is invoked.          
     The character $ is used to introduce substitutable               
     parameters.                                                      
     ${parameter}                                                     
          The value, if any, of the parameter is substituted.         
          The braces are required when parameter is followed by a
          letter, digit, or underscore that is not to be              
          interpreted as part of its name or when a named             
          parameter is subscripted.  If parameter is a digit then     
          it is a positional parameter.  If parameter is * or @,      
          then all the positional parameters, starting with $1,       
          are substituted (separated by spaces).  If an array         
          identifier with subscript * or @ is used, then the          
          value for each of the elements is substituted               
          (separated by spaces).                                      
     ${#parameter}                                                    
          If parameter is not *, the length of the value of the       
          parameter is substituted.  Otherwise, the number of         
          positional parameters is substituted.                       
     ${#identifier[*]}                                                
          The number of elements in the array identifier is           
          substituted.                                                
     ${parameter:-word}                                               
          If parameter is set and is non-null then substitute its     
          value; otherwise substitute word.                           
     ${parameter:=word}                                               
          If parameter is not set or is null then set it to word;     
          the value of the parameter is then substituted.             
          Positional parameters may not be assigned to in this        
          way.                                                        
     ${parameter:?word}                                               
          If parameter is set and is non-null then substitute its     
          value; otherwise, print word and exit from the shell.       
          If word is omitted then a standard message is printed.      
     ${parameter:+word}                                               
          If parameter is set and is non-null then substitute         
          word; otherwise substitute nothing.                         
     ${parameter#pattern}                                             
     ${parameter##pattern}                                            
          If the shell pattern matches the beginning of the value     
          of parameter, then the value of this substitution is        
          the value of the parameter with the matched portion         
          deleted; otherwise, the value of this parameter is          
          substituted.  In the first form the smallest matching       
          pattern is deleted and in the latter form the largest       
          matching pattern is deleted.                                
                                                                      
     ${parameter%pattern}                                             
     ${parameter%%pattern}                                            
          If the shell pattern matches the end of the value of        
          parameter, then the value of parameter with the matched     
          part is deleted; otherwise substitute the value of          
          parameter.  In the first form the smallest matching         
          pattern is deleted and in the latter form the largest       
          matching pattern is deleted.                                
                                                                      
     In the above, word is not evaluated unless it is to be used      
     as the substituted string, so that, in the following             
     example, pwd is executed only if d is not set or is null:        
                                                                      
          echo ${d:-`pwd`}                                            
                                                                      
     If the colon (:) is omitted from the above expressions, then     
     the shell only checks whether parameter is set or not.           
     If the shell pattern matches the end of the value of             
     parameter, then the value of parameter with the matched          
     part is deleted; otherwise substitute the value of               
     parameter.  In the first form the smallest matching              
     pattern is deleted and in the latter form the largest            
     matching pattern is deleted.                                     
                                                                      
In the above, word is not evaluated unless it is to be used           
as the substituted string, so that, in the following                  
example, pwd is executed only if d is not set or is null:             
                                                                      
     echo ${d:-`pwd`}                                                 
                                                                      
If the colon (:) is omitted from the above expressions, then          
the shell only checks whether parameter is set or not.                
                                                                      
The following parameters are automatically set by the shell:          
     #    The number of positional parameters in decimal.             
     -    Flags supplied to the shell on invocation or by             
          the set command.                                            
     ?    The decimal value returned by the last executed             
          command.                                                    
     $    The process number of this shell.                           
     _    The last argument of the previous command.  This            
          parameter is not set for commands which are                  
          asynchronous.                                                
     !    The process number of the last background command            
          invoked.                                                     
     PPID The process number of the parent of the shell.               
     PWD  The present working directory set by the cd                  
          command.                                                    
     OLDPWD                                                           
          The previous working directory set by the cd                
          command.                                                    
     RANDOM                                                           
          Each time this parameter is referenced, a random            
          integer is generated.  The sequence of random               
          numbers can be initialized by assigning a numeric           
          initialized by assigning a numeric value to                 
     RANDOM.                                                          
          Each time this parameter is referenced, a random            
          integer is generated.  The sequence of random               
          numbers can be initialized by assigning a numeric           
          to RANDOM.                                                  
     REPLY                                                            
          This parameter is set by the select statement and           
          by the read special command when no arguments are           
          supplied.                                                   
                                                                      
The following parameters are used by the shell:                       
     CDPATH                                                           
          The search path for the cd command.                         
     COLUMNS                                                          
          If this variable is set, the value is used to               
          define the width of the edit window for the shell           
          edit modes and for printing select lists.                   
     EDITOR                                                           
          If the value of this variable ends in emacs,                
          gmacs, or vi and the VISUAL variable is not set,            
          then the corresponding option (see Special                  
          Commands set below) will be turned on.                      
     ENV  If this parameter is set, then parameter                    
          substitution is performed on the value to generate          
          the  path name of the script that will be executed          
          when the shell is invoked.  (See Invocation                 
          below.) This file is typically used for alias and           
          function definitions.                                       
     FCEDIT                                                           
          The default editor name for the fc command.                 
     IFS  Internal field separators, normally space, tab,             
          and new-line that is used to separate command               
          words which result from command or parameter                
          substitution and for separating words with  the             
          special command read.                                       
     HISTFILE                                                         
          If this parameter is set when the shell is                  
          invoked, then the value is the path name of the             
          file that will be used to store the command                 
          history.  (See Command Re-entry below.)                     
     HISTSIZE                                                         
          If this parameter is set when the shell is                  
          invoked, then the number of previously entered              
          commands that are accessible by this shell will be          
          greater than or equal to this number.  The default          
          is 128.                                                     
     HOME The default argument (home directory) for the cd            
          command.                                                    
     MAIL If this parameter is set to the name of a mail              
          file and the MAILPATH parameter is not set, then            
          the shell informs the user of arrival of mail in            
          the specified file.                                         
     MAILCHECK                                                        
          This variable specifies how often (in seconds) the          
          shell will check for changes in the modification            
          time of any of the files specified by the MAILPATH          
          or MAIL parameters.  The default value is 600               
          seconds.  If set to 0, the shell will check before          
          each prompt.                                                
     MAILPATH                                                         
          A colon ( : ) separated list of file names.  If             
          this parameter is set then the shell informs the            
          user of any modifications to the specified files            
          that have occurred within the last MAILCHECK                
          seconds.  Each file name can be followed by a ?             
          and a message that will be printed.  The message            
          will undergo parameter and command substitution             
          with the parameter, $_ defined as the name of the           
          file that has changed.  The default message is you          
          have mail in $_.                                            
     PATH The search path for commands (see Execution                 
          below).  The user may not change PATH if executing          
          under rksh (except in .profile).                            
     PS1  The value of this parameter is expanded for                 
          parameter substitution to define the primary                
          prompt string which by default is "$ ".  The                
          character !  in the primary prompt string is                
          replaced by the command number (see Command Re-             
          entry below).                                               
     PS2  Secondary prompt string, by default "> ".                   
     PS3  Selection prompt string used within a select loop,          
          by default "#? ".                                           
     SHELL                                                            
          The path name of the shell is kept in the                   
          environment.  At invocation, if the value of this           
          variable contains an r in the basename, then the            
          shell becomes restricted.                                   
     TMOUT                                                            
          If set to a value greater than zero, the shell              
          will terminate if a command is not entered within           
          the prescribed number of seconds.  When the timer           
          expires, a warning is printed and a 60 second               
          grace period is provided.                                   
    VISUAL                                                            
          If the value of this variable ends in emacs,                
          gmacs, or vi then the corresponding option (see             
          Special Commands set below) will be turned on.              
                                                                      
The shell gives default values to PS1, PS2, MAILCHECK,                
TMOUT, and IFS.  HOME, MAIL, SHELL, PATH, and TZ are set by           
login(1).  The remaining parameters are typically set in              
/etc/profile, .profile, or $(ENV) files.                              
                                                                      
After parameter and command substitution, the results of              
substitutions are scanned for the field separator characters          
( those found in IFS ) and split into distinct arguments              
where such characters are found.  Explicit null arguments ""          
or ' ' are retained.  Implicit null arguments (those                  
resulting from parameters that have no values) are removed.           
                                                                      
Following substitution, each command word is scanned for the          
characters *, ?, and [ unless the -f option has been set.             
If one of these characters appears then the word is regarded          
as a pattern.  The word is replaced with alphabetically               
sorted file names that match the pattern.  If no file name            
is found that matches the pattern, then the word is left              
unchanged.  When a pattern is used for file name generation,          
the character . at the start of a file name or immediately            
following a /, as well as the character / itself, must be             
matched explicitly.  In other instances of pattern matching           
the / and . are not treated specially.                                
                                                                      
     *    Matches any string, including the null string.              
     ?    Matches any single character.                               
     [...]                                                            
          Matches any one of the enclosed characters.  A
            
          pair of characters separated by - matches any                
          character lexically between the pair, inclusive.             
          If the first character following the opening [ is            
          a !, then any character not enclosed is matched.             
          A - can be included in the character set by                  
          putting it as the first or last character.                   
                                                                       
Each of the metacharacters listed above (See Definitions               
above) has a special meaning to the shell and causes                   
termination of a word unless quoted.  A character may be               
quoted (i.e., made to stand for itself) by preceding it with           
a \.  The pair \new-line is ignored.  All characters                   
enclosed between a pair of single quote marks (''), except a
single quote, are quoted.  Inside double quote marks (""),             
parameter and command substitution occurs and \ quotes the             
characters \, ', ", and $.  $* is equivalent to "$1 $2 ...",           
whereas $@ is equivalent to $1  $2  ....                               
                                                                       
The special meaning of keywords can be removed by quoting              
any character of the keyword.  The recognition of special              
command names listed below cannot be altered by quoting                
them.                                                                  
                                                                       
An ability to perform integer arithmetic is provided with              
the special command let.  Evaluations are performed using              
long arithmetic.  Constants are of the form [base#]n where             
base is a decimal number between two and thirty-six                    
representing the arithmetic base and n is a number in that             
base.  If the base is omitted them base 10 is used.                    
                                                                       
An internal integer representation of a named parameter can            
be specified with the -i option of the typeset special                 
command.  When this attribute is selected the first                    
assignment to the parameter determines the arithmetic base             
to be used when parameter substitution occurs.                         
                                                                       
Since many of the arithmetic operators require quoting, an             
alternative form of the let command is provided.  For any              
command which begins with a ((, all the characters until a
matching )) are treated as a quoted expression.  More                  
precisely, ((...)) is equivalent to let " ...".                         
                                                                        
When used interactively, the shell prompts with the value of            
PS1 before reading a command.  If at any time a new-line is             
typed and further input is needed to complete a command,                
then the secondary prompt (i.e., the value of PS2) is                   
issued.                                                                 
                                                                        
Before a command is executed, its input and output may be               
redirected using a special notation interpreted by the                  
shell.  The following may appear anywhere in a simple-                  
command or may precede or follow a command and are not                  
passed on to the invoked command.  Command and parameter                
substitution occurs before word or digit is used except as              
noted below.  File name generation occurs only if the                   
pattern matches a single file and blank interpretation is               
not performed.                                                          
                                                                        
<word         Use file word as standard input (file                     
              descriptor 0).                                            
                                                                        
>word         Use file word as standard output (file                    
              descriptor 1).  If the file does not exist                
              then it is created; otherwise, it is truncated            
              to zero length.                                           
                                                                        
>>word        Use file word as standard output.  If the file            
              exists then output is appended to it (by first            
              seeking to the end-of-file); otherwise, the               
              file is created.                                          
                                                                        
<<[-]word     The shell input is read up to a line that is              
              the same as word, or to an end-of-file.  No              
              parameter substitution, command substitution             
              or file name generation is performed on word.            
              The resulting document, called a here-                   
              document, becomes the standard input.  If any            
              character of word is quoted, no interpretation           
              is placed upon the characters of the document;           
              otherwise, parameter and command substitution            
              occurs, \new-line is ignored, and \ must be              
              used to quote the characters \, $, `, and the            
              first character of word.  If - is appended to            
              <<, all leading tabs are stripped from word              
              and from the document.                                   
                                                                       
<&digit       The standard input is duplicated from file               
              descriptor digit (see dup(2)).  Similarly for            
              the standard output using >& digit.                      
                                                                       
<&-           The standard input is closed.  Similarly for             
              the standard output using >&-.                           
                                                                       
If one of the above is preceded by a digit, then the file              
descriptor number referred to is that specified by the digit           
(instead of the default 0 or 1).  For example:                         
                                                                       
     ... 2>&1                                                          
                                                                       
means file descriptor 2 is to be opened for writing as a
duplicate of file descriptor 1.                                        
                                                                       
The order in which redirections are specified is                       
significant.  The shell evaluates each redirection in terms            
of the (file descriptor, file) association at the time of              
evaluation.  For example:                                              
                                                                       
     ... 1>fname 2>&1                                                  
                                                                       
first associates file descriptor 1 with file fname.  It then           
associates file descriptor 2 with the file associated with             
file descriptor 1 (i.e. fname).  If the order of                       
redirections were reversed, file descriptor 2 would be                 
associated with the terminal (assuming file descriptor 1 had           
been) and then file descriptor 1 would be associated with              
file fname.                                                            
                                                                       
If a command is followed by & and job control is not active,           
then the default standard input for the command is the empty           
file /dev/null.  Otherwise, the environment for the                    
execution of a command contains the file descriptors of the            
invoking shell as modified by input/output specifications.             
                                                                       
The environment (see environ(5)) is a list of name-value               
pairs that is passed to an executed program in the same way            
as a normal argument list.  The names must be identifiers              
and the values are character strings.  The shell interacts             
with the environment in several ways.  On invocation, the              
shell scans the environment and creates a parameter for each           
name found, giving it the corresponding value and marking it           
export.  Executed commands inherit the environment.  If the            
user modifies the values of these parameters or creates new            
ones, using the export or typeset -x commands they become              
part of the environment.  The environment seen by any                  
executed command is thus composed of any name-value pairs              
originally inherited by the shell, whose values may be                 
modified by the current shell, plus any additions which must           
be noted in export or typeset -x commands.                             
                                                                       
The environment for any simple-command or function may be              
augmented by prefixing it with one or more parameter                   
assignments.  A parameter assignment argument is a word of             
the form identifier=value.  Thus:                                      
                                                                       
     TERM=450 cmd args                  and                            
                                                                       
     (export TERM; TERM=450; cmd args)                                 
                                                                       
     are equivalent (as far as the above execution of cmd is           
     concerned).                                                       
                                                                       
     If the -k flag is set, all parameter assignment arguments         
     are placed in the environment, even if they occur after the       
     command name.  The following first prints a=b c and then c:       
                                                                       
             echo a=b c                                                
             set -k                                                    
             echo a=b c                                                
                                                                       
   Functions.                                                          
     The function keyword, described in the Commands section           
     above, is used to define shell functions.  Shell functions        
     are read in and stored internally.  Alias names are resolved      
     when the function is read.  Functions are executed like           
     commands with the arguments passed as positional parameters.      
     (See Execution below).                                            
                                                                       
     Functions execute in the same process as the caller and           
     share all files, traps (other than EXIT and ERR) and present      
     working directory with the caller.  A trap set on EXIT            
     inside a function is executed after the function completes.       
     Ordinarily, variables are shared between the calling program      
     and the function.  However, the typeset special command used      
     within a function defines local variables whose scope             
     includes the current function and all functions it calls.         
                                                                       
     The special command return is used to return from function        
     calls.  Errors within functions return control to the             
     caller.                                                           
                                                                       
     Function identifiers can be listed with the -f option of the      
     typeset special command.  The text of functions will also be      
     listed.  Function can be undefined with the -f option of the      
     unset special command.                                            
                                                                     
     Ordinarily, functions are unset when the shell executes a
     shell script.  The -xf option of the typeset command allows       
     a function to be exported to scripts that are executed            
     without a separate invocation of the shell.  Functions that       
     need to be defined across separate invocations of the shell       
     should be placed in the ENV file.                                        
                                                              
   Jobs.                                                               
     If the monitor option of the set command is turned on, a
     terminating background job is so noted whenever ksh is  
     writing a prompt.  When a job is started asynchronously with      
     &, the shell prints a line which looks like:                      
                                                                       
          [1] 1234                                                     
                                                                       
     indicating that the job started asynchronously was job            
     number 1 and had one (top-level) process, whose process id        
     was 1234.  It keeps a table of current jobs, printed by the       
     jobs command, and assigns them small integer numbers.             
                                                                       
     There are several ways to refer to jobs in the shell.  The        
     character % introduces a job name.  When referring to job         
     number 1, name it as %1.  Jobs can also be named by prefixes      
     of the string typed in to invoke them.  Thus, 'kill %cc'          
     would kill a background job whose name began with the string      
     "cc" (if there were such a job).                                  
                                                                       
     The shell maintains a notion of the current and previous          
     jobs.  In output pertaining to jobs, the current job is           
     marked with a + and the previous job with a -.  The               
     abbreviation %+ refers to the current job and %- refers to        
     the previous job.  %% is also a synonym for the current job.      
                                                                       
     This shell learns immediately whenever a process changes          
     state.  It normally informs the user whenever a job is            
     finished executing, but only just before it prints a prompt.      
     This is done so that it does not otherwise disturb other          
     work.                                                            
                                                                      
     When attempting to leave a login shell while jobs are            
     running, be warning will be printed that 'You have running       
     jobs'.  Use the jobs command to see what they are.  If           
     immediately trying exit again, the shell will give a second      
     warning, and the jobs will be terminated.                        
                                                                      
   Job Control.                                                       
     If a job is running, a ^Z <ctrl>Z can be typed which sends a
     STOP signal to the current job.  The shell will then             
     normally indicate that the job has been 'Stopped', and print     
     another prompt.  The state of this job can then be               
     manipulated using the bg command, or running some other          
     commands and then eventually bring the job back into the         
     foreground with the foreground command fg.  A ^Z takes           
     effect immediately and is like an interrupt in that pending      
     output and unread input are discarded when it is typed.          
                                                                      
     A job being run in the background will stop if it tries to       
     read from the terminal.  Background jobs are normally            
     allowed to produce output, but this can be disabled by           
     giving the command stty tostop.  If this tty option is set,      
     background jobs will stop when they try to produce output        
     like they do when they try to read input.                        
                                                                      
   Signals.                                                           
     The INT and QUIT signals for an invoked command are ignored      
     if the command is followed by & and job monitor option is        
     not active.  Otherwise, signals have the values inherited by     
     the shell from its parent, with the exception of signal 11       
     (but see also the trap command below).                           
   Execution.                                                         
     Each time a command is executed, the above substitutions are     
     carried out.  If the command name matches one of the Special     
     Commands listed below, it is executed within the current         
     shell process.  Next, the command name is checked to see if      
     it matches one of the user defined functions.  If it does,       
     the positional parameters are saved and then reset to the        
     arguments of the function call.  When the function completes     
     or issues a return, the positional parameter list is             
     restored and any trap set on EXIT within the function is         
     executed.  The value of a function is the value of the last      
     command executed.  A function is also executed in the            
     current shell process.  If a command name is not a special       
     command or a user defined function, a process is created and     
     an attempt is made to execute the command via exec(2).           
                                                                      
     The shell parameter PATH defines the search path for the         
     directory containing the command.  Alternative directory         
     names are separated by a colon (:).  The default path is         
     :/bin:/usr/bin (specifying the current directory, /bin, and      
     /usr/bin, in that order).  Note that the current directory       
     is specified by a null path name, which can appear               
     immediately after the equal sign, between colon delimiters,      
     or at the end of the path list.  If the command name             
     contains a / then the search path is not used.  Otherwise,       
     each directory in the path is searched for an executable         
     file.  If the file has execute permission but is not a
     directory or an a.out file, it is assumed to be a file           
     containing shell commands.  A sub-shell is spawned to read       
     it.  All non-exported aliases, functions, and named              
     parameters are removed in this case.  A parenthesized            
     command is also executed in a sub-shell.                         
                                                                      
   Command Re-entry.                                                  
     The text of the last HISTSIZE (default 128) commands entered     
     from a terminal device is saved in a history file.  The file     
     $HOME/.history is used if the HISTFILE variable is not set       
     or is not writable.  A shell can access the commands of all      
     interactive shells which use the same named HISTFILE.  The       
     special command fc is used to list or edit a portion this        
     file.  The portion of the file to be edited or listed can be     
     selected by number or by giving the first character or           
     characters of the command.  A single command or range of         
     commands can be specified.  If an editor program is not          
     specified as an argument to fc, the value of the parameter       
     FCEDIT is used.  If FCEDIT is not defined, /bin/ed is used.      
     The edited command(s) is printed and re-executed upon            
     leaving the editor.  The editor name - is used to skip the       
     editing phase and to re-execute the command.  In this case a
     substitution parameter of the form old=new can be used to        
     modify the command before execution.  For example, if r is       
     aliased to 'fc -e -' typing 'r bad=good c' will re-execute       
     the most recent command which starts with the letter c,          
     replacing the string bad with the string good.                   
                                                                      
   In-line Editing Options                                            
     Normally, each command line entered from a terminal device       
     is simply typed followed by a new-line ('RETURN' or              
     'LINE FEED').  If either the emacs, or vi option is active,      
     the user can edit the command line.  To be in either of          
     these edit modes set the corresponding option.  An editing       
     option is automatically selected each time the VISUAL or         
     EDITOR variable is assigned a value ending in either of          
     these option names.                                              
                                                                      
     The editing features require that the user's terminal accept     
     'RETURN' as carriage return without line feed and that a
     space '  ' must overwrite the current character on the           
     screen.  ADM terminal users should set the "space - advance"     
     switch to 'space'.  Hewlett-Packard series 2621 terminal         
     users should set the straps to 'bcGHxZ etX'.                     
                                                                      
     The editing modes implement a concept where the user is          
     looking through a window at the current line.  The window        
     width is the value of COLUMNS if it is defined, otherwise        
     80.  If the line is longer than the window width minus two,      
     a mark is displayed at the end of the window to notify the       
     user.  As the cursor moves and reaches the window boundaries     
     the window will be centered about the cursor.  The mark is a
     > ( <, *) if the line extends on the right (left, both)          
     side(s) of the window.                                           
                                                                      
   Emacs Editing Mode                                                 
     This mode is entered by enabling either the emacs or gmacs       
     option.  The only difference between these two modes is the      
     way they handle ^T.  To edit, the user moves the cursor to       
     the point needing correction and then inserts or deletes         
     characters or words as needed.  All the editing commands are     
     control characters or escape sequences.  The notation for        
     control characters is caret () followed by the character.        
     For example, ^F is the notation for control F.  This is          
     entered by depressing 'f' while holding down the 'CTRL'          
     (control) key.  The 'SHIFT' key is not depressed.  (The          
     notation ^? indicates the DEL (delete) key.)                     
                                                                      
     The notation for escape sequences is M- followed by a
     character.  For example, M-f (pronounced Meta f) is entered       
     by depressing ESC (ascii 033 ) followed by 'f'.  ( M-F would      
     be the notation for ESC followed by 'SHIFT' (capital) 'F'.)       
     All edit commands operate from any place on the line (not         
     just at the beginning).  Neither the "RETURN" nor the "LINE       
     FEED" key is entered after edit commands except when noted.       
                                                                       
     ^F        Move cursor forward (right) one character.              
     M-f       Move cursor forward one word.  (The editor's idea
               of a word is a string of characters consisting of       
               only letters, digits and underscores.)                  
     ^B        Move cursor backward (left) one character.              
     M-b       Move cursor backward one word.                          
     ^A        Move cursor to start of line.                           
     ^E        Move cursor to end of line.                             
     ^]char    Move cursor to character char on current line.          
     ^X^X      Interchange the cursor and mark.                        
     erase     (User defined erase character as defined by the         
               stty command, usually ^H or #.) Delete previous         
               character.                                              
     ^D        Delete current character.                               
     M-d       Delete current word.                                    
     M-^H      (Meta-backspace) Delete previous word.                  
     M-h       Delete previous word.                                   
     M-^?      (Meta-DEL) Delete previous word (if the interrupt       
               character is ^? (DEL, the default) then this            
               command will not work).                                 
     ^T        Transpose current character with next character in      
               emacs mode.  Transpose two previous characters in       
               gmacs mode.                                             
     ^C        Capitalize current character.                           
     M-C       Capitalize current word.                                
     ^K        Kill from the cursor to the end of the line.  If        
               given a parameter of zero then kill from the start      
               of line to the cursor.                                  
     ^W        Kill from the cursor to the mark.                       
     M-p       Push the region from the cursor to the mark on the      
               stack.                                                  
     kill      (User defined kill character as defined by the          
               stty command, usually ^G or @.) Kill the entire         
               current line.  If two kill characters are entered       
               in succession, all kill characters from then on         
               cause a line feed (useful when using paper              
               terminals).                                             
     ^Y        Restore last item removed from line. (Yank item         
               back to the line.)                                      
     ^L        Line feed and print current line.                       
     ^@        (Null character) Set mark.                              
     M-        (Meta space) Set mark.                                  
     ^J        (New line)  Execute the current line.                   
     ^M        (Return)  Execute the current line.                     
     eof       End-of-file character, normally ^D, will terminate      
               the shell if the current line is null.                  
     ^P        Fetch previous command. Each time ^P is entered         
               the previous command back in time is accessed.          
     M-<       Fetch the least recent (oldest) history line.           
     M->       Fetch the most recent (youngest) history line.          
     ^N        Fetch next command. Each time ^N is entered the         
               next command forward in time is accessed.               
     ^Rstring  Reverse search history for a previous command line      
               containing string.  If a parameter of zero is           
               given the search is forward.  String is terminated      
               by a "RETURN" or "NEW LINE".                            
     ^O        Operate - Execute the current line and fetch the        
               next line relative to current line from the             
               history file.                                           
     M-digits  (Escape) Define numeric parameter, the digits are       
               taken as a parameter to the next command.  The          
               commands that accept a parameter are ^F, ^B,            
               erase, ^D, ^K, ^R, ^P and ^N.                           
     M-letter  Soft-key - The alias list is searched for an alias      
               by the name _letter and if an alias of this name        
               is defined, its value will be inserted on the           
               line.  The letter must not be one of the above          
               meta-functions.                                         
     M-_       The last parameter of the previous command is           
               inserted on the line.                                   
     M-.       The last parameter of the previous command is           
               inserted on the line.                                   
     M-*       Attempt file name generation on the current word.       
     ^U        Multiply parameter of next command by 4.                
     \         Escape next character.  Editing characters, the         
               user's erase, kill and interrupt (normally ^? )         
               characters may be entered in a command line or in       
               a search string if preceded by a \.  The \ removes      
               the next character's editing features (if any).         
     ^V        Display version of the shell.                           
                                                                       
   vi Editing Mode                                                     
     There are two typing modes.  Initially, when entering a
     command the user is in the input mode.  To edit, the user         
     enters control mode by typing ESC ( 033 ) and moves the           
     cursor to the point needing correction and then inserts or        
     deletes characters or words as needed.  Most control              
     commands accept an optional repeat count prior to the             
     command.                                                          
                                                                       
     When in vi mode on most systems, canonical processing is          
     initially enabled and the command will be echoed again if         
     the speed is 1200 baud or greater and it contains any             
     control characters or less than one second has elapsed since      
     the prompt was printed.  The ESC character terminates             
     canonical processing for the remainder of the command and         
     the user can then modify the command line.  This scheme has       
     the advantages of canonical processing with the type-ahead        
     echoing of raw mode.                                              
                                                                       
     If the option viraw is also set, the terminal will always         
     have canonical processing disabled.  This mode may be             
     helpful for certain terminals.                                    
                                                                       
   Input Edit Commands                                                 
     By default the editor is in input mode.                           
                                                                       
     erase     (User defined erase character as defined by the         
               stty command, usually ^H or #.) Delete previous         
               character.                                              
     ^W        Delete the previous blank separated word.               
     ^D        Terminate the shell.                                    
     ^V        Escape next character.  Editing characters, the         
               user's erase or kill characters may be entered in       
               a command line or in a search string if preceded        
               by a ^V.  The ^V removes the next character's           
               editing features (if any).                              
     \         Escape the next erase or kill character.                
                                                                       
                                                                       
   Motion Edit Commands                                                
     These commands will move the cursor.                              
                                                                       
     [count]l  Cursor forward (right) one character.                   
     [count]w  Cursor forward one alpha-numeric word.                  
     [count]W  Cursor to the beginning of the next word that           
               follows a blank.                                        
     [count]e  Cursor to end of word.                                  
     [count]E  Cursor to end of the current blank delimited word.      
     [count]h  Cursor backward (left) one character.                   
     [count]b  Cursor backward one word.                               
     [count]B  Cursor to preceding blank separated word.               
     [count]fc Find the next character c in the current line.          
     [count]Fc Find the previous character c in the current line.      
     [count]tc Equivalent to f followed by h.                          
     [count]Tc Equivalent to F followed by l.                          
     ;         Repeats the last single character find command, f,      
               F, t, or T.                                             
     ,         Reverses the last single character find command.        
     0         Cursor to start of line.                                
     ^         Cursor to first non-blank character in line.            
     $         Cursor to end of line.                                  
                                                                       
   Search Edit Commands                                                
     These commands access the command history.                        
                                                                       
     [count]k  Fetch previous command. Each time k is entered the      
               previous command back in time is accessed.              
     [count]-  Equivalent to k.                                        
     [count]j  Fetch next command. Each time j is entered the          
               next command forward in time is accessed.               
     [count]+  Equivalent to j.                                        
     [count]G  The command number count is fetched.  The default       
               is the least recent history command.                    
     /string   Search backward through history for a previous          
               command containing string.  String is terminated        
               by a "RETURN" or "NEW LINE".  If string is null         
               the previous string will be used.                       
     ?string   Same as / except that search will be in the             
               forward direction.                                      
     n         Search for next match of the last pattern to / or       
               ? commands.                                             
     N         Search for next match of the last pattern to / or       
               ?, but in reverse direction.  Search history for        
               the string entered by the previous / command.           
                                                                       
   Text Modification Edit Commands                                     
     These commands will modify the line.                              
                                                                       
     a         Enter input mode and enter text after the current       
               character.                                              
     A         Append text to the end of the line.  Equivalent to      
               $a.                                                     
     [count]cmotion                                                    
     c[count]motion                                                    
               Delete current character through the character          
               motion moves the cursor to and enter input mode.        
               If motion is c, the entire line will be deleted         
               and input mode entered.                                 
     C         Delete the current character through the end of         
               line and enter input mode.  Equivalent to c$.           
     S         Equivalent to cc.                                       
     D         Delete the current character through the end of         
               line.                                                   
     [count]dmotion                                                    
     d[count]motion                                                    
               Delete current character through the character          
               motion moves the cursor to.  Equivalent to d$.  If      
               motion is d , the entire line will be deleted.          
     i         Enter input mode and insert text before the             
               current character.                                      
     I         Insert text before the beginning of the line.           
               Equivalent to the two character sequence ^i.            
     [count]P  Place the previous text modification before the         
               cursor.                                                 
     [count]p  Place the previous text modification after the          
               cursor.                                                 
     R         Enter input mode and replace characters on the          
               screen with characters typed in overlay fashion.        
     rc        Replace the current character with c.                   
     [count]x  Delete current character.                               
     [count]X  Delete preceding character.                             
     [count].  Repeat the previous text modification command.          
     ~         Invert the case of the current character and            
               advance the cursor.                                     
     [count]_  Causes the count word of the previous command to        
               be appended and input mode entered.  The last word      
               is used if count is omitted.                            
     *         Causes an * to be appended to the current word and      
               file name generation attempted.  If no match is         
               found, it rings the bell.  Otherwise, the word is       
               replaced by the matching pattern and input mode is      
               entered.                                                
                                                                       
   Other Edit Commands                                                 
     Miscellaneous commands.                                           
                                                                       
     u         Undo the last text modifying command.                   
     U         Undo all the text modifying commands performed on       
               the line.                                               
     [count]v  Returns the command fc -e ${VISUAL:-${EDITOR:-vi}}      
               count in the input buffer.  If count is omitted,        
               then the current line is used.                          
     ^L        Line feed and print current line.  Has effect only      
               in control mode.                                        
     ^J        (New line)  Execute the current line, regardless        
               of mode.                                                
     ^M        (Return)  Execute the current line, regardless of       
               mode.                                                   
     #         Equivalent to I#<cr>.  Useful for causing the           
               current line to be inserted in the history without      
               being executed.                                         
                                                                       
   Special Commands.                                                   
     The following simple-commands are executed in the shell           
     process.  Input/Output redirection is permitted.  File            
     descriptor 1 is the default output location.  Parameter           
     assignment lists preceding the command do not remain in           
     effect when the command completes unless noted.                   
                                                                       
     : [ arg ... ]                                                     
          Parameter assignments remain in effect after the             
          command completes.  The command only expands                 
          parameters.  A zero exit code is returned.                   
                                                                       
     .  file [ arg ... ]                                               
          Parameter assignments remain in effect after the             
          command completes.  Read and execute commands from file      
          and return.  The commands are executed in the current        
          shell environment.  The search path specified by PATH        
          is used to find the directory containing file.  If any       
          arguments arg are given, they become the positional          
          parameters.  Otherwise the positional parameters are         
          unchanged.                                                   
                                                                       
     alias [ -tx ] [ name[ =value ]  ... ]                             

          Alias with no arguments prints the list of aliases in        
          the form name=value on standard output.  An alias is         
          defined for each name whose value is given.  A trailing      
          space in value causes the next word to be checked for        
          list tracked aliases.  The value of a tracked alias is       
          the full path name corresponding to the given name.          
          The value becomes undefined when the value of PATH is        
          reset but the aliases remained tracked.  Without the -t      
          flag, for each name in the argument list for which no        
          value is given, the name and value of the alias is           
          printed.  The -x flag is used to set or print exported       
          aliases.  An exported alias is defined across sub-shell      
          environments.  Alias returns true unless a name is           
          given for which no alias has been defined.                   
                                                                       
     bg [ %job ]                                                       
          This command is only built-in on systems that support        
          job control.  Puts the specified job into the                
          background.  The current job is put in the background        
          if job is not specified.                                     
                                                                       
     break [ n ]                                                       
          Exit from the enclosing for while until or select loop,      
          if any.  If n is specified then break n levels.              
                                                                       
     continue [ n ]                                                    
          Resume the next iteration of the enclosing for while         
          until or select loop.  If n is specified then resume at      
          the n-th enclosing loop.                                     
     cd [ arg ]                                                        
     cd  old new                                                       
          This command can be in either of two forms.  In the          
          first form it changes the current directory to arg.  If      
          arg is - the directory is changed to the previous            
          directory.  The shell parameter HOME is the default          
          arg.  The parameter PWD is set to the current                
          directory.  The shell parameter CDPATH defines the           
          search path for the directory containing                     
          arg.Alternativedirectorynamesare a colon (:).  The           
          default path is <null> (specifying the current               
          directory).  Note that the current directory is              
          specified by a null path name, which can appear              
          immediately after the equal sign or between the colon        
          delimiters anywhere else in the path list.  If arg           
          begins with a / then the search path is not used.            
          Otherwise, each directory in the path is searched for        
          arg.                                                         
                                                                       
          The second form of cd substitutes the string new for         
          the string old in the current directory name, PWD and        
          tries to change to this new directory.                       
                                                                       
          The cd command may not be executed by rksh.                  
                                                                       
     eval [ arg ... ]                                                  
          The arguments are read as input to the shell and the         
          resulting command(s) executed.                               
                                                                       
     exec [ arg ... ]                                                  
          Parameter assignments remain in effect after the             
          command completes.  If arg is given, the command            
          specified by the arguments is executed in place of this     
          shell without creating a new process.  Input/output         
          arguments may appear and affect the current process.        
          If no arguments are given, the effect of this command       
          is to modify file descriptors as prescribed by the          
          input/output redirection list.  In this case, any file      
          descriptor numbers greater than 2 that are opened with      
          this mechanism are closed when invoking another             
          program.
                                                                      
     exit [n ]                                          
          Causes the shell to exit with the exit status specified by n.  If
          n is omitted then the exit status is that of the last command
          executed.  An end-of-file will also cause the shell to exit except
          for a shell which has the ignoreeof option (see set below) turned
          on.              

     exit [name]
          The given names are marked for automatic export to the       
          environment of subsequently-executed commands.               
                                                                       
     fc [ -e ename  ] [ -nlr ] [ first ] [ last ]                      
     fc -e -  [ old=new ] [ command ]                                  
          In the first form, a range of commands from first to         
          last is selected from the last HISTSIZE commands that        
          were typed at the terminal.  The arguments first and         
          last may be specified as a number or as a string.  A
          string is used to locate the most recent command             
          starting with the given string.  A negative number is        
          used as an offset to the current command number.  If         
          the flag -l, is selected, the commands are listed on         
          standard output.  Otherwise, the editor program ename        
          is invoked on a file containing these keyboard               
          commands.  If ename is not supplied, then the value of      
          the parameter FCEDIT (default /bin/ed) is used as the       
          editor.  When editing is complete, the edited               
          command(s) is executed. If last is not specified, it        
          will be set to first.  If first is not specified the        
          default is the previous command for editing and -16 for     
          listing.  The flag -r reverses the order of the             
          commands and the flag -n suppresses command numbers         
          when listing.  In the second form the most recent           
          command in the history whose first letters match            
          command is re-executed after the substitution old=new       
          is performed.                                               
                                                                      
     fg [ %job ]                                                      
          This command is only built-in on systems that support       
          job control.  If job is specified, it brings it to the      
          foreground.  Otherwise, the current job is brought into     
          the foreground.                                             
                                                                      
     jobs [ -l ]                                                      
          Lists the active jobs; given the -l option lists            
          process id's in addition to the normal information.         
                                                                      
     kill [ -sig ] process ...                                        
          Sends either the TERM (terminate) signal or the             
          specified signal to the specified jobs or processes.        
          Signals are either given by number or by names (as          
          given in <signal.h>, stripped of the prefix "SIG").         
          The signal names are listed by 'kill -l'.  There is no      
          default, saying just 'kill' does not send a signal to       
          the current job.  If the signal being sent is TERM          
          (terminate) or HUP (hangup), then the job or process        
          will be sent a CONT (continue) signal if it is stopped.     
          The argument process can be either a process id or a
          job.                                                         
                                                                       
     let  arg ...                                                      
          Each arg is an arithmetic expression to be evaluated.        
          All calculations are done as long integers and no check      
          for overflow is performed.  Expressions consist of           
          constants, named parameters, and operators.  The             
          following set of operators, listed in order of               
          decreasing precedence, are implemented:                      
          -         unary minus                                        
          !         logical negation                                   
          *  /  %   multiplication, division, remainder                
          +  -      addition, subtraction                              
          <  >      comparison                                         
          ==  !=    equality  inequality                               
          =         arithmetic replacement                             
                                                                       
          Sub-expressions in parentheses () are evaluated first        
          and can be used to override the above precedence rules.      
          The evaluation within a precedence group is from right       
          to left for the = operator and from left to right for        
          the others.                                                  
                                                                       
          A parameter name must be a valid identifier.  When a
          parameter is encountered, the value associated with the      
          parameter name is substituted and expression evaluation      
          resumes.  Up to nine levels of recursion are permitted.      
          The return code is 0 if the value of the last                
          expression is non-zero, and 1 otherwise.                     
                                                                       
                                                                       
     newgrp [ arg ... ]                                                
          Equivalent to exec newgrp arg ....                           
                                                                       
     print [ -Rnprsu[n ]  ] [ arg ... ]                                
          The shell output mechanism.  With no flags or with flag      
          -, the arguments are printed on standard output as           
          described by echo(1).  In raw mode, -R or -r, the            
          escape conventions of echo are ignored.  The -R option       
          will print all subsequent arguments and options other         
          than -n.  The -p option causes the arguments to be            
          written onto the pipe of the process spawned with |&          
          instead of standard output.  The -s option causes the         
          arguments to be written onto the history file instead         
          of standard output.  The -u flag can be used to specify       
          a one digit file descriptor unit number n on which the        
          output will be placed.  The default is 1.  If the flag        
          -n is used, no new-line is added to the output.               
                                                                        
     read [ -prsu[ n ] ] [ name?prompt ] [ name ... ]                   
          The shell input mechanism.  One line is read and is           
          broken up into words using the characters in IFS as           
          separators.  In raw mode, -r, a \ at the end of a line        
          does not signify line continuation.  The first word is        
          assigned to the first name, the second word to the            
          second name, etc., with leftover words assigned to the        
          last name.  The -p option causes the input line to be         
          taken from the input pipe of a process spawned by the         
          shell using |&.  If the -s flag is present, the input         
          will be saved as a command in the history file.  The          
          flag -u can be used to specify a one digit file               
          descriptor unit to read from.  The file descriptor can        
          be opened with the exec special command.  The default         
          value of n is 0.  If name is omitted then REPLY is used       
          as the default name.  The return code is 0 unless an          
          end-of-file is encountered.  An end-of-file with the -p       
          option causes cleanup for this process so that another        
          can be spawned.  If the first argument contains a ?,          
          the remainder of this word is used as a prompt when the       
          shell is interactive.  If the given file descriptor is        
          open for writing and is a terminal device then the            
          prompt is placed on this unit.  Otherwise the prompt is       
          issued on file descriptor 2.  The return code is 0            
          unless an end-of-file is encountered.                         
                                                                        
     readonly [ name ... ]                                              
          The given names are marked readonly and these names          
          cannot be changed by subsequent assignment.                  
                                                                       
     return [ n ]                                                      
          Causes a shell function to return to the invoking            
          script with the return status specified by n.  If n is       
          omitted then the return status is that of the last           
          command executed.  If return is invoked while not in a
          function then it is the same as an exit.                     
                                                                       
     set [ -aefhkmnostuvx ] [ -o option ... ] [ arg ... ]              
          The flags for this command have meaning as follows:          
          -a      All subsequent parameters that are defined are       
                  automatically exported.                              
          -e      If the shell is non-interactive and if a
                  command fails, execute the ERR trap, if set,         
                  and exit immediately.  This mode is disabled         
                  while reading profiles.                              
          -f      Disables file name generation.                       
          -h      Each command whose name is an identifier             
                  becomes a tracked alias when first encountered.      
          -k      All parameter assignment arguments are placed        
                  in the environment for a command, not just           
                  those that precede the command name.                 
          -m      Background jobs will run in a separate process       
                  group and a line will print upon completion.         
                  The exit status of background jobs is reported       
                  in a completion message.  On systems with job        
                  control, this flag is turned on automatically        
                  for interactive shells.                              
          -n      Read commands but do not execute them.               
          -o      The following argument can be one of the             
                  following option names:                              
                  allexport  Same as -a.                               
                  errexit    Same as -e.                               
                  emacs      Puts the user in an emacs style in-       
                             line editor for command entry.            
                  gmacs      Puts the user in a gmacs style in-        
                             line editor for command entry.            
                  ignoreeof  The shell will not exit on end-of-        
                             file.  The command exit must be           
                             used.                                     
                  keyword    Same as -k.                               
                  markdirs   All directory names resulting from        
                             file name generation have a trailing      
                             / appended.                               
                  monitor    Same as -m.                               
                  noexec     Same as -n.                               
                  noglob     Same as -f.                               
                  nounset    Same as -u.                               
                  verbose    Same as -v.                               
                  trackall   Same as -h.                               
                  vi         Puts the user in insert mode of a vi      
                             style in-line editor until hitting        
                             the escape character 033.  This puts      
                             the user in move mode.  A return          
                             sends the line.                           
                  viraw      Each character is processed as it is      
                             typed in vi mode.                         
                  xtrace     Same as -x.                               
                  If no option name is supplied then the current       
                  option settings are printed.                         
          -s      Sort the positional parameters.                      
          -t      Exit after reading and executing one command.        
          -u      Treat unset parameters as an error when              
                  substituting.                                        
          -v      Print shell input lines as they are read.            
          -x      Print commands and their arguments as they are       
                  executed.                                            
          -       Turns off -x and -v flags and stops examining        
                  arguments for flags.                                 
          --      Do not change any of the flags; useful in            
                  setting $1 to a value beginning with -.  If no       
                  arguments follow this flag then the positional       
                  parameters are unset.                                
                                                                       
          Using + rather than - causes these flags to be turned        
          off.  These flags can also be used upon invocation of        
          the shell.  The current set of flags may be found in         
          $-.  The remaining arguments are positional parameters       
          and are assigned, in order, to $1, $2, ....  If no           
          arguments are given then the values of all names are         
          printed on the standard output.                              
                                                                       
     shift [ n ]                                                       
          The positional parameters from $n+1 ...  are renamed $1      
          ..., default n is 1.  The parameter n can be any             
          arithmetic expression that evaluates to a non-negative       
          number less than or equal to $#.                             
                                                                       
     test [ expr ]                                                     
          Evaluate conditional expression expr.  See test(1) for       
          usage and description.  The arithmetic comparison            
          operators are not restricted to integers.  They allow        
          any arithmetic expression.  Four additional primitive        
          expressions are allowed:                                     
          -L file                                                      
               True if file is a symbolic link.                        
          file1 -nt file2                                              
               True if file1 is newer than file2.                      
          file1 -ot file2                                              
               True if file1 is older than file2.                      
          file1 -ef file2                                              
               True if file1 has the same device and i-node            
               number as file2.                                        
                                                                       
     times                                                             
          Print the accumulated user and system times for the          
          shell and for processes run from the shell.                  
                                                                       
     trap [ arg ] [ sig ] ...                                          
          arg is a command to be read and executed when the shell      
          receives signal(s) sig.  (Note that arg is scanned once      
          when the trap is set and once when the trap is taken.)       
          Each sig can be given as a number or as the name of the      
          signal.  Trap commands are executed in order of signal       
          number.  Any attempt to set a trap on a signal that was      
          ignored on entry to the current shell is ineffective.        
          An attempt to trap on signal 11 (memory fault) produces      
          an error.  If arg is omitted or is -, then all trap(s)       
          sig are reset to their original values.  If arg is the       
          null string then this signal is ignored by the shell         
          and by the commands it invokes.  If sig is ERR then arg      
          will be executed whenever a command has a non-zero exit      
          code.  This trap is not inherited by functions.  If sig      
          is 0 or EXIT and the trap statement is executed inside       
          the body of a function, then the command arg is              
          executed after the function completes.  If sig is 0 or       
          EXIT for a trap set outside any function then the            
          command arg is executed on exit from the shell.  The         
          trap command with no arguments prints a list of              
          commands associated with each signal number.                 
                                                                       
     typeset [ -FLRZefilprtux[n ] [ name[ =value ]  ]  ... ]           
          Parameter assignments remain in effect after the             
          command completes.  When invoked inside a function, a
          new instance of the parameter name is created.  The  
          parameter value and type are restored when the function      
          completes.  The following list of attributes may be          
          specified:                                                   
          -F   This flag provides UNIX to host-name file mapping       
               on non-UNIX machines.                                   
          -L   Left justify and remove leading blanks from value.      
               If n is non-zero, it defines the width of the           
               field, otherwise it is determined by the width of       
               the value of first assignment.  When the parameter      
               is assigned, it is filled on the right with blanks      
               or truncated, if necessary, to fit into the field.      
               Leading zeros are removed if the -Z flag is also        
               set.  The -R flag is turned off.                        
          -R   Right justify and fill with leading blanks.  If n       
               is non-zero, it defines the width of the field,         
               otherwise it is determined by the width of the          
               value of first assignment.  The field is left           
               filled with blanks or truncated from the end if         
               the parameter is reassigned.  The L flag is turned      
               off.                                                    
          -Z   Right justify and fill with leading zeros if the        
               first non-blank character is a digit and the -L         
               flag has not been set.  If n is non-zero, it            
               defines the width of the field, otherwise it is         
               determined by the width of the value of first           
               assignment.                                             
          -e   Tag the parameter as having an error.  This tag is      
               currently unused by the shell and can be set or         
               cleared by the user.                                    
          -f   The names refer to function names rather than           
               parameter names.  No assignments can be made and        
               the only other valid flag is -x.                        
          -i   Parameter is an integer.  This makes arithmetic         
               faster.  If n is non-zero, it defines the output        
               arithmetic base, otherwise the first assignment         
               determines the output base.                             
          -l   All upper-case characters converted to lower-case.      
               The upper-case flag, -u is turned off.                  
          -p   The output of this command, if any,  is written         
               onto the two-way pipe.                                  
          -r   The given names are marked readonly and these           
               names cannot be changed by subsequent assignment.       
          -t   Tags the named parameters.  Tags are user               
               definable and have no special meaning to the            
               shell.                                                  
          -u   All lower-case characters are converted to upper-       
               case characters.  The lower-case flag, -l is            
               turned off.                                             
          -x   The given names are marked for automatic export to      
               the environment of subsequently-executed commands.      
                                                                       
          Using + rather than - causes these flags to be turned        
          off.  If no name arguments are given but flags are           
          specified, a list of names (and optionally the values )      
          of the parameters which have these flags set is              
          printed.  (Using + rather than - keeps the values to be      
          printed.) If no names and flags are given, the names         
          and attributes of all parameters are printed.                
                                                                       
     ulimit [ -cdfmpt ] [ n ]                                          
          -c   Imposes a size limit of n blocks on the size of         
               core dumps (not on UMAX V).                             
          -d   Imposes a size limit of n blocks on the size of         
               the data area (not on UMAX V).                          
          -f   Imposes a size limit of n blocks on files written       
               by child processes (files of any size may be            
               read).                                                  
          -m   Imposes a soft limit of n blocks on the size of         
               physical memory (not on UMAX V).                        
          -p   Changes the pipe size to n (not on UMAX V).             
          -t   Imposes a time limit of n seconds to be used by         
               each process (not on UMAX V).                           
                                                                       
          If no option is given, -f is assumed.  If n is not           
          given, the current limit is printed.                         
                                                                       
     umask [ nnn ]                                                     
          The user file-creation mask is set to nnn (see               
          umask(2)).  If nnn is omitted, the current value of the      
          mask is printed.                                             
                                                                       
     unalias name ...                                                  
          The  parameters given by the list of names are removed       
          from the alias list.                                         
                                                                       
     unset [ -f ] name ...                                             
          The parameters given by the list of names are                
          unassigned, i.e., their values and attributes are            
          erased.  Readonly variables cannot be unset.  If the         
          flag, -f, is set, then the names refer to function           
          names.                                                       
                                                                       
     wait [ n ]                                                        
          Wait for the specified process and report its                
          termination status.  If n is not given then all              
          currently active child processes are waited for.  The        
          return code from this command is that of the process         
          waited for.                                                  
                                                                       
     whence [ -v ] name ...                                            
          For each name, indicate how it would be interpreted if       
          used as a command name.                                      
                                                                       
     The flag, -v, produces a more verbose report.                     
                                                                       
   Invocation.                                                         
     If the shell is invoked by exec(2), and the first character       
     of argument zero ($0) is -, then the shell is assumed to be       
     a login shell and commands are read from /etc/profile and         
     then from either .profile in the current directory or             
     $HOME/.profile, if either file exists.  Next, commands are        
     read from the file named by performing parameter                  
     substitution on the value of the environment parameter ENV        
     (for instance, $HOME/.kshrc set in $HOME/.profile) if the         
     file exists.  Commands are then read as described below; the      
     following flags are interpreted by the shell when it is           
     invoked:                                                          
                                                                       
     -c string If the -c flag is present then commands are read        
               from string.                                            
     -s        If the -s flag is present or if no arguments            
               remain then commands are read from the standard         
               input.  shell output, except for the output of          
               some of the Special Commands listed above, is           
               written to file descriptor 2.                           
     -i        If the -i flag is present or if the shell input         
               and output are attached to a terminal, this shell       
               is interactive.  In this case TERMINATE is ignored      
               (so that kill 0 does not kill an interactive            
               shell) and INTERRUPT is caught and ignored (so          
               that wait is interruptible).  In all cases, QUIT        
               is ignored by the shell.                                
                                                                       
     -r        If the -r flag is present the shell is a
               restricted shell.                                       
                                                                       
     The remaining flags and arguments are described under the         
     set command above.                                                
                                                                       
   rksh Only.                                                          
     rksh is used to set up login names and execution                  
     environments whose capabilities are more controlled than          
     those of the standard shell.  The actions of rksh are             
     identical to those of ksh, except that the following are          
     disallowed:                                                       
          changing directory (see cd(1)),                              
          setting the value of SHELL or PATH,                          
          specifying path or command names containing /,               
          redirecting output (> and >>).                               
                                                                       
     The restrictions above are enforced after .profile and the        
     ENV files are interpreted.                                        
                                                                       
     When a command to be executed is found to be a shell              
     procedure, rksh invokes ksh to execute it.  Thus, it is           
     possible to provide to the end-user shell procedures that         
     have access to the full power of the standard shell, while        
     imposing a limited menu of commands; this scheme assumes          
     that the end-user does not have write and execute                 
     permissions in the same directory.                                
                                                                       
     The net effect of these rules is that the writer of the           
     .profile has complete control over user actions, by               
     performing guaranteed setup actions and leaving the user in       
     an appropriate directory (probably not the login directory).      
                                                                       
     The system administrator often sets up a directory of             
     commands (i.e., /usr/rbin) that can be safely invoked by          
     rksh.  Some systems also provide a restricted editor              
     /bin/red.                                                         
                                                                       
EXIT STATUS                                                            
     Errors detected by the shell, such as syntax errors, cause        
     the shell to return a non-zero exit status.  If the shell is      
     being used non-interactively then execution of the shell          
     file is abandoned.  Otherwise, the shell returns the exit         
     status of the last command executed (see also the exit            
     command above).                                                   
                                                                       
FILES                                                                  
     /etc/passwd                                                       
     /etc/profile                                                      
     $HOME/.profile                                                    
     $HOME/.kshrc                                                      
     /tmp/sh*                                                          
     /dev/null                                                         
                                                                       
SEE ALSO                                                               
     cat(1), cd(1), echo(1), emacs(1), env(1), gmacs(1),               
     newgrp(1), shl(1), test(1), umask(1), vi(1).                      
     dup(2), exec(2), fork(2), pipe(2), signal(2), umask(2),           
     ulimit(2), wait(2), rand(3C), a.out(4), profile(4) in the         
     UMAX V Programmer's Reference Manual.                             
     environ(7) in the UMAX V Administrator's Reference Manual.        
                                                                       
CAVEATS                                                                
     If a command which is a tracked alias is executed, and then       
     a command with the same name is installed in a directory in       
     the search path before the directory where the original           
     command was found, the shell will continue to exec the            
     original command.  Use the -t option of the alias command to      
     correct this situation.                                           
                                                                       
     If moving the current directory or one above it, pwd may not      
     give the correct response.  Use the cd command with a full        
     path name to correct this situation.                              
                                                                       
     Some very old shell scripts contain a ^ as a synonym for the      
     pipe character |.                                                 


                               NOTES
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                               NOTES
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
                               INDEX


.netrc file...................................................146
.profile.......................................................14
Backslash......................................................13
BourneShell.....................................................1
Child process..................................................39
Chmod...........................................................4
Exclamation mark (!)...........................................46
Grave accent marks.............................................36
HOME variable..................................................14
Internal-field separator.......................................15
Interpreter.....................................................1
Logical AND operator...........................................46
Logical OR operator............................................46
Object programs................................................67
Parent process.................................................39
Pound symbol (#)...............................................38
Prompt.........................................................17
Quote marks....................................................13
Secondary prompt...............................................17
Trace...........................................................2